THE INSTITUTION OF FIRE ENGINEERS

EXAMINATIONS SERVICE

MANAGEMENT AND ADMINSTRATION

Glenys Southworth, DMA, FCIPD, BA (Hons), MIFireE, MBA

This resource booklet has been prepared for candidates studying the
syllabus for the Level 3 Certificate (former Intermediate) examination
papers. It covers the section on Management and Administration.

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 IFE Level 3 Certificate (formerly Intermediate) Examination

Resource for Syllabus Unit on Management and Administration

This booklet has been prepared to assist candidates who are planning to sit the IFE
Level 3 Certificate (former Intermediate) Examination and covers the following Ofqual
accredited unit:-

Management and Administration in Fire and Rescue Services: R/502/3110.

It has been prepared to help candidates prepare for the multiple choice questions and
those requiring a short written answer.

It does NOT cover the following topics:-

? Equal Opportunities.
? Total Quality Management.

However, the IFE has books on its examinations reading list which cover both of these
subjects.

The contents of this booklet cover the following aspects of the syllabus:-

? Line management
? Functional management
? Staff duties
? Definition of objectives
? Definition of responsibilities
? Responsibilities and relationships
? Chain of command
? The relationship between:-
-Task needs
-Group needs
-Individual needs
? Different styles of command and leadership
? The need for counselling and discipline
? Record keeping and reporting procedures
? Budgetary control
? The training needs of an organisation
? Features of a simple exercise plan
? Use of various types of training aids

1. Chain of Command

In both public and private sector organisations, the term Chain of Command refers to
the hierarchical path down which orders and decisions are communicated from the top of
the organisation down to ‘shop floor’ or front line workers. (It is also the route along
which information travels from the front line staff of the organisation to more senior staff.)
Organisations achieve order by the use of authority implemented through a defined
hierarchy. Managers have direct responsibility for giving orders to their subordinates.

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In the private sector the chain of command will descend from the Board of Directors of a
company. In a Fire and Rescue Service, it will begin with the Chief Fire Officer who is
responsible for running the organisation, and spread to fire fighters who provide the front
line service.

CFO

ACO ACO

GRM GRM GRM GRM

Stn M Stn M Stn M Stn M Stn M Stn M Stn M Stn M

Example of a chain of command in a Fire and Rescue Service

The diagram below shows the chain of command which might be found in a school or
college. The line manager of a teacher is the Head of Department. The Head of
Department in turn is responsible to the Head of Faculty. The Head of Faculty reports to
a Deputy Head, who then has the Headteacher for a line manager.

The lowest managerial level in an organisation following a line management structure is

supervisory management.

Nowadays the tendency is for shorter chains of command on the basis that they:-
? Allow faster communication.
? Reduce the likelihood of misinterpreting communication.

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 ? Foster good relationships between managers and staff because front line staff are
able to interact more easily with senior staff.
? Senior staff can more easily see their decisions being implemented by workers
below them.

Some organisations can have long chains of command, others much shorter ones. Think
about the different levels in your own organisation. Does it have a long or a short chain
of command?

2. Organisational Structure

The chain of command is normally illustrated in organisational structure charts which set
out the different levels in an organisation from the most senior member of staff to front
line employees. It also shows the staff to whom and for whom they are responsible on a
day to day basis. Therefore the reporting lines within an organisation are clear to see.
In rank based structures the chain of command also shows the different levels of
authority.
It is part of the role of senior managers to ensure that the organisational structure meets
the needs of the organisation. Over time, the structures and the chain of command will
change as organisations face new challenges.

A poor organisational structure usually results in:

? Staff being unclear about their roles.

? Lack of coordination.
? Poor communication leading to mistakes.
? Duplication of tasks.
? Tasks being overlooked.
? Different departments failing to work together.
? Money and staff time being wasted.

Can you think of any major changes which have happened in your organisation and why
they happened?

3. Reporting Relationships

The chain of command and organisational structure charts also set out the reporting
relationships so that staff are clear about who their boss is. In doing this they define
the lines of communication that need to be followed. This helps to ensure that
information reaches the right person in the organisation and that staff are aware of
whom to approach if they encounter problems and who is responsible for providing them
with guidance. This ensures that they are not being supervised by a whole range of
people, each with a slightly different approach and that their time is not hijacked by
managers in different parts of the organisation, which can cause staff to focus on other
things and not make the time available to complete their own tasks.

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4. Functional Management.

This term describes the structuring of an organisation into departments or units on the
basis of the work carried out by staff. Given below is an example of a Functional
Management Structure:-

Chief Fire Officer

Director Director Director Director Director

Service Finance Human Community Technical
Delivery Resources Safety Services
? ? ? ? ?
Fire Finance HR Dept Fire Safety Supplies,
Stations Dept Dept Workshops,
Estates Dept

Unless an organisation is very small it is usually broken up into different functions so that
staff who are doing similar sorts of work are working together in a specific part of the
organisation. Sometimes this is in a technical function such as finance or human
resource management. Many UK fire and rescue services have Community Safety
Departments and Transport Departments. In the private sector it is common to find
Research and Development Departments and Marketing Departments.
Think about the structure of your own organisation. Does it have a Functional
Management Structure?

With functional departments, communications usually happen within the department if

information or project work is needed from another department. A request is transmitted
up to the Department Head, who communicates the request to the other Department
Head.

Functional departments are sometimes described as silos because staff can

concentrate solely on their own particular needs and fail to see the ‘big picture’ of the
whole organisation and the effect decisions taken in their particular area can have on
other parts of the organisation. Avoiding this restricted view requires functional heads to
work with colleagues to ensure that there is good coordination.

The description of the type of work carried out within a Human Resources Department is
set out below to illustrate how a functional department operates:-

? Workforce planning to ensure that the organisation has the right number of
suitable staff.
? Recruitment (sometimes separated into attraction and selection).
? Induction.
? Training and development.
? Personnel administration.
? Wages and salaries administration.
? Pension administration.
? Employee benefits administration.
? Performance appraisal policy.

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 ? Development of personnel policies: e.g. equal opportunities, discipline and
grievance, bullying and harassment, performance appraisal

5. Geographical Structure.

Some organisations also operate on a geographical structure with a senior

manager being responsible for a particular area of operation. Many UK fire and
rescue services operate on the basis of areas which are often based on the
boundaries of the local authority areas they serve. The diagram below illustrates a
geographical structure:-
Chief Fire Officer
HQ
DEPTS

AREA A AREA B AREA C

6. Product Structure.

However, other organisations operate on the basis of divisions, based on particular

products or services. In hospitals, there will different chains of command for
doctors, nurses and support services such as radiology and physiotherapy.

7. Matrix Structure.

Where an organisation is involved in major projects, a matrix type of organisation

is often found. This is illustrated in the diagram below:-

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 OPS FINANCE HR

PROJECT
A

PROJECT
B

Staff will be allocated to a project on the basis of their particular skill and will be
responsible not only to their normal line manager, but also to the project manager. Does
this ever happen in your organisation?

How would you describe the structure in your organisation, is it functional,

geographical, product or matrix?

