UNIT THREE

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END
OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY (6 hours)

Introduction
From ancient times to the end of the 13th century, societies in Ethiopia and the Horn underwent political, economic,
social and cultural changes. One remarkable change in the period was the evolution of states with diverse socio-
cultural and economic settings. While agriculture and trade contributed to the evolution of states, religions shaped the
socio-cultural setup of the states in different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn

3.1. Emergence of States

Factors for the emergence of ancient states were sedentary life, the begging of Agriculture, trade, religion and
conflict /war.

3.2. Ancient States

3.2.1. North and Northeast
A. PUNT
Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn. The evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian
hieroglyphic writings, accompanied by vivid paintings; tell of a series of naval expeditions, which the Egyptian
Pharaohs sent to Punt. Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) sent expedition to collect myrrh, ebony and electrum
(gold and silver alloy).
During Pharaoh Asosi, treasurer of God Bawardede took dancing dwarf “dink" to Egypt from Punt.
The best described and illustrated expedition was the one undertaken by the order of the famous Egyptian Queen
Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.), whose expedition is documented at her tomb in Dier El Bahri.
She sent five ships under the leadership of Black Nubian Captain Nehasi via Wadi-Tumilat. The expedition
was warmly welcomed by the Puntites King Perehu, his wife Ati, sons, daughters and followers.
The expedition was able to return collecting frank incense, cinnamon, sweet smelling woods (sandal),
spices, ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard and leopard skins, ostrich feathers and egg, live monkeys,
giraffes, people etc.
Hatshepsut presented some parts of the items to her god, Amun. It was because of the ritual importance of
their exports that Puntites were also known as Khebis of the Ta Netjeru (divine or ghosts land). Iron, bronze,
asses, foxes; cattle, animals’ fur, dying and medicinal plants were also exported from Punt to Egypt. In return,

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 axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles, clothes, bracelets, necklaces, beads and other trinkets were imported
from Egypt to Punt.
Scholars have not reached agreement as to the exact location of Punt. Some scholars suggested that northern or
northeastern Somalia while others inclined towards Northern Ethiopia. Considering the two suggestions, still some
others argue that it was probably stretched from Swakim or Massawa to Babel Mandeb (Gate of Tears) and Cape
Gardafui.

B. DA’AMAT AND OTHER CULTURAL CENTERS IN NORTHERN ETHIOPIA AND ERITREA

The Da’amat had a center a little to the south of Aksum. Inscription of the king of Da’amat tentatively dated to the 5th
century BC shows that he used politico religious title known as Mukarib.
Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah (principal god), Astater (Venus god), Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun
god), and Sin (moon god) were worshipped in the domain of the Da’amat state and other northern Ethiopian pre-
Aksumite cultural centers similar to South Arabia at the time.
 There were a number of cultural centers in northern Ethiopia. The major ones are:
 Yeha: is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and was the oldest of these centers.
 It probably emerged around 1, 000 BC as a small emporium where South Arabian merchants and their agents
bought and stored ivory, rhinoceros horn and other commodities coming from the interior.
 It seems that the period of its prosperity (zenith) was from about 750 to 500 B.C. Remains of walls of some of
its buildings and stone masonry as well as still standing temple and inscriptions indicate Yeha’s glory.
 Hawulti Melazo: is situated to southeast of Aksum, where stone tablets that are inscribed in rectangular temple
surrounded by a wall decorated with paintings representing herds of cattle have been excavated.
 Addi-Seglemeni: is located at 10kms southwest of Aksum, from where a stone slab is fetched and the oldest Ethiopian
monumental inscription is discovered.
 There were also other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat,
Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda etc

C. The Aksumite State

 The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C. Initially, its power was limited to a
relatively small area comprising the town of Aksum and its environs but gradually it expanded to include
large territories in all directions.In its heyday, Aksumite territories included:
 In the east to red sea coast
 In the west to western edge of Ethiopian plateau overlooking the vast Nile Valley
 In the north to northern corner of Eritrea
 In the south up to northern shewa.
 Sources about Aksumite kingdom was obtained from the documents known as

