Quarter II: AFRO-LATIN AMERICAN AND POPULAR MUSIC

MUSIC OF AFRICA

African music is a collective result of the cultural and musical diversity of the more than 50
ethnic divisions of the continent. Basically interlocking structural format, due mainly to its
overlapping and dense texture as well as its rhythmic complexity. The organization of this vast
continent is a colonial legacy from European rule of the different nations up to the end of the
19th century, enabling it to incorporate its music with language, environment, political
developments, immigration, and cultural diversity.

Yoruba – ethnic group in Africa.

TRADITIONAL MUSIC OF AFRICA

African traditional music is largely functional in nature, used primarily in ceremonial rites, such
as birth, death, marriage, succession, worship, and spirit invocations. Others are work related or
social in nature, while many traditional societies view their music as entertainment.

1. Afrobeat - is a term used to describe the fusion of West African with black American
music.
2. Apala (Akpala) - a musical genre from Nigeria in the Yoruba tribal style, used to wake
the worshippers after fasting during the Muslim holy feast of Ramadan. Percussion
instrumentation includes the rattle (sekere), thumb piano (agidigho), bell (agogo), and
two or three talking drums.
3. Axe - a popular musical genre from Salvador, Bahia, and Brazil. It fuses the Afro-
Caribbean styles of the marcha, reggae, and calypso, and is played by carnival bands.
4. Jit - is a hard and fast percussive Zimbabwean dance music played on drums with guitar
accompaniment, influenced by mbira-based guitar styles.
5. Jive - is a popular form of South African music featuring a lively and uninhibited
variation of the jitterbug, a form of swing dance.
6. Juju - is a popular music style from Nigeria that relies on the traditional Yoruba rhythms,
where the instruments are more Western in origin. A drum kit, keyboard, pedal steel
guitar, and accordion are used along with the traditional dun-dun (talking drum or
squeeze drum).
7. Kwassa kwassa - is a dance style begun in Zaire in the late 1980s. popularized by Kanda
Bongo Man. In this dance style, the hips move back and forth while the arms follow the
hip movements.
8. Marabi - is a South African three-chord township music of the 1930s-1960s which
evolved into African jazz. It makes use of a keyboard style that combines American jazz,
ragtime, and blues with African roots. It is characterized by simple chords in varying
vamping patterns and repetitive harmony over an extended period of time to allow the
dancers more time on the dance floor.
LATIN AMERICA MUSIC INFLUENCED BY AFRICAN MUSIC

9. Reggae - is a Jamaican musical style that was strongly influenced by the island's
traditional mento music, as well as by calypso, African music, American jazz, and
rhythm and blues. One of reggae's most distinctive qualities is its offbeat rhythm and
staccato chords.
10. Salsa music is Cuban, Puerto Rican, and Colombian dance music. It comprises various
musical genres including the Cuban son montuno, guaracha, chachacha, mambo, and
bolero.
11. Samba - is a Brazilian musical genre and dance style. Its roots can be traced to Africa via
the West African slave trade and African religious traditions particularly in Angola and
the Congo. Samba is the basic underlying rhythm that typifies most Brazilian music. It
has a lively and rhythmical beat with three steps to every bar, making the samba feel like
a timed dance.
12. Soca - is also known as the "soul of calypso." It originated as a fusion of calypso with
Indian rhythms, thus combining the musical traditions of the two major ethnic groups of
Trinidad and Tobago. It is a modern Trinidadian and Tobagonian pop music combining
soul and calypso music.
13. Were - is Muslim music often performed as a wake-up call for early breakfast and
prayers during Ramadan celebrations. Relying on pre-arranged music, it fuses the African
and European music styles.
14. Zouk - is fast, carnival-like rhythmic music, from the Creole slang word for "party." It
originated in the Caribbean Islands of Guadaloupe and Martinique and was popularized
in the 1980s.