8. Staff Duties

This term is used to describe a situation where a manager in one department has a
function within another department. For example giving specialist advice, or ensuring
that the effect on their area of work is taken into account when decisions are made. For
example, the Human Resource Manager normally has an overall responsibility for
personnel management issues in all parts of an organisation. In a fire and rescue service
the manager responsible for fire appliances will want to ensure that the manager buying
operational equipment will take into account stowage issues.

9. What Does a Manager Do?

Managers are responsible for getting things done, usually through delegation to other
people. All managers perform the same type of job activities: however, the time spent on
activities and the importance given to each will differ considerably depending on the
manager’s particular role within an organisation.

10. Job Activities of Managers

? Planning: Before any action is taken, a plan needs to be made. Planning involves
the setting of goals and deciding on the best way to achieve them. Planning also

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 encompasses analysing which involves the examination and interpretation of
various kinds of data.
? Organising: This involves putting people and other resources in place to make
things happen. It means ensuring staff have the equipment, information and
training to do the job. Every manager is involved in some way with the process of
training. Senior managers write policies and rules; some managers write methods
and procedures; others serve as instructors.
? Controlling: This involves measuring results and comparing them with the results
which were intended. It also includes controlling daily activities, the results of which
have to be reported in one way or another.
? Direct Supervision: All managers are responsible for the work of others and for
achieving targets through the efforts of their staff. This involves letting staff know
what needs to be achieved; allocating work; explaining to staff what tasks need to
be done and when. It also requires checking on progress and motivating staff.
Direct supervision also involves communicating effectively with staff. This requires
every manager to have a positive approach; to provide information clearly to staff
and make sure that they have understood what is being asked of them.

It is also very important that communication is a ‘two way’ process, and employees
should not only have to listen but should be encouraged to ask questions, discuss, and
express their own ideas. Employees’ views should always be received with courtesy
and employees should feel able to approach their manager and discuss problems with
them. Team members should be encouraged to share information, so that best practice
can be identified.

In many organisations, senior managers will often try to meet all new staff to welcome
them and make them feel very much part of the organisation and that their contribution
to the success of the organisation is valued.

On the other hand, lack of effective communication may lead to:-

? Staff not understanding what they are being asked to do.
? Frustration and lack of job satisfaction for employees.
? Lack of information.
? Decrease in employees’ performance.
? Decrease in the effectiveness of the organisations, particularly where there is a
waste of resources or a poor service being provided to customers.

11. Line Management.

The term line management can be used in two different ways. It can be used instead of
the term chain of command, but line manager can also be used to describe an
employee’s boss or line manager.

In this part of the booklet we are using the phrase to mean an employee’s boss. Line
managers have important roles in relation to each and every employee for whom they
are responsible.
Agreeing the role
When an employee is appointed to a new role, the line manager agrees the key aspects
and boundaries of the role during the induction process. This is an important phase in
the process. It means that both parties are very clear about the role to be carried out;
the tasks the role entails; when and where it is to be done, and for how long.

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Managers will usually let their staff know what is required of them by referring to the job
description for the post, which provides a comprehensive picture of the purpose and
context of the job. The information contained in a job description includes the following:-

? Job title.
? Purpose of the job.
? The reporting structure to show who the line manager is.
? The actual duties carried out by the post holder.
? What the employee is expected to achieve in terms of targets.
? Providing individual instructions or team briefings.

Managers use appraisal interviews to provide employees with information on how well
they are contributing to the aims of the organisation.

Explaining policies and procedures establishes how tasks are to be carried out and
how members of staff are expected to behave towards one another.

If employees are part of the front line staff then their boss is known as a first line
manager or first line supervisor. This can often be one of the most demanding roles
within an organisation. First line managers are the people responsible for those who do
not manage others and they are the first part of an organisation’s management system
with which an employee comes into contact. First line managers therefore have very
influential positions and can be good role models or otherwise.

12. Responsibilities and Relationships

Within any organisation every member of staff has a particular set of responsibilities,
which must be met.
Different levels of staff within organisations have different types of responsibilities.
These are illustrated below.

Responsibilities of Top-level Managers

? To have extensive knowledge of management roles and skills.
? To be very aware of external factors such as markets and government policy.
? To make strategic decisions about the long-term future of the organisation.
? To identify the need for major organisational changes and restructurings.
? To use detailed information and data for decision making.
? To control budgets for very large amounts of money. Millions rather than thousands.
? To be responsible for the operation of a number of different parts of an organisation.
? To work in cooperation with other senior managers.
? To develop the culture of the organisation.

Responsibilities of Middle Managers

? To have a specialised understanding of a specific part of the organisation.
? To carry out the decisions made by top-level management.
? To set performance targets to meet organisational and departmental objectives.
? To make operational decisions based on the role of their department using
departmental data.
? To make medium term decisions.
? To provide performance information to senior managers.

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? To work in cooperation with other middle managers.
? To control a departmental budget.

Responsibilities of First Line Supervisors (these staff have direct supervision over
the front line staff in an organisation or basic grade staff).
? Building the teams
? Motivating team members to perform in the workplace
? Managing conflict in the workplace
? Inducting new staff into the workplace
? Follow organisational and departmental procedures and polices
? Plan day to day work efficiently
? Managing health and safety at work
? Work with costs and budgets
? Work to meet performance targets
? Break departmental targets down to team and individual staff targets.
? Provide information to the Departmental Manager
? Managing the efficient use of materials
? Managing the effective use of equipment

Responsibilities of Front Line Staff

? Work to the requirements of their job description and the instructions of their
supervisor.

13. Objectives
An objective describes what is to be accomplished. Objectives and goals describe what
the organisations, functions, departments, teams and individuals are expected to
achieve. The reason for using objectives is summarised by the quotation:-
“If you don’t know where you are going, how will you know when you get there.”

Corporate level objectives (Top Management Level) are based on the organisation’s
mission, core values and strategic plan. Every organisation has a purpose and the
management strategy, which is developed by the ‘top team’ and aims to provide the
direction an organisation needs to take to fulfil its purpose. The purpose is derived from
the needs and preferences of customers and other stakeholders whether internal or
external. With a public service, expectations may come from local or national politicians
and will often be laid down in major policy documents such as the National Framework
2008-2011. For a fire and rescue service the top level objectives may be along the lines
of:-

? Reduce life loss and injury arising out of fires and other emergency incidents
? Reduce the number of fires and other emergency incidents
? Reduce the commercial, economic and social consequences of fire and other
emergency incidents
? Protect the environment and the Lancashire heritage
? Provide a safe, healthy, competent and representative workforce
? Support the wider agenda of community cohesion
? Provide better “value for money” services

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 14. The Three E’s: Economy, Efficiency and Effectiveness

In the public sector, organisations are expected to have the objective of achieving value
for money via the 3Es of Economy, Efficiency and Effectiveness.
In simple terms, this means making the best use of available resources including getting
better outcomes for the same expenditure, or freeing up resources that are being used
inefficiently for other purposes.

An example of each of the Es is given below:-

? Economy: Minimising the costs of resources used for a good, service or activity. For
example purchasing supplies at the best possible price
? Efficiency: The relationship between outputs and the resources that are used to
produce them. For example, ensuring that a course programme, makes best use of
a trainer’s time.
? Effectiveness: The extent to which objectives have been achieved. For example,
using community safety activities to educate the public and reduce the number of
fires.