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a) The periplus of the Eritrean Sea. According to this document Aksum:
 Mentioned Ports of Aden (Eudaemon) Gulf like Avalites (Zayla) and Malao (Berbera), and Indian
Ocean Benadir Coasts like Serapion (Moqadishu), Nicon (Brava) and Merca.
 Exported items natural products like ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and some spices (like
ginger, cassia and cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and some
curiosity animals like apes) and
 Imported manufactured products like garments and textiles from Egypt, India, Roman Empire, and Persia;
glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other places; metallic sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds, oil and
wine from Roman Empire and Syria were imported.
 Zoscales (c. 76-89), the then king of Aksum, used to communicate in Greek language, Lingua Franca
of Greco-Roman world.
 Aksum also had relations with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Laodicea (Asia Minor).
b) The Christian topography (Adulis inscription) .According to this
 Aksum had trade relationships on the Red sea areas and imported gold from Sasu most probably Beni
shangul and the adjoining lands beyond the Blue Nile.
 A big caravan made up of close to five hundred merchants some of them special agents of the kings of
Aksum would take to Sasu cattle, lumps of salt (probably salt blocks) and iron to exchange for gold.
 Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside world notably with the South Arabian region, leading
to exchange of ideas, material and spiritual culture. Sometimes such contacts involved conflicts between the
two regions. One of such known recorded conflict between areas on both sides of the sea took place around
200 A.D. Accordingly, peoples in Southern Arabian Peninsula, in present day Yemen, had difficulties in
defending themselves against the army of the Aksumite king, Gadarat.
 From the 3rd to 7th centuries, Aksumite kings like Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II, etc.
minted and issued different kinds of coins in gold, silver and bronze for both overseas and local
transactions.
 Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e. Roman Empire, Persia, China and Aksum) at
the time. It was a major naval and trading power from the 1st to the 7th centuries. Aksumite ships were
the main means of transporting goods.
 Aksum was the only one with sufficient sources of timber for ship building and in those days, the
technology for it existed in Adulis. Aksum had a large fleet of ships, which was used not only for trade but
also for its wars across the Red Sea.
 Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond Himyar and Saba, but the local prince
Dhu-Nuwas was converted to Judaism, marched to Zafar and Nagran, and killed many Christians.
Byzantine Vasaliev Justinian (r. 527-65) with sanctification of Patriarch Timit III (518-538) provided
Kaleb with a number of ships transporting armies led by Julianos and Nonossus against Dhu Nuwas. Dhu
Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha as governor of Arabia that continued until 570 A. D.
 Kaleb was succeeded by his son Gabra Masqal (535-48) who built church at Zur Amba in Gayint. It was
during Gabra Maskal that Yared developed Ethiopian Orthodox Church liturgical songs and hymns.

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 The Aksumite state had begun to decline since the late seventh century because of internal and external
challenges.
i. Internally:
 Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural productivity and possibly plague
infestation started to weaken it.
 Internal challenges by local rebellions like the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al
Hamwiyah (Yodit).
ii. Externally:
 The destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702. Consequently, the Aksumite
state declined economically. This naturally led to the decline of its political and military
power not only on the Red Sea coast.

 Aksumite civilization had a profound impact upon the peoples of the Horn of Africa and beyond, and on
its successors i.e. the Zagwe, ‘Solomonic Dynasty’, the Gondarine period etc. For example:
 Some of its achievements include Sub-Saharan Africa’s only surviving indigenous script and
calendar as well as EOC hymns and chants, paintings etc.
 Diversified ceramic and lithic tools, ivory curving, and urbanization and sophisticated building
traditions (palaces, stele, rock-hewn churches…).
 It also developed complex administrative and governance system, and agricultural system
including irrigation etc.