VOCAL FORMS OF AFRICAN MUSIC

1. Maracatu - first surfaced in the African state of Pernambuco, combining the strong rhythms of
African percussion instruments with Portuguese melodies. The maracatu groups were called
macoer (nations) who paraded with adrumming ensertible numbering up to 100, accompanied by
a singer, a chorus, and a coterie of dancers

Musical instruments used in Maracatu

1. maracatu uses mostly percussion instruments such as the alfaia, tarol, caixa-de-ga
gongue, agbe, and miniero
2. alfaia is a large wooden drum that is rope-tuned, complemented by the tarol which is a
shallow snare drum, and the caixa-de-guerra which is a war-like snare. Providing the
clanging sound is the gongue, a metal cowbell. The shakers are represented by the agbe, a
gourd shaker covered by beads, and the miniero organza, a metal cylindrical shaker filled
with metal shot or small dried seeds.

2. Blues is a musical form of the late 19th century that had deep roots in African-American
communities. These communities were located in the so-called "Deep South" of the United
States, where the slaves and their descendants used to sing as they worked in the cotton and
vegetable fields.
Noted performers of the blues genre

 Ray Charle
 James Brown
 Cab Calloway
 Aretha Franklin
 John Lee Hooker
 B.B. King
 Bo Diddley
 Erykah Badu
 Eric Clapton,
 Steve Winwood
 Charlie Musselwhite
 Blues Traveler
 Jimmie Vaughan
 Jeff Baxter
Examples of blues music are the following: Early Mornin', A House is Not a Home, and
Billie's Blues. Ray Charles

Soul music was a popular music genre of the 1950s and 1960s. It originated in the United States,
and combined elements of African-American gospel music, rhythm and blues, and often jazz.
The catchy rhythms are accompanied by handclaps and extemporaneous body moves which are
among its important features.

Some important innovators whose recordings in the 1950s contributed to the emergence of soul
music

 Clyde McPhatter
 Hank Ballard
 Etta JameS
 Ray Charles
 Little Richard
 Otis Redding
 James Brown
were equally influential. Brown is known as the "Godfather of Soul," while Sam Cooke
and Jackie Wilson are also often acknowledged as "soul forefathers."

Soul music continued to be popular into the 1970s. Examples of soul hits from that era are: Ain't
No Mountain High Enough, Ben, All I Could Do Was Cry, Soul to Soul, and Betcha by Golly
Wow.

The term spiritual refers to a song form, known as the "Negro spiritual," sung by African slaves
in America. This musical form became their outlet to express their loneliness and anger.
Examples of spiritual music are the following:. We are Climbing Jacob's Ladder, Rock My Soul,
When the Saints Go Marching In.

CHARACTERISTIC OF SOUL MUSIC

The call and response method is a succession of two distinct musical phrases usually rendered by
different musicians, where the second phrase acts as a direct commentary on or response to the
first.
 Afro-Latin American and Popular Music

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF AFRICA

African music incorporates all the major instrumental genres of Western music, including
instruments for solo or ensemble playing.

Classification of Traditional African Instruments

A. Idiophones
B. Membranophones
C. Lamellaphone
D. Chordophones
E. Aerophones

A. Idiophones

These are percussion instruments that are either struck with a mallet or against one another.

1. Balafon - is a West African xylophone. It is a pitched percussion instrument with bars made
from logs or bamboo.

The xylophone is originally an Asian instrument that follows the structure of a piano.
From Asia, it went to Africa, then to the Americas and Europe.

2. Rattles - are vessels made of seashells, tin, basketry, animal hoofs, horn, wood, metal,
cocoons, palm kernels, or tortoise shells. These may range from single to several objects that are
either joined or suspended to create sound as they hit each other.

3. Agogo - is a single bell or multiple bells that had its origins in traditional Yoruba music as
well as in the samba bateria (percussion) ensembles. The agogo may be called "the oldest samba
instrument based on West African Yoruba single or double bells." It has the highest pitch among
the bateria instruments.

4. Atingting kon - are slit gongs s used as communication between villages. Gong "languages,"
composed of a series of beats and pauses, made it possible to send highly specific messages.

5. Slit drum -The slit drum is a hollow percussion instrument. Although referred to as a drum, it
is more of an idiophone.