For a private sector firm the objectives may be to stay profitable; to develop new
products and services; to stay ahead of competitors or to grow and expand their share of
the market.

Department level objectives.

These are related to the contribution which a department is expected to make to the high
level corporate objectives and the targets to be achieved by the department. Plans for
different parts of the organisation sometimes in the form of business plans are often
drawn up. These usually identify:
? The services provided
? The market environment
? Customers and stakeholders
? How departments will achieve three year strategic plan targets
? Links with the strategic plan and corporate themes
? What quality means to the department
? How performance is measured

Departmental objectives will be rooted in the type of organisation; i.e. public or private
and the type of industry or public sector.

Team level objectives.

These are specifically related to the purpose of the team and what it is expected to
achieve. First line managers are often responsible for implementing a specific part of
their departmental plan. These will depend upon the type of organisation and the type of
industry or sector within which it operates.

Individual level objectives.

These refer to the areas which make up employees’ jobs; i.e. what they are expected to
achieve and how they contribute to team, department and organisational objectives. As
the result of staff appraisal, employees may also be set development objectives which
set out what they need to do to improve their competencies. The requirements placed
on staff will also depend on the type of organisation and the industry.

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The setting of objectives is part of the Performance Management Process. Taking
forward the corporate plan requires a performance management framework so that the
organisation as a whole knows what has to be achieved, Departments, sections and
individual employees know their roles.

The process is identified in the diagram below:

Performance Management Framework

Priorities

Review and
Report on Set Objectives
Performance

Develop
Monitor
Business Plans
Performance

Resource and
Focus on
Objectives

15. Target / Performance Measures

To ensure that objectives are achieved, targets are used. Any targets set need to be
SMART Targets, i.e:-

Specific not vague

Measurable capable of being subject to some form of analysis – usually

numerical calculations

Achievable not over-ambitious

Realistic taking into account objective factors related to the real world and
not ‘pie in the sky’

Time bound identifying a set period of time withhin which the target will be
achieved

The targets need to be ‘owned’ by specific senior managers so they don’t get overlooked
and cascaded, so that the whole organisation understands the links between each
target, and where responsibility lies for improvement.
First line managers are often responsible for ensuring the achievement of a number of
targets.

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As with objectives, the sort of targets set will depend on the type of organisation and the
industry within which it operates.

To ensure that objectives and targets are being met, organisations will have a variety of
record keeping and information systems so that accurate data can be produced,
analysed and given to relevant staff.

16. Planning

"A goal without a plan is just a wish.” (Antoine de Saint-Exupery)

"The plan is useless; it's the planning that's important." (General Dwight D Eisenhower.)

Every organisation needs various kinds of plans. Strategic plans, business plans,
training plans and project plans are just some examples. In organisations such as fire
and rescue services there will also be incidents plans and exercise plans. The type of
plans to be found will depend on what an organisation does.

Whatever the type of organisation, plans have some similarities, in that they need
answers to the following questions:

? Why are we following the present courses of action?

? What do we want to achieve?
? What progress have we made?
? How will we close the gap between where we are and where we want to be?
? What timescale is involved?
? What skills and resources will we need?
? Who is responsible for delivering particular services or achieving specific tasks?
? What are the criteria for dedciding if colleagues are being effective?
? How will the plan be communicated to relevant staff?

The features of a good plan are as follows:

? It uses available resources to the best effect.

? It is based on clearly defined objectives.
? It is designed to maintain appropriate standards.

17. Budgetary Control

In most organisations, leaders, managers and supervisors all have a responsibility for
financial management. At the very top of an organisation very large sums of money may
be involved, possibly running into millions of pounds. Supervisors will have a more
limited responsibility. However the principles of good financial management are the
same whatever level in an organisation they are being carried out at.

A Budget is an Important Tool of Financial Management.

A budget is a plan agreed in advance and it is a statement which sets out the financial
resources which are available for carrying out specific activities in a given period of time.
It helps to co-ordinate the activities of the organisation. An example would be the money
set aside to maintain equipment or to employ staff. In very large organisations the
budget tends to be divided across departments. Head of departments may then further
split their budget across particular teams or groups. This is called Devolved Financial

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Management and it is often used by organisations because it gives greater “ownership”
of financial matters to staff. This makes staff more aware of costs and allows decisions
to be made at the lowest possible level, thus using their expertise to the full.

Setting the overall budget takes into account the current costs, any likely increase in staff
costs and materials, any major organisation changes and the expected level of income
and profit.

Budgets tend to identify two types of expenditure:

? Revenue Costs; which relate to the day to day running of an organisation
? Capital Expenditure; which relates to major investment projects which will be
expensive: these may include new buildings, fleets of vehicles, replacement of all
breathing apparatus, new IT systems.

Features of a good budget:

? As many people as possible are involved drawing up the budget so that nothing is
overlooked.
? The budget covers the whole organisation, so that everyone can see how much
money is available.
? It should be flexible enough to allow for changing circumstances.
? It ought to be monitored on a regular basis with reports going to senior managers
? It should allow devolved financial management, so that certain aspects of the
budget can be devolved to front line managers who then use their expertise in
getting the most value out of the expenditure.

Budgetary control:
? This is a technique which is used to compare what is actually being spent against
the money that was allocated.
? Usually managers are responsible for a particular part of a budget and they are
expected to ensure they do not overspend.
? Variance is the term used to describe the situation where there is a difference
between the budget and what has actually been spent, this could be due to
seasonal variations, delays in projects being set up or overspending. It is
important for managers to be aware of the variance, so that they can quickly
identify problems which might be developing, which could lead to
overspending.
Advantages of budgeting and budgetary control:
? In the public sector budgetary control makes managers accountable for the public
funds they spend.
? They allow trends in spending to be seen over a number of years which may signal
the need to review budgets
? Budgetary control allows senior managers to compare the performance of different
parts of an organisation. In the public sector comparisons can be made with other
public bodies.
? Controls allow the actual costs of projects to be monitored against the estimated
costs, in an effort to stop projects overspending.
? Budgeting enables variations to be analysed in order to find out what has caused
them. This then allows corrective action to be taken or best practice can be identified
and shared with other parts of the organisation.
? Controls encourage managers to look ahead, to set out detailed plans for achieving
the targets for each department.

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? Budgeting helps to ensure that the various aspects of an organisation are
coordinated, as expenditure in one part on organisation can affect another. For
example, the purchase of new equipment may mean that the training budget will
have to be spent on running courses to enable staff to use the new equipment.
? Budgets help to define areas of staff responsibility.
? Budgetary controls enable remedial action to be taken if overspending looks likely.

218. Problems which can occur with budgeting and budgetary control
? Inaccurate record-keeping can mean that the spending is not properly monitored.
? Unless responsibility is clearly defined, it can be difficult to decide who is responsible
for spending what and poaching of other managers’ resources can occur.
? Conflict can occur between departments over the allocation of the budget,
particularly where one department’s budget is being cut and another’s is being
increased.
? It is difficult to reconcile personal or individual goals with corporate goals.
? Waste can occur if managers adopt the view, "we had better spend it or we will lose
it". This is sometimes coupled with "empire building" in order to enhance the status
of a department.