D. Zagwe Dynasty (c.1150 -1270)

 After its decline, center of Aksum shifted southwards to Kubar rural highland in territory of Agaw
 Agaw elites got the chance to take part in Aksumite state structure as soldiers and functionaries for at least 4
centuries.
 Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot married Masobe Worq,daughter of last Aksumite king Dil Na'od.
 Later he overthrew his father-in-law and took control of power.
 His successors include Yimirahana Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab, Yetbarek etc.
 Notwithstanding the debates, the Zagwe Dynasty is believed to have ruled from C. 1150 to 1270.
 The Dynasty made its center in Bugna District within Wag and Lasta, more exactly at Adafa near Roha
(Lalibela).
 Territory of Zagwe kingdom extended from most of highland provinces of ancient Aksumite kingdom in north to
northern Shewa; Lake Tana region and northern part of what is today Gojjam in west.
 Agaw maintained ancient Aksumite traditions almost intact.
 Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with eastern Mediterranean region.
 Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's paintings and translation of some of religious works from Arabic into
Ge'ez.
 Zagwe rulers are best known for construction of cave, semi-hewn and monolithic churches:
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 1. Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar with natural cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel.
2. Semi-hewn: with detailed interior decoration and partial decoration outside.
They are not totally separated from surrounding rock.
Their roofs or walls are still attached to rock, eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete
Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el- Rufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos.
3. Monolithic: with detailed decoration in interior and exterior parts.
 They are completely separated (carved out) from surrounding rock, eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete
Mariyam and Bete Medhanialem.
 Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all and Bete Giyorgis is said to be
most finely built in shape of cross.
 Lalibela wanted to establish second Jerusalem, and mitigate or even avoid difficulties, which Ethiopian
Christians encountered in journey to Holy Lands at least once in their lifetime.
 This was done by constructing churches based on the model of Holy Lands in Israel.
o Zagwe Dynasty came to end due to internal problems of royal succession and oppositions from groups
claiming descent from ancient rulers of Aksum.
o The latter considered Zagwe kings “illegitimate rulers” based on the legend of the Queen of Sheba, w/c in turn
based on a book called Kebra-Negest (Glory of Kings).
o Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent from last Aksumite king Dilna’od, organized his forces and
killed last king of Zagwe, Yetbarek in battle, in Gaynt.
o Yekuno-Amlak took state power contending the “restoration” of “Solomonic” Dynasty.
3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States
3.2.2.1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat
A. Bizamo: on Srn bend of Abay River and founded in 8th c and had early connections with Damot.
B. Damot: was strong that expanded into most of south of Abay and north of Lake Turkana as well as west of
Awash and east of Didessa.
 Motalami was a prominent king of Damot in the thirteenth century.
C. Enarya: was a kingdom in Gibe region in SW Ethiopia.
 The royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso).
 Enarya's kingship was a divine one: the king (Hinnare- Tato) was secluded .
 He communicated people via intermediary, AfeBusho.
 The real power rested with Mikretcho (council) including Awa-rasha (king's spokesman) and Atche-rasha
(royal treasurer).
 Kings had residences in Yadare and Gowi.
 In 9th c, Aksumite king Digna-Jan is said to have led a campaign into Enarya accompanied by Tabot.
D. Gafat: historically, territory of Gafat lies south of Abay River adjoining Damot on SWrn periphery of the
Christian Kingdom.
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  It was inhabited by Semitic speaking like Harari and Gurage.
 It is not clear from available records whether the Gafat formed a “state” or not
 Gafat largely refused Christian evangelists, but as early medieval period, Gafat was paying tribute to
Christian state from districts like Gambo and Shat are Gafat.
 The province was ruled by the title of Awalamo .
3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates
Since 8th c, viable Muslim communities and states formed at many areas mainly along main trade routes from
Zeila and its many branches penetrating the interior.
These states include:
A. Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, a decent from Meca, set up Makhzumite Sultanate in 896
A. D (283 A.H.) on NErn foothill of Shewa.
B. Fatagar: Founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in 11th C.
 It was a hilly lowland area with cultivated fields of wheat and barley, fruits,
and grazing full of herds of cattle, sheep and goats.
C. Dawaro: South of Fatagar b/n upper waters of Awash and Wabi- Shebelle extending to Charchar
in NE and Gindhir in SE.
 We have valuable information on Dawaro by an Egyptian courtier Ibn Fad Allah el-umari.
 It was much smaller than Ifat, but resembled it.
 Dawaro had a currency called hakuna.
D. Bali: Extensive and occupied high plateau, separating basins of Shebelle and Rift valley Lakes.
 Was split from Dawwaro by Wabi-Shebelle and extended southwards to Gannale Dirre River.
 Trade was mainly based on barter exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth etc.
 It had strong army composed of cavalry and infantry.
A. Ifat: In adjacent to Shewan Sultanate whose territory ran from NE-SWrly in Afar plain eastward to Awash. -It
formed by Umar Walasma, a decent from Hashamite clan and came from Arabia b/n 1271 and 1285.
-He annexed sultanate of Shewa. T
-The sultanate was fertile and well watered known for cultivation
F. Others: mutually independent states like Arababani (b/n Hadiya and Dawwaro), Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro
and Bali), Fadise, Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah (West of Dawaro and North of Bali in Arsi) and
Sim
3.3. External Contacts
 Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt since at least 3,000 B. C.
 It had also r/n with South Arabian Kingdoms from 1,000 B.C.
 Following Christianity, Aksum established close relationship with East Roman having Red sea trade in common
against their rival Persians.