It is usually carved or constructed from bamboo or wood into a box with one or more slits
in the top. Most slit drums have one slit, though two and three slits (cut into the shape of
an "H") occur. If the resultant tongues are different in width or thickness, the drum can
produce two different pitches.

6. Djembe -The West African djembe (pronounced zhem- bay) is one of the best-known African
drums. It is shaped like a large goblet and played with bare hands. The body is carved from a
hollowed trunk and is covered with goat skin.
 Log drums come in different shapes and sizes as well as tubular drums, bowl-shaped
drums, and friction drums. Some have one head while others have two. The bigger the
drum, the lower the tone or pitch. The more tension in the drum head, the higher the tone
produced.

7. Shekere - a type of gourd and shell megaphone from West Africa, consisting of a dried gourd
with beads woven into a net covering the gourd. The agbe is another dried gourd with cowrie
shells or beads usually strung with white cotton thread. The axatse is a small gourd, held by the
neck and placed between hand and leg.

B. Membranophones

Membranophones are instruments, usually drums, which have vibrating animal membranes.

Examples from different localities are: entenga (Ganda), dundun (Yoruba), atumpan (Akan), and
ngoma (Shona).

1. Body percussion - African people frequently use their bodies as musical instruments. Aside
from using their voices since many of them are superb singers they also clap their hands, slap
their thighs, pound their upper arms or chests, or shuffle and stomp their feet.

This body percussion creates action or movement that combines dance and music.
Moreover, the wearing of rattles or bells on their wrists, ankles, arms, and waists
enhances the total effect.

2. Talking drum - The talking drum is used to send messages to announce births, deaths,
marriages, sporting events, dances, initiation, or war. Sometimes, the messages may even contain
gossip or jokes. An example of the talking drum is the luna.

It is also believed that these drums can carry direct messages to the spirits after the death
of a loved one. However, learning to play messages on drums is extremely difficult,
resulting in its waning popularity

C. Lamellaphone

One of the most popular African percussion instruments is the lamellaphone, which is a set of
plucked tongues or keys mounted on a sound board. It is known by different names according to
the regions such as mbira, karimba, kisaanj, and likembe.

The mbira (thumb piano or finger xylophone) is from Zimbabwe that is used throughout the
continent. It is played by holding the instrument while plucking the tines with the thumbs,
producing a soft plucked sound.

An important feature of mbira music is its chiming, cyclical nature, with each new
repetition varying slightly from the last. It is used in ceremonial functions such as
weddings, funerals, and in honor of significant people, as well as for religious purposes,
to call on spirits and seek their advice.
D. Chordophones

Chordophones are instruments which produce sounds from the vibration of strings. These
include bows, harps, lutes, zithers, and lyres of various sizes.

1. Musical bow - The musical bow is the ancestor of all string instruments. It is the oldest and
one of the most widely-used string instruments of Africa. The principal types are the mouth bow,
the resonator bow, and the earth bow.

The mouth bow consists of a single string attached to each end of a curved stick, similar
to a bow and arrow. The string is held in the mouth and the string is either plucked or
struck with another stick, producing a percussive yet delicate sound.

The resonator bow is a form of the mouth bow with a calabash resonator attached at its
mid-point. In different parts of Africa, this bow is known by other names. In Rwanda, it
is known as munahi; in Dahomey, tiepore; and in Madagascar, jejolava.

The earth bow also called ground bow or pit harp consists of a flexible pole which is
planted in the ground. A

A more advanced form of ground bow is made from a log, half a gourd, a flat piece of
wood, and cord.

The wooden strip is driven firmly into one end of the log and the half gourd is fastened to
the log about two feet away from the wooden strip.

The cord, fastened from the wooden strip to the gourd, is stretched tightly into the shape
of a bow.

2. Lute - The lute, originating from the Arabic states, is shaped like the modern guitar and played
in similar fashion. It has a resonating body, a neck, and one or more strings which stretch across
the length of its body and neck. The player tunes the strings by tightening or loosening the pegs
at the top of the lute's neck. West African plucked lutes include the konting, khalam, and the
nkoni.

