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Definition of bilingualism:

 Bloomfield (1935: 56), defines it as „the native-like control

of two languages‟.
A very restrictive view of only „peferct bilinguals‟.

 Haugen, 1953: bilingualism begins “at the point where the

BILINGUALISM speaker of one language can produce complete meaningful
utterances in the other language”

 Mackey, 1968: “the alternate use of two or more languages”

 Macnamara (1967a) considers bilingual any person who

possesses a minimal competence in only one of the four
Dr. Negadi M.N language skills, listening comprehension, speaking, reading
and writing, in a language other than his mother tongue.

Difference between bilingualism and bilinguality?

(Hamers and Blanc 2000)
Bilingualism: refers to the state of a linguistic community
Between these two extremes a lot has been said. in which two languages are in contact with the result
An intersting view: that two codes can be used in the same interaction and
Grosjean (1985a) defines the bilingual as more than the that a number of individuals are bilingual (societal
sum of two monolinguals, i.e, the bilingual has also biligualism); but it also includes the concept of
developed some unique language behaviour. bilinguality (or individual bilingualism).

Process of bilingualism: to understand the process of

Bilinguality: is the psychological state of an bilingualism, it should first be understood that human
individual who has access to more than one linguistic
code as means of social communication; the degree of beings feel the need to speak. He/she speaks the
access will vary along a number of dimensions which language of their environment.
are psychological, cognitive, psycholinguistic, etc
(Hamers, 1981).

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Classification according to the age of an individual:

Early Bilingual: two types (subdivisions):

- Simultaneous Bilinguals: both languages are
The learning or acquiring a second language is quite a acquired simultaneously. Simultaneous early
different matter. Except in case where the child’s bilingualism refers to a child who learns two
parents are bilinguals or one of them is, learning a languages at the same time, from birth.
second language becomes either a deliberate activity This generally produces a strong bilingualism, called
or one imposed on the child or adult by social, political additive bilingualism. This also implies that the
or religious factors acting on him/her. child's language development is bilingual.
- Sequential Bilinguals The second language (L2)
is acquired after the first one (L1).

Classification according to the age of an individual: Classification according to the age of an individual:

- Sequential, consecutive or successive early Bilinguals

The second language (L2) is acquired after the first one
(L1).
- Late Bilingual : refers to bilingualism when the
second language is learned after the age of 6 or 7;
It refers to a child who has already partially acquired a first
language and then learns a second language early in especially when it is learned in adolescence or
childhood (for example, when a child moves to an adulthood. Late bilingualism is a consecutive
environment where the dominant language is not his native bilingualism which occurs after the acquisition of the
language). This generally produces a strong bilingualism first language (after the childhood language
(or additive bilingualism), but the child must be given time development period). This is what also distinguishes it
to learn the second language, because the second language
from early bilingualism. With the first language already
is learned at the same time as the child learns to speak. This
implies that the language development of the child is partly acquired, the late bilingual uses their experience to
bilingual. learn the second language.

Classification according to skill:

There are no clearly defined levels of bilingual skills, but it Classification according to skill:
is rather a continuum, ranging from

Equilingual „perfect bilingual‟ Additive bilingualism and subtractive bilingualism:

If somebody passes in any situation in both languages for a native The term additive bilingualism refers to the situation where a person
speaker, i.e. he or she is indistinguishable from a native speaker. has acquired the two languages in a balanced manner. It is a strong
This is the strictest kind of defining bilingualism. bilingualism. Subtractive bilingualism refers to the situation where a
person learns the second language to the detriment of the first language,
Balanced Bilingual especially if the first language is a minority language. In this case,
Someone who is more or less equally proficient in both languages, mastery of the first language decreases, while mastery of the other
but will not necessarily pass for a native speaker in both languages. language (usually the dominant language) increases. These expressions
Unbalanced or dominant Bilingual and their associated concepts were created by Wallace Lambert, the
A person being more proficient in one of the two languages (in Canadian researcher who has been given the title of “the father of
most cases native-like). bilingualism research”.
Passive Bilingual
Passive Bilingual
A person who is a native speaker in one and is capable of A person who is a native speaker in one and is capable of
understanding but not speaking another language.
understanding but not speaking another language.

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Compound Bilingualism
Types of bilingualism
The person learns the two languages in the same context where
Coordinate Bilingualism: In this type, the person learns the they are used concurrently, so that there is a fused representation
languages in separate environments, and words of the two of the languages in the brain. This is the case when a child is
languages are kept separate with each word having its own brought up by bilingual parents, or those from two different
specific meaning. This may also be referred to as linguistic backgrounds. This is additive in nature.
 The learning of two languages in the same context, used at the
subtractive bilingualism.
same time
 The learning of two languages in two different settings. the
 Loewe (1888) “two-member system of the same language”
words of the languages are kept completely separated each
word has its own independent meaning E.g. cultural bilingualism: an individual at home who has an English
E.g. school bilingualism: an English student studying mother and Spanish father, and speaks the two languages with
Spanish at school = 2 languages, 2 different contexts. their parents.
Apple vs. manzana eg: Apple vs manzana

Types of bilingual communities Bilingual behaviour

 In an extreme case a community may have strict  Code-switching

separation of domains with stable bilingualism.
 Borrowing
 Conversely, a community’s bilingualism may be very
unstable using both languages in all domains.
 Interference

 Intermediate communities may use one language for

certain domains but both in others.

Why do we become bilingual?

Bilingual behaviour
There are many reasons:
 born into a family where the parents speak two different
languages;
1. Why do we become bilingual?
 live in a bilingual society where a foreign language does
2. What are the advantages of bilingualism? not correspond to the language that is spoken at home;

3. why is it important to study bilingualism and

 immigration to another country;
bilingual education?
 it is a requirement for certain professions (e.g. teachers,
translation, journalism abroad) etc.

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What are the advantages of bilingualism?

- It often provides the ability to communicate with different  Compared to monolingual children,
people of different cultures, nationalities, countries. bilingual children can concentrate with
greater ease and not be distracted as much.
- Bilingual people (particularly early bilinguals) have more open,
flexible and creative thinking. This is what is called divergent
thinking; it produces original and less conventional solutions,  In adults, bilingualism helps to reduce the
i.e.; a bilingual person has two words for a single object or a effects of aging on the brain (stimulating the
single thought, which in turn means that they have a broader memory).
semantic repertoire.

Why is it important to study bilingualism and bilingual

education?

 Bi/multilingualism has economic Positive Negative

advantages. The employment rate for •Response to globalisation •Cause of underachievement
•Intercultural communication •Potential catalyst for separation in a
bilingual people with the two or more •Minority education country like in Quebec.

languages is higher than that for those who •Language provision policies •Detrimental to cognitive development
•High cost
•FL education
speak only one language. •Personal needs •Split personality
•For nation-building •Identity and emotional problems
•For social stability and racial harmony •E
• etc. •tc.

References
Appel, R. and Muysken, P. (1987). Language Contact and Bilingualism.
London: Edward Arnold.
Bhatia, T. K., & Ritchie, W. C. (2006). The Handbook of Bilingualism.
Malden, MA, USA: Blackwell Pub.
Grosjean, F. (1982). Life with two languages: An introduction to bilingualism.
Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
Thank you!
Hamers, J. F., & Blanc, M. (2000). Bilinguality and bilingualism. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Myers-Scotton, C. (2006). Multiple voices: An introduction to bilingualism.
Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub.
Romaine, S. 1(989). Bilingualism. London: Blackwell.
Weinreich, U. (1968). Languages in contact. The Hague: Mouton.