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  In 7th c this r/n began to deteriorate and rapid expansion of Muslim Arabs Aksum’ land routes and shipping lines
declined.
 Egyptian Muslim rulers used consecration and sending of a bishop to further their own foreign policy objectives
on Nile.
 But, Mamluk rulers persecuted the religious minorities in Egypt and put a barrier to the contacts b/n Christian
Ethiopia and European states.
 To arrive at Holy places, Ethiopian Christian pilgrims used land route to Egypt and then Jerusalem.
 Ethiopians in d/t Monasteries of the world met Christians of Europe in the Holy places and transmitted information
about EOC and its exceptional liturgical practices as well as territory of Christian Kingdom.
 Europeans began to consider Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as a very powerful and wealthy state existing in
the Horn of Africa.
 They approved a myth during Crusade in middle of the 12 th c, about a very rich and powerful Christian ruler
known as Prester John whose location had been unknown for a century.
 Then, they began to search for location of Kingdom and to make alliance with it against their opponents.
3.4. Economic Formations
A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System
 The main stay of ancient states' economy in highland areas was plough agriculture.
 Irrigation also contributed to growth of agricultural production.
 Soil fertility enhancement strategies like manuring, compost and spreading residues’ ashes as well as fallowing,
crop rotation, intercropping and contour plowing.
 In times of labor shortage, farmers also developed teamwork.
 Rules according to w/h society hold, share and use land constitute what is known as land tenure system.
 The most ancient system of land holding which survived in the region is communal land tenure system.
 Communal right to land is a group right by family, clan and other lineage groups to w/c individual belonged.
 Peasants in north had rist rights in their respective areas w/c is communal birthright to land of their ancestors
by members of the families and clans.
 The rist owners were known as bale-rist.
 Tribute was collected by state officials who given gult right over areas and populations they administered on behalf
of central government.
 Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce.
 The tribute collected by bale-gults, partly allotted for their own up keep and the rest sent to imperial center.
 Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult as famous well- placed officials used to transfer their
position to their offspring.
B. Handicraft
 Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since the ancient period.