19. Making Decisions.

Decision making can be related to resolving a problem or working out how to deal with a
new situation. Managers and supervisors in all organisations will at some stage be
involved with decision making. In fire and rescue services some of their decisions will
also involve dealing with operational incidents.
Sometimes decisions will be made solely by the manager or supervisor, sometimes in
conjunction with other managers and sometimes in consultation with their team
members. In some organisations there is a decentralised approach to decision making,
which devolves the making of some decisions to as near to the ‘front line’ as possible.
Decision making involves reviewing a number of possible courses of action and deciding
which one will produce the best result.

The steps involved in decision making are as follows:

? Recognising a new situation or problem.
? Clearly defining the issue.
? Identifying what needs to be achieved.
? Gathering relevant data and information.
? Identifying the pros and cons of possible options.
? Deciding how to work out which is the best solution.
? Looking at the possible outcomes of each of the possible solutions.
? Choosing the best option.
? Implementing and then reviewing.
As part of this process techniques such as brainstorming can be used.
Well prepared decisions are easier to make and to implement and generally produce the
best results because they have taken all the factors into account. Decisions made by
“shooting from the hip” tend to produce the worst results because they have not
considered all the stages in the above process and end up causing problems rather than
solving them.

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20. Record Keeping and Reporting Procedures
All organisations (whether large or small,) need to keep certain records, some because
the law requires them and others for internal purposes such as ensuring objectives are
met and targets achieved. Employers keep records about their workers, their job titles,
rates of pay and so on.
All organisations (private and public alike,) need to plan and formulate policies and
procedures which will enable them to remain competitive and provide good service to
their customers. Planning depends on information, and information in turn depends
upon accurate and effective record keeping. The reason for having information in the
first place is to be able to make good and valid decisions. If information is inaccurate,
then it is very likely to lead to poor or wrong decisions being made.

The type of records which need to be maintained will depend very much on the type of
organisation and the industry in which it operates. For departments, teams and individual
staff the type of records they keep will depend upon the part of the organisation in which
they work. Staff working in a human resources department may be responsible for
maintaining a whole range of personnel procedures. Staff working on a fire station will
need to record the location and type of incidents they attended.
What records are you involved in keeping? What other records are kept by fellow
employees in the part of the organisation where you work?

Good records can help managers in the following ways:

? Making decisions based on fact rather than guesswork.
? Knowing which staff resources are available to meet production or service
requirements
? Assessing more accurately levels of performance and productivity.
? Knowing the level of absenteeism and staff turnover.
? Identifying training needs.
? Complying with legislation.
? Being aware of health and safety issues.
? Anticipating potential problems.
? Knowing what is happening with budget monitoring.
? Knowing when maintenance is required for pieces of equipment.
? Knowing who has the authority to make certain decisions.
? Being aware of operational procedures.
? Debriefing after exercises and incidents.
? Dealing with customer enquiries.

What type of record keeping system?

Any record keeping system, whether developed within the organisation or introduced
from outside, needs to fulfil certain criteria. In particular a system must be:
? Accurate, reliable and consistent.
? Confidential with regard to personal details.
? Adaptable, so that it can cater for future developments and changes.
? Economical in its introduction, use and maintenance.

Before deciding on the type of system the organisation must also have considered
the following:
? Whether the records will be kept manually, computerised or in some other
combination of systems.

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? Where the records are going to be located (i.e. how much space will be required for
secure storage).
? How the design of documents affects the type of record system, and vice versa.
? Which staff should have access to particular records.
? Procedures have to comply with organisational security and data protection
requirements.

Reviewing the system.

As with any system, records should be reviewed from time to time to check their
effectiveness. The users and operators of the system should be included in the review
as they will know the strengths and weaknesses of the system. For instance, a new
manager may be unaware of the job descriptions for the workers in their area of
responsibility. The main questions to ask in any review will include the following:
? Is it providing the answers required and providing them quickly and accurately?
? Is the organisation making effective use of the information that is available?
? Is all the information useful and necessary?
? Is there any unnecessary duplication of records?
? Is it proving easy to keep the records up-to-date?
? What improvements should be made to the system?

21. Management Theories

Theories of people management have been around since 1100 BC in one form or
another. However the main theories have developed since the late 19th century:-

i) Scientific Management (Taylor, Garth, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth)

Taylor identified four principles of scientific management. Management should:
? Develop a scientific approach for each element of an individual’s work to replace
“rule-of-thumb” guidelines.
? Scientifically select, train, teach and develop each worker so that the right person
has the right job.
? Co-operate with workers to ensure that the job matches plans and principles.
? Ensure an equal division of work and responsibility between managers and workers.

Scientific management is associated with:

? Time and motion studies
? Identifying one ‘best method’.
? Standardisation of tools.
? Identifying a ‘standard’ worker in terms of size, strength and staying power.
? Performance related pay.

Scientific management did dramatically improve production and efficiency in

manufacturing. However, it ignores human factors and has been criticised as leading to
staff being treated as units of production rather than human beings

ii) Maslow’s Theory of Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s theory is based on the fact that people have a hierarchy of needs and that as
one is satisfied they move up to the next level. This implies when one need is satisfied it
no longer acts as a sustained, effective motivator. Very simply this theory says that a
happy worker is a productive worker and stressed the importance of employee welfare,

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 motivation and communication. It also points out to managers the need to provide
development opportunities for staff frequently.

Maslow subdivided needs into the following groups which are in ascending order of
importance, commencing at the lowest level. The diagram below sets out Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Need:-

Fulfilling full
potential

Self esteem; recognition

Social needs - friendship

Safety – free from threat

Basic needs – food; water, shelter; sex

The table below shows the relevance of the different needs in the workplace

NEED RELEVANCE IN THE WORKPLACE

Physical need Working conditions and pay systems
Safety need Knowing who your ‘boss’ is; knowing what your job is; job security.
Social need Good communications; being part of a team.
Esteem need Being recognised, thanked and trusted.
Self Actualisation Being able to develop new skills and fulfil potential; CPD; being able to meet
new challenges.

iii) The Hawthorne Studie s – Elton Mayo

The investigation was designed to test the effect of various factors on productivity by
altering working conditions. Two equal-sized groups (A and B) of female operatives
were formed and studied by Elton Mayo and his colleagues over a number of years.
Lighting intensity was increased with group A and, as expected, output increased in
sympathy. For no apparent reason, group B also increased its output, although the
lighting was unchanged.
In view of this unusual result, a whole series of experiments were conducted over a
period of five years. Two voluntary female groups were formed and observed by the
research workers who worked closely with the operations. All changes, which were

18
made regularly every few weeks, were communicated to the operatives who had the
opportunity of commenting, asking for additional information, seeking advice, and airing
any grievances.

The studies provided evidence to prove that factors other than pay and working
conditions have a significant effect on output. This was the first major study of people at
work or in human relations. It raised important questions and many lessons were
learned. These include the value of effective teamwork, good and open supervisory skills
and that when individuals are made to feel special and valued, their physical and
intellectual performance improves.

iv) Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation

Herzberg identified factors which can cause staff to be dissatisfied with their
organisation. These include pay rate, company policies and physical working conditions.
He called these hygiene factors and managers need to be aware of these as
dissatisfaction can cause conflict.
However he also identified that the hygiene factors do not actually motivate staff to ‘go
the extra mile’. He believed that job satisfaction came from the job itself and that
employees needed well designed jobs to provide a challenge, a sense of achievement
and recognition for them.

v) Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

According to McGregor, Theory X managers assume workers are lazy and irresponsible
and require constant supervision and external motivation to achieve organisational
goals. Theory Y managers assume employees want to work and can direct and control
themselves. McGregor advocated a Theory Y perspective, suggesting that managers
who encourage participation and allow opportunities for individual challenge and
initiative would achieve superior performance.