3. Kora - The kora is Africa's most sophisticated harp, while also having features similar to a
lute. Its body is made from a gourd or calabash. The leather rings around the neck are used to
tighten the 21 strings that give the instrument a range of over three octaves. The kora is held
upright and played with the fingers.

4. Zither - The zither is a stringed instrument with varying sizes and shapes whose strings are
stretched along its body. Among the types of African zither are the raft or Inanga zither from
Burundi, the tubular or Valiha zither from Malagasi, and the harp or Mvet zither from Cameroon.

5. Zeze - The zeze is a fiddle from Sub-Saharan Africa played with a bow, a small wooden stick,
or plucked with the fingers. It has one or two strings, made of steel or bicycle brake wire. It is
also known by the names tzetze or dzendze, izeze and endingidi; and in Madagascar it is called
lokanga voatavo.

E. Aerophones
Aerophones are musical instruments that produce sound primarily by trapping or enclosing a
body or column of air and causing it to vibrate.

1. Flutes - are widely used throughout Africa. They are usually fashioned from a single tube
closed at one end and blown, while being held either vertically or side-blown.

Atenteben is a bamboo flute from Ghana. It is played vertically like the European
recorder.

Fulani is the traditional flute of the Fulani people. It is also known as fula or tambin
which is the traditional Fulani flute of the Fouta Djalon highlands of Guinea.

Panpipes consist of cane pipes of different lengths tied in a row or in a bundle held
together by wax or a cord, and generally closed at the bottom. They are blown across the
top, each producing a different note.

2. Horns - Horns and trumpets are found almost everywhere in Africa, and are commonly made
from elephant tusks and animal horns. With their varied attractive shapes, these instruments may
be either end-blown or side-blown.

Kudu horn - This is one type of horn made from the horn of the kudu antelope. It releases
a mellow and warm sound that adds a unique African accent to the music.

3. Reed pipes - These are single-reed pipes made from hollow guinea corn or sorghum stems,
where the reed is a flap partially cut from the stem near one end. It is the vibration of this reed
that causes the air within the hollow instrument to create the sound.

There are also cone-shaped double-reed instruments similar to the oboe or shawm. The
most familiar is the rhaita or ghaita, an oboe-like double reed instrument from northwest
Africa. It is one of the primary instruments used by traditional music ensembles from
Morocco. The rhaita was likewise featured in the Lord of the Rings soundtrack,
specifically in the Mordor theme.

4. Whistles - Whistles are found throughout the continent and may be made of wood or other
materials. Short pieces of horn serve as whistles, often with a short tube inserted into the
mouthpiece. Clay can be molded into whistles of many shapes and forms and then baked. Pottery
whistles are sometimes shaped in the form of a head, similar to the Aztec whistles of Central
America and Mexico.

5. Trumpets - African trumpets are made of wood, metal, animal horns, elephant tusks, and
gourds, ornamented with snake or crocodile skin or the hide of zebras, leopards, and other
animals.

They are mostly ceremonial in nature, often used to announce the arrival or departure of
important guests. In religion and witchcraft, some tribes believe in the magical powers of
trumpets to frighten away evil spirits, cure diseases, and protect warriors and hunters
from harm.

African Musical Instruments from the Environment

Other drums are also made of clay, metal, tortoise shells, or gourds.

Xylophones are made of lumber or bamboo, while flutes are constructed wherever reeds or
bamboo grow.

Animal horns are used as trumpets, while animal hides, lizard skins, and snake skins can function
as decorations as well as provide the membranes for drum heads.

Laces made of hides and skins are used for the strings of harps, fiddles, and lutes.

Bamboo is used to form the tongues of thumb pianos, the frames of stringed instruments, and
stamping tubes.

Strips of bamboo are even struck together rhythmically.

Gourds, seeds, stones, shells, palm leaves, and the hard-shelled fruit of the calabash tree are used
in making rattles.

Ancient Africans even made musical instruments from human skulls decorated with human hair,
while singers used and continue to use their body movements to accompany their singing.

Modern Africans make use of recycled waste materials such as strips of roofing metal, empty oil
drums, tin cans, and wire. These provide the pitch and timbre when played in an ensemble,
creating contrasts in tone quality and character.