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 The social, economic and political conditions of ancient states had allowed emergence of artisans including metal
work, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry, weaving, jewellery, basketry and others.
 However, except carpenters and masons in some cases, artisans were despised and marginalized.
 The ruling classes mostly spent their wealth on imported luxurious items not, domestic technology.
 The general public attitude towards artisans was not at all encouraging.
 Thus, locally produced agricultural tools and house furniture did not show any significant improvement and
sophistication.
C. Trade
Trade was another important economic activity of ancient states and centers
The region was crisscrossed by various trade routes connecting various local markets and international trade centers.
The state was protect trade routes to make them safe from robbers.
3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements
A. Architecture
 As states expanded, architecture also began to flourish and one of the unique architectural technologies was the
engraving of stele around 3rd c AD.
 There were 58 steles in and around Aksum that can be grouped into well made and decorated, half completed and
megaliths (not hewn).
 As local tradition says, steles were engraved specifically at Gobodara from which they were transported and
planted in Aksum.
 The longest one of these stele measures 33meters heights (first in the world).
 It is highly decorated in all of its four sides.
 It represents a-14 storied building with many windows and a false door at the bottom.
 It also bears pre-Christian symbols, which are a disc and a crescent (half moon) at the top.
 It was broken either while people erect or during war.
 The second longest obelisk measures 24 meters height and represents a ten- storied building with many windows
and a false door at the bottom.
 The third longest stele measures 21 meters and represents a nine-storied building with many windows and a false
door at the bottom. It is smooth at the back of its side. It is without any decoration.
 The Zagwe construction and decoration of rockhewn churches are some of finest architecture of artistic
achievements of the Christian world registered by UNESCO in 1978, two years before Aksumite stele.
B. Writing System
 Sabean language had an alphabet with boustrophedon writing type that is paleographical writing from left to right
and right to left alternatively.
 The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia date to 9th BC.
 One peculiar feature of Sabean inscriptions is absence of vowels as most of words are written in consonants. For
instance, Da’amat was described as D’mt

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 After 7th and 6th c BC, however, variants of script arose, evolving in direction of Geʽez script mainly on rocks and
caves.
 By 1st c AD, "Geʽez alphabet" arose, an abjad (26 consonant letters only) written left-to-right with letters identical
to the first-order forms of modern vocalized alphabet.
 Though 1st completely vocalized texts known are inscriptions by Ezana (who left inscriptions in Greek,
Sabean and Ge'ez) c. 330 AD, vocalized letters predate him by some years, as vocalized letter exists in Wazeba’s
coin some 30 or more.
 The process developed under influence of Christian scripture by adding vocalic diacritics for vowels, u, i, a, e, ə, o,
to the consonantal letters in a recognizable but slightly irregular (a syllabary).
 Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system has immense contribution to dev’t of literature, art and writing of
history.
C. Calendar
To understand climatic cycles, calendars were invented.
Length of month based on mov’t of moon or apparent mov’t of sun.
 Oromo calendar has been based on astronomical observations of moon in conjunction with 7 or 8 particular stars
or group of stars called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars) and Bakkalcha (morning star).
 There are 29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in 12 months of a year.
 Pillars (dated 300 B.C.), which were discovered in NW Kenya from 1978-86 by Archaeologists Lynch, Robbins
and Doyl have suggested to represent site used to develop Oromo calendar.
 In connection with this, c. 900 A. D. Oromo person Waqlim is said to have taken art of shaping phallic bowls to
Zimbabwe.
 Sidama calendar rotates following movements of stars with 13 months a year,12 of which are divided equally
into 28 days while 13th month has 29 days.
 Sidama week has 4 days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and Qawalanka) and each month has7 weeks.
 Nominated Mote (King) is presented to Fiche Chambalala, New Year ritual, for Qetela or popular demonstration.
 Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (is added every 4 years) Epagomenal days, which
comprise a thirteenth month.
 Thus, 1st day of the year, 1 Meskerem/Enkutatash is usually September 11 (Gregorian).
 However, it falls on September 12 in years before Gregorian leap year.
 Ethiopic solar calendar has evolved to become official calendar of country.
Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 or 355 days.
It employs Hijra year of 622 AD, flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina and formed first Muslim community
(ummah).
Dates in this era are usually denoted AH (After Hijra, "in the year of Hijra").
Years prior to Hijra are reckoned as BH ("Before the Hijra").
 Peoples like Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta, Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have their own dating system.

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D. Numerals
 Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and Horn at beginning of 4 th AD.
 Geʽez uses numeral system comparable to Hebrew, Arabic and Greek numerals, but it lacks individual
characters for multiples of 100.
 Numbers are over- and underlined in proper typesetting, combined to make a single bar, but some less sophisticated
fonts cannot render this and show separate bars above and below each character.

Unit Four
Politics , Economy and from the late 13th c to the beginning of 16 th c

 This peiod experienced dynamic Political,economic, and scio- cultural developments in Ethiopia.