The above theories provide valuable information on how managers can motivate staff.

22. Staff motivation (that is maintaining the interest of staff in being a good
employee and ‘doing a good job’) is an important part of the role of any
manager.

? Be well motivated yourself.

? Give your staff a challenge.
? Treat them with respect.
? Listen to them.
? Help them learn.
? Welcome difficulties as a chance to solve problems.
? Encourage teamwork.
? Be clear about what is expected.
? Recognise good work by giving praise and thanks.
? Provide job satisfaction by having well designed jobs which:
o Form a coherent whole.
o Make a significant contribution to the completion of the product or service.
o Provide variety of pace, method, location and skills.
o Provide feedback about an employee’s performance.
o Allow for some control by staff in the timing, sequence and pace of work
efforts.
o Give staff some responsibility for the outcome of their work.

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 o Provide opportunities for learning and problem solving (within the individual’s
competence).
o Be seen as leading towards some sort of desirable future.
o Use job enrichment which gives staff units of work to complete and makes
them responsible for quality, self checking and the opportunity for them to
show their abilities. It also provides immediate feedback as they are
checking on themselves.
o Use job rotation so that staff undertake a range of tasks at different times and
so do not become bored or stuck in a rut.

23. Getting it Wrong

Low staff motivation is often found where one or more of the following are found:

Low Productivity
Low productivity can be the result of one or more of the following:
? Decisions appearing wrong or unnecessary.
? Lack of standards, or standards which don’t suit the situation.
? Little opportunity for personal development.
? Lack of opportunity to make decisions affecting work.
? “Too many chiefs and not enough Indians” – i.e. too many people intervening and
trying to affect the outcome with too few people actually doing the job.
? Unnecessary paperwork.

Poor organisational design

? Staff are not sure who is their line manager.
? Managers cherry pick the work they want to do.
? There is no logic to the structure.
? Poor or non existent liaison arrangements between different parts of the
organisation.

Poor delegation
? Managers either don’t delegate at all or delegate the wrong tasks.
? Staff are poorly briefed about what is expected and so they often ‘get it wrong’.
? Staff are not given sufficient time or resources to complete tasks properly.
? There is no feedback or any word of thanks.

Poor communication
? Essential information always seems to be missing in emergencies.
? Conflicting reports arrive from various parts of the organisation.
? There is an overactive and unreliable “grapevine” (unofficial communication).
? Information received officially is often incomplete and inaccurate.

Excessive conflict
? Employees behave in an aggressive manner to each other beyond normal
expectations.
? There are conflicting goals that are not aligned with objectives.
? Back stabbing and blame are accepted ways for dealing with situations.
? Managers are seen to be working against each other.

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Poor co-ordination
? There is a lack of teamwork .
? Individuals are working in isolation or out of step with each other.
? There are no opportunities for staff to meet and discuss problems.
? Managers are reluctant to discuss problems.
? The organisation seems to operate like a ‘headless chicken’, i.e. without a sense of
direction or purpose.

Weak Control
? There are no clearly defined work programmes and directives.
? Everyone is at cross-purposes – there are no well-defined priorities.

24. Task, Team and Group Needs

The basic work unit of most organisations is the team, which is led by a manager or
team leader and consists of individual employees.

Some writers like John Adair have identified that Managers and Leaders in organisations
have to do three things:
? Make sure the task is completed.
? Build and maintain effective teams.
? Develop individual employees.

The Three Circles

At any time the emphasis on each circle may vary according to circumstances. However
they are all interdependent and so the leader must watch all three.
Managers need to be able to balance task, team and individual needs in order to be truly
successful.
A task (measured in days and weeks) is a logical grouping of actions to achieve a goal.
Most tasks need to be carried out by a team because they cannot be accomplished by a
single employee.

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Team needs have to be met, otherwise the task will suffer and the individual employees
will not be satisfied.
If the needs of individual employees are not met, the team will suffer and its performance
in achieving the task will be adversely affected.

Leadership in relation to task, team and individual involves:

? Defining the task so that members of staff know what is required.
? Using SMART goals (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-
Constrained) to set clear objectives.
? Planning: making sure that more than one solution to a problem or situation is
identified; making sure there are plans for contingencies and that plans are tested.
? Team briefings to create the right atmosphere, foster teamwork and motivate each
individual.
? Good control systems, effective delegation and monitoring to get maximum results
from minimum resources.
? Evaluating the performance of the organisation, managers, teams and employees.
? Motivating staff.
? Organising themselves, their team and their organisation.
? Setting a good example and being a role model for others.

Task needs
These have to be in place if the task is going to be completed.
? A series of coordinated actions.
? Information.
? Progress.
? Resources: such as raw materials.
? People: those who have the right competences and attitude.

Team members’ needs

The following have to be in place if the team is going to be successful:
? Direction and guidance from their manager.
? A manager who has good team building skills.
? Clear team objectives.
? Clear standards.
? The opportunity to put forward improvement ideas.
? Clear information about what the task actually is.
? A clear plan.
? Knowing what resources are available.
? Information to do their work effectively.
? Real-time information - so that decisions are timely and relate directly to what team
members are doing.
? A “to do” list of all their actions.
? To be notified of any changes likely to affect them.
? Knowing how they contribute to the overall organisation and departmental objectives.

Individual Needs
The following have to be in place for the employee to feel motivated:
? A sense of personal achievement from what they do and the contribution it makes to
the team and the organisation as a whole.
? A well designed and challenging job which “stretches” individuals.
? The opportunity to develop new skills.

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? A working environment which is free from conflict.
? The feeling that they are fairly treated.
? Recognition for ‘a job well done’.
? Control of areas of work for which they are accountable.
? Sense that they are progressing in terms of experience and ability.

Delegation.
Delegation is the handing over of tasks to appropriate subordinates, whilst still retaining
overall responsibility for the work which is produced.

Factors which influence delegation:

? The degree to which managers are under pressure as a result of the volume or
complexity of work they face.
? The degree to which a manager feels able to handle the risks associated with
delegation.
? The capabilities and experience of the members of staff to whom tasks will be
delegated.
? The benefit to staff from being given increased responsibilities.
? The degree of cost involved in the work to be delegated (financial cost, reputation
etc).
? The amount of help available to the subordinate from colleagues.
? How much delegation will contribute to an employee’s development plan.

Successful delegation happens when:

? The right tasks are delegated.
? Delegation is an accepted practice within the organisation.
? Staff are properly briefed and are clear about what is expected of them.
? Staff are given sufficient time to settle in.
? Staff are given the resources they need.
? At the end of the period of delegation staff are given feedback.
? Staff are thanked.
? Staff feel able to approach their manager for guidance.

Unsuccessful delegation happens when:

? The delegation is poorly planned.
? Staff are not properly briefed.
? Staff are not given the resources they need to carry out the tasks.
? Staff do not have the right skills or experience, particularly if the work is very complex
or highly technical.

Why delegation might not be used:

? Managers are reluctant to lose control.
? Managers are unable to see the need to delegate.
? Managers are afraid that someone else may do the job better than they do.
? Staff do not have the right skills to discharge responsibilities at a higher level.
? The complexity of the work involved.
? Work which needs to be carried out only by highly skilled and experienced staff.

24. Leadership
The term command is often found in uniformed services and can be defined as the
authority a commander exercises over subordinates by virtue of rank. Command

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includes the authority and responsibility for using effectively the resources available and
for planning, organising, directing, coordinating, and controlling. Authority is invested in
an individual, which gives them control over people and resources.

It is a style of leadership which is seen as being appropriate in fire ground or incident

situations. In terms of the day to day management of organisations the emphasis is on
the use of leadership and management skills.

An effective leader has to:

? Make decisions.
? Communicate decisions in a way in which they will be understood.
? Supervise performance to achieve the required standard of work.

25. Different Leadership Styles

The term leadership style is used to describe the way in which manager within an
organisation relates to staff. A number of different leadership styles have been identified
by writers on the subject. The style which is chosen can have a great influence on how
well or how badly managers do their job and the respect, or otherwise, that staff have for
them. Sometimes the style managers use varies according to the situation in which they
find themselves: an understanding of the different styles is therefore important.

Autocratic style of leadership

The style is characterised by a leader who exerts a high level of authority over staff.
People are given few opportunities to contribute ideas and suggestions and often staff
resent this and it stifles their creativity, the development of good team spirit and prevents
them from using the benefit of their experience. However it can be an appropriate style
for very routine jobs or where there is a large number of new and inexperienced staff,
who need to be closely supervised until they become more proficient.
As a permanent leadership style it can lead to high levels of absenteeism and staff
turnover.

Bureaucratic style of leadership

This style describes leaders who work “by the book”, ensuring that their staff follow
procedures rigidly. Whilst it is an appropriate style for work involving serious safety risks
(such as working with machinery, with toxic substances or at heights) or where large
sums of money are involved (such as cash-handling), in other work situations it can
demoralise staff because of the inflexibility and it can prevent the organisation from
adapting to new circumstances.

Charismatic style of leadership.

One of the main features of charismatic leaders is their personality which can create
great enthusiasm amongst staff. However because their style is rooted in their
personality, and the commitment of the staff is to them personally, organisations can find
themselves in great difficulties when they leave. There is a view that such leaders
believe more in themselves than their team(s).

Democratic or participative style of leadership

Whilst this type of leader will make the final decision, he or she invites other members of
the team to contribute to the decision-making process. This increases job satisfaction
because staff feel involved, team members know “what’s going on”, and people’s skills

24
are developed. As employees and team members feel more in control of their own
destiny, they are often motivated to work hard by more than just a financial reward.
Participation takes time, so this style can lead to things happening more slowly than an
autocratic approach, but often the end result will be better. As a style it can produce the
best results where team working is essential, and where quality rather than speed is
more critical to the market or productivity.

Laissez-faire style of leadership.

This French phrase means “leave it be”. It is used to describe a leader who leaves his or
her colleagues to get on with their own work. As a style it can be effective if the leader
monitors what is being achieved and communicates this back to his or her team
regularly. It is a style often found with teams where the members are very experienced
and skilled self-starters. However it can also apply in situations where managers are not
exerting sufficient control and as a style it is likely to be less successful with teams
consisting of new and inexperienced staff.

People-oriented style of leadership.

With this type of leadership the emphasis is on organising, supporting and developing
the people in the leader’s team. It is a participative style and as such tends to lead to
good teamwork and creativity amongst team members. But if taken to extremes, it can
lead to failure to achieve the team's goals.

Task-oriented style of leadership.

Task-oriented leaders focus only on getting the job done, and they can be quite
autocratic. They define the work required precisely, putting structures in place, planning,
organising and monitoring their teams accordingly. Unfortunately they spare little
thought for the well-being of their teams. This leadership style therefore has the same
disadvantages as autocratic model. However the approach can be beneficial with
inexperienced staff who have to work to very tight deadlines, and where there is no room
for error.

In practice, most leaders use a mixture of task-oriented and people-oriented styles of

leadership.

Transactional style of leadership.

This style of leadership is based on the belief that team members agree to obey their
leader totally when they take a job on. The “transaction” is (usually) that the organisation
pays staff in return for their effort and compliance. This also means that the leader has
the right to “punish” team members if their work fails meet the pre-determined standard.
Team members often find there may be little they can do to improve their job
satisfaction. Sometimes they have some control over the work through productivity
incentives. As a leadership style it has serious limitations where knowledge-based or
creative work is involved.

Transformational Leadership
This style is one where a leader inspires his or her team with a shared vision of the
future. Transformational leaders are highly visible, and place great emphasis on
communicating with staff. They don’t always lead from the front, as they tend to
delegate responsibility amongst their teams. While they have great enthusiasm, they
often need to be supported by people who have an eye for the detail of policy. Both
transactional and transformational leadership are needed within an organisation. The
transactional leaders ensure that routine work is done reliably, while the transformational

25
leaders look for initiatives that will add new value to the organisation. In the private
sector these new initiatives will help ensure its survival.

Situational style of leadership. (Where situation influences style)

A good leader will switch instinctively between styles according to the people and work
involved. This is referred to as “situational leadership”. It is based on the belief that there
is no one “right” way to lead or manage that suits all situations. At any one point in time
the most effective approach will depend on a number of the following factors:
? The skill levels and experience of the team.
? The work involved (routine, new or creative).
? The organisational environment (stable, conservative, traditional, radically changing,
fighting for survival or adventurous).
? The preferred style of the manager.

Can you identify your own manager’s particular leadership style? How do you ‘rate’ your
own managers as leaders?

26. Counselling

Practically all managers and supervisors are responsible for ensuring that staff under
their control ’do a good job’. Circumstances can occur where employees’ performance is
not acceptable and whilst all organisations will have some sort of disciplinary procedure,
the first step is usually for the manager to undertake confidential informal counselling
with employees to find out why they are not achieving the task to the required standard.
This may be because of lack of knowledge; lack of abilities; being unclear about their
role; lack of the right sort of equipment; difficulties in adapting to changes within the
workplace or personal problems.
Some organisations also provide counselling services for employees which are provided
by trained counselling staff. This is on the basis that they can help employees resolve
work related and personal problems.
Counselling can be used to help employees resolve:
? Personal difficulties.
? Family problems.
? Financial problems.
? Drug and/or alcohol problems.
? Ways of coping with stress, depression or anxiety.
? Relationship issues.

27. Discipline

Members of staff in practically all organisations understand that they are expected to
behave appropriately and it is part of the role of supervisors and managers to provide
guidance to staff to encourage them to meet the required standards of work and
conduct. The purpose of disciplinary procedures is to ensure that where problems
arise which have not been overcome through informal guidance from line managers,
staff are dealt with fairly in a formal procedure. Action which leads to disciplinary
procedures involves poor performance, absenteeism, conflict with other staff, and
disobeying the line manager.