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 Restoration of Solomonic daynasty
 The rulers of “Solomonic” dynasty claimed that they were legtemate rulers of Ethiopia descended from
last king of Aksum.
- Were to take over power from “illegitimate” rulers Zagwe dynasty.
- Their legitimacy was written in Kibre negest.
- It is legendary that associate Ethiopia with Judo Christian tradition.

4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion and Religious Processes

4.2.1. Succession Problem and the Establishment of a ‘Royal Prison’ of Amba Gishen

 Following the end of Yikuno Amlak 1285 political instability caused by poer struggle among his sons
and his grand sons.
- This struggle was intensified during the reign of Yegba –Tsion’s 5 sons who reigned from
1294to1299.
- It seems to be resolved in1300 during the reign of Widim Ra’ad (1299-1314) following the
establishment of Royal prioson , at Amba Gishen.
- This prison continued until Amba Gishen destroyed by Ahimed gragn in 1540.

4.2.2. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the Christian Kingdom

 From 1270- 1636, until the establishment of Gondar medieval monarchs had no permanent
Capital.
 Initially, the center of the “restored” dynasty was in medieval Amhara (today’s South Wollo) around Lake Haiq.
 However, it gradually shifted southward to the districts of Menz, Tegulet, Bulga, and finally to the regions
dominated by the great height of the Yerer, Entoto, Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi and Zequalla mountains.
 Yikuno Amlak embarked on consolidating his authority:
- He subdeud Ifat, musilim center adjusent to Shewa.
- Until coming of AMade Tsion 1314-44 territorial limit of Chgdm was limited to
 Present day Tigray
 Lasta, Medieval Amhara
 Shewa.
 Amde Tsion(1314-44):
- Was the first “Solomonic” king who embarked policy of wider and rapid territorial expansion.
- His motive of expansion was mainly Political and economic.
- During him Christian kingdom controlled extensive territories.
- His period also witnessed expansion of trade.
 In the process of Consolidating his power Amde Tsion:
 Subdeud rebellions in attempt to end centrifugal tendencies.
 Expanded his territory into:
- Agaw(Awi) of Gojjam c.1323/4
- Bizamo and Damot in 1316/7.
- Bete Israel(located b/n Dambiya and Tekeze river) c. 1332.
- The read sea coast.
- south east Musilm sultanets
- In south Gurage speaking area and few omotic kingdoms like wolayta and Gamo

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 - In early 1330’s fully controlled trade routes and sources of trade in the Ethiopian
region.
 Amde Tsion faced stiff restance from among Ifat and Shewa
 To overcome the problem of resistance he:
 gave Enderta(northern Tigray) to his wife Bilen Saba.
 Made his son the governor of Tigray
 Appointed governor on Eritrea with the title Ma’ekale Bahir which latter changed
in to Bahire –Negash.

4.2.3. Evangelization, Religious Movements, and Religious Reforms of Zara-Yaqob

I. Evangelization

 Christianty expanded and had many believers before the expansion of Christian kingdom.
 Those early Christians played a role in the spread of Christianity in many areas
 The territorial expansion by Amde –Tsion set additional momentum for the spread of Christianity.
 Aune Tekle Haymanot:- Played a key role in the revival of Christianity in Shewa.
-He converted Motalami to Christianity.
 The clergy unerthe direction of bishop in Ethiopia , Yaqob spread Christianity in to different parts of
Shewa.
II. Religious Movements
A. The Ewostatewos Movement
 In the period of mid 13thc:
 Monasticism became a dominant practice in Ethiopian Orthodox Chrch.
 Witnessed developments of monasticism and religious movements.
 Ewostatewos movement:- named after its founder, Ewostatewos:
- He established his own Monastic Community in Sara’e( in present day Ertrea)
- Among his teachings one was .strict observance of Sabbath .
- thought joined by many students until 1337.
- fled to Egypt due to opposition from religious rival groups.
- Faced the same opposition in cairo from Ethiopian pilgrims.
- The movement was weakened after he left Ethiopia.
- But it revived after his followers returned home from Armenia such as: Bekimos,Merkoryewos and
Gebre Iyasus.
 Then the movement became active and spread to areas like Enfranz, northern Tigray and Hamessen.
 Anti Ewostatewos group led by Abbot of