The main features of a good disciplinary procedure are:

? It should be written down and staff should be aware the details of the procedure.

26
? It should provide a speedy way of dealing with disciplinary problems.
? It should make clear the rights and responsibilities of all concerned.
? It should ensure that cases are fully investigated.
? It must let employees state their case and be accompanied.
? It must ensure that employees are made aware of why disciplinary action was taken
against them.
? It must ensure that there is a right of appeal
In some countries, legislation sets out the rights of employees when action is to be
taken by employers.

Given below is typical example of the stages of a disciplinary procedure :-

Purpose and scope:

The purpose of a disciplinary procedure is to help and encourage all employees to
achieve and maintain standards of conduct, attendance and job performance. This
procedure is to apply to all employees. The aim of the procedure is to ensure consistent
and fair treatment for all in the organisation.

Principles usually found in a disciplinary procedure:

? Disciplinary action will only be taken against an employee after the case has
been fully investigated.
? At every stage in the procedure, employees will be informed of the nature of the
complaint against them and they will have the right to state their case before any
decision is made.
? The employee will have the right to be accompanied by a trade union
repres entative (or colleague,) at all stages in the procedure.
? No employee will be dismissed for a first breach of discipline except in the case
of gross misconduct, when the penalty will be dismissal without notice or
payment in lieu of notice.
? Employees have the right to appeal against any discipline imposed.

The Procedure
The actual procedure usually has a number of stages to cope with situations where the
employees do not improve. Each stage usually has a specific time scale, for example:

Stage 1 – verbal warning improvement note: unsatisfactory performance

Stage 2 – first written warning

Stage 3 – final written warning

However gross misconduct can often lead to instant dismissal.

Appeals
An employee who wishes to appeal against a disciplinary decision must do so within a
specified period of time.

28. Health and Safety at Work

Management of health and safety is a process which needs to be led and directed by
senior management. Senior managers have a direct impact on the attitudes and

27
behaviours of other managers and staff. It is essential that senior managers
demonstrate that health and safety is a key priority of their business.

In order to achieve this it is necessary to accomplish the following:

? Ensure that health and safety is established as a key business priority.
? Ensure senior management commitment to legal compliance is visible, i.e.
demonstrated to employees.
? Involve senior management in the operational monitoring of performance standards
? Develop a relationship of trust with staff.
? Encourage co-operation between management and workers.
? Provide resources for managers (time, money and trained staff) to implement,
maintain and manage health and safety performance.
? Measure the senior management’s achievement of key performance indicators.

Many countries have legislation which sets out the responsibilities of employers and
employees with regard to health and safety at work.

Employers’ duties
To prevent workplace injuries and ill health, employers are expected to:
? Provide and maintain a safe workpl ace which uses safe plant and equipment.
? Prevent harm from the use of any equipment or substance and from exposure to
harmful substances, noise and vibration.
? Ensure there is no improper conduct or behaviour which is likely to put the safety,
health and welfare of employees at risk.
? Ensure that instruction and training is provided to employees about health and
safety.
? Ensure that protective clothing and equipment is provided to employees.
? Ensure that employees are not subject to workplace stress caused by excessive
workloads, bullying or harassment.
? Appoint a competent person as the organisation’s safety officer.

Employees’ duties
To prevent workplace injuries and ill health employees are expected to:
? Take reasonable care to protect the health and safety of themselves and of other
people in the workplace.
? Make sure they do not engage in improper behaviour that will endanger themselves
or others.
? Make sure they are not under the influence of drink or drugs in the workplace.
? Undergo any reasonable medical or other assessment if requested to do so by the
employer.
? Report any defects in the place of work or its equipment which may be a danger to
health and safety.

Risk assessment and safety statement.

As part of ensuring the health and safety of employees, employers should carry out a
risk assessment for the workplace. The purpose of this is to identify any hazards
present in the workplace, assess the risks from such hazards and identify the steps to be
taken to deal with these identified risks. A hazard is something with the potential to
cause harm: hazards may be physical, chemical, biological, ergonomic or psychological.
For example:
? Water on a staircase is a hazard because you could slip on it, fall and hurt yourself.

28
? Loud noise is a hazard because it can cause hearing loss.
? Breathing in asbestos dust is a hazard because it causes cancer.
A risk is the likelihood that a hazard will actually cause its adverse effects, together with
a measure of the effect. Once it has identified the hazard, an organisation can assess
the likelihood of a risk and give it a rating. If the risk seems highly likely then ways of
removing it or reducing it should be identified.
Where health and safety legislation is in place, the ALARP principle of risks is applied:
the acronym “ALARP” stands for "as low as reasonably practicable". For a risk to be
ALARP it must be possible to demonstrate that the cost involved in reducing the risk
further would be grossly disproportionate to the benefit gained. The ALARP principle
arises from the fact that infinite time, effort and money could be spent on the attempt of
reducing a risk to zero.

Risk assessment involves a number of steps:

Step 1 – Identify the hazards.
Step 2 – Decide who might be harmed and how.
Step 3 – Evaluate the risks and decide on precautions.
Step 4 – Record the findings and implement them.
Step 5 – Review the assessment and update if necessary.

The employer should prepare a safety statement which is based on the risk assessment.
The statement will contain the details of people in the workforce who are responsible for
safety issues. Employees should be given access to this statement and employers
should review it on a regular basis.

Safe Person Concept

An important part of health and safety, particularly within organisations such as fire and
rescue services, is the safe person concept.
The principle underlying this concept is that in view of the unpredictable and hazardous
nature of the fire-ground environment, support systems should be developed to ensure
the safety of individuals whilst still enabling them to react flexibly to unforeseen or
changing situations. Support systems encompass the following: safe systems of work;
training; equipment; information; personal protective equipment. Together, these result
in a ‘safe person’ rather than a safe working environment which (with operational
incidents,) it could be impossible to provide. Safe persons follow safe practices
whereby they (rather than the environment,) control the risks.

Protective equipment and measures.

The employer should tell employees about any risks which require wearing protective
clothing or other equipment. The employer should provide protective equipment (such as
clothing, headgear, footwear, eyewear, gloves etc,) together with training on how to use
it where necessary. The protective equipment should be provided free of charge to
employees.
All employees must take reasonable care of their own safety and must undertake to use
any protective equipment supplied.

Reporting accidents
All accidents or ‘near misses’ in the workplace should be reported to the employer, who
should record the details of the incident and use the information to improve workplace
practices.
A near miss is an unplanned event that did not result in injury, illness, or damage but
had the potential to do so. Only a fortunate break in the chain of events prevented an

29
injury, fatality or damage. It is therefore important that they are recorded and
investigated. Although human error is common in initiating events, a faulty process or
system invariably permits or compounds the harm, and consequently it should be the
focus of improvement.

Ways in which managers can encourage a positive attitude to health and safety:
? Setting a good example
? Making sure staff are aware of their responsibilities
? Taking action where staff are behaving irresponsibly.
? Giving praise and reward for good practice
? Ensuring staff have the right equipment and know how to use it safely
? Training staff in the correct techniques and procedures.
? Ensuring that safety equipment is comfortable to aware
? Keeping staff aware of any changes to safety procedures.

Health and Safety issues can arise where:

? Inadequate training schemes are in place to address necessary staff training.
? The operation of plant is carried out incorrectly due to poor staff skills.
? The maintenance of plant is carried out incorrectly due to poor staff skills.
? Staff are unable to recognize hazardous situations.
? Incompetent staff operate hazardous processes.

29. Training Needs.

The purpose of training is to help employees maintain and develop existing skills or gain
new skills. Training relates to particular skills which are needed within an organisation
for it to operate successfully.
The training needs of an organisation will depend upon the type of organisation, i.e.
private or public sector, and the type of product or services provided by the organisation.
Training needs are normally determined by a training needs analysis and training
provision should be based on the accurate identification of learning needs.
A training needs analysis is designed to help an organisation identify the precise
areas where training is required. It can be undertaken at different levels within an
organisation, for the organisation as a whole, for a specific department or for an
individual.

Training needs analyses take into account the following items:

? The knowledge and skills or competences needed by staff for them to carry out the
job. (Normally new employees will have only been appointed if they have the
necessary skills. However in fire and rescue services, new recruits will need to be
taught a whole range of skills and how to develop team spirit.)
? The equipment, tools, machinery or software they use.
? Their competency (skill) level in relation to tools, m achinery or software.

Results of staff appraisal interviews.

Any major changes which are to be introduced which will have a ’knock on’ effect for
staff within their jobs. This can involve identifying:
? The skills needed to carry out the new job or role.
? The existing skills employees already possess.
? The gap between the existing skills and those now needed.
? The organisation’s Induction Policy.

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 The benefits of identifying and meeting training needs are as follows:
? Unless the right staff with the right skills are available, an organisation may struggle
to implement strategies and achieve targets.
? Enabling training needs to be prioritised, based on the needs of the organisation.
? Proper induction can help a new starter settle in more quickly and become aware of
policies and procedures as well as the climate or culture of ‘the way we do things
around here’.
? Well-planned training can be an effective retention strategy to keep key staff in post.
? Providing effective training for staff can have an immediate impact on the services
provided to customers, the attitude of staff, and to help an organisation prepare for
future changes.
? Ensuring that staff are aware of health and safety factors.
? Recognising that each employee has different styles of learning, which can help
ensure that the most effective type of training is provided, thus making best use of
the available funds.

The planning of training sessions involves:

? Identifying the best way of providing the training. For example, can it be done as
part of the employees’ jobs in the workplace (or on the job training)? In a fire and
rescue service this could involve using drills; giving guidance during the course of an
incident; incident debriefing or delegating work tasks.
? Much training takes place this way. However sometimes a formal course might be
better.
? Identifying the objectives of the training so that staff know what they will be able to
achieve at the end of it.
? Ensuring that the required resources will be available.

Training aids
All managers (from front line supervisors and above,) are required to provide training for
the staff within their teams.

This involves the following:

? Planning the content of a training session.
? Selecting and using appropriate training methods.
? Deciding if training sessions can be improved by the use of appropriate training aids.
? Actually running the session.
? Gaining feedback and reviewing.
Training aids amplify and reinforce what has been said by something visual or tangible.
The message they deliver is possibly remembered better than it would be without them.
Visual or practical reinforcement of information improves the trainers’ chances of getting
their message across. The best training aids are those which are clear, have impact, are
easily remembered and do not distract from what is being said.

In order to understand why training aids are useful, it is important to understand the way
in which people learn. It is often said that:

What I hear ... I forget.

What I see... I remember
What I do... I know

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 In deciding whether or not training aids are likely to be useful the trainer has to decide:
? What is the best way of supporting what I have to say?
? What will make the message more memorable?

Given below are some examples of training aids:-

? Support materials.
? Handouts.
? Exercises.
? Workbooks and manuals.
? Visual aids.
? PowerPoint presentations.
? DVDs.
? Working models.
? Involving the delegates or team members.
? Questions.
? Exercises.
? Quizzes.
? Case studies.
? Discussions - setting up and leading.
? Running exercises - splitting into groups.

30. Exercise Plans

Emergency services such as fire and rescue services are expected to be fully prepared
for a wide range of emergencies. An important part of being prepared is the
development, practice and testing of emergency plans through exercises. These can
range from simple situations to major civil emergencies. An exercise is a simulation of
an emergency situation.

The purposes of exercises:

? To validate plans and ensure that they are actually workable because ‘everything
works on paper’. Without exercises there could be false confidence placed in a
written plan.
? To check that staff can actually operate effectively in their roles.
? To develop staff competencies and give staff practice in carrying out their roles in the
plans.
? To test well-established procedures.
? To build morale and team spirit, especially where a number of different organisations
are involved.
? To enable debriefing to take place, so that problems can be highlighted and dealt
with.

Types of exercises
There are three main types of exercise:
? Discussion-based.
? Table top.
? Live.
? A fourth category combines elements of the three types listed above.

The choice of which one to use depends on the purpose of each exercise. It is also a
question of lead-in time and available resources.

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 Discussion-based exercises are cheapest to run and easiest to prepare. They can be
used as a 'talk-through' of how to finalise the plan. More often, they are based on a
completed plan and are used to develop awareness about the plan through discussion.
Because of this they are often used for training purposes.

Table top exercises are based on simulation, not necessarily literally around a table
top. Usually, they involve a realistic scenario and a specific amount of time, which may
be real time or may speed time up. The staff involved are expected to know the contents
of the plan and they are invited to test how the plan works as the scenario unfolds. They
are very useful for validation purposes, particularly for exploring weaknesses in
procedures. Table-top exercises are relatively cheap to run, except in the use of staff
time, but they require careful preparation.

Live exercises are a live rehearsal for implementing a plan. They are particularly useful
for testing logistics, communications and physical capabilities. They can also make very
good training events from the point of view of experiential learning, helping staff develop
confidence in their skills and providing experience of what it would be like to use the
plan's procedures in a real event. Live exercises can be expensive to set up on the day
and need intensive preparation.

In developing an exercise plan it is important to:

? Identify the actual purpose of the plan.
? Identify the resources which will be needed.
? Identify the roles and responsibilities which individual employees will have.
? Determine the specific goals and milestones.
? List the tasks to be performed, by whom and by which deadline.
? Determine how problem areas will be resolved.
? Identify when and how debriefing will take place.

The member of staff developing the plan for the exercise and running the exercise will
need to:
? Know how to access, interpret and provide relevant information.
? Be aware of organisational policies, aims and objectives, as well as the sources and
availability of information.
? Develop objectives through risk assessment.
? Collect, collate and confirm information relevant to the known and anticipated risks to
people, property and the environment.
? Plan action to lead and support the staff response to the incident.
? Determine initial action against available resources, using a realistic assessment of
their suitability for operational use.
? Ensure that the action plan provides sufficient flexibility to meet the known and
anticipated needs of the incident.
? Determine how to apply practices that maximise the health, safety and welfare of
themselves and others during the exercise.
? Know how to communicate clearly and effectively with the range of people involved.
? Know how to solve problems, make decisions and plan for contingencies.
? Be aware of the capabilities and limitations of personal and operational equipment.
? Make appropriate adjustments to the plan based on an initial assessment of the
incident.
? Deploy resources to meet priority needs.
? Re-deploy resources to meet the changing priorities of the incident.

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? Operate within the agreed levels of responsibility and authority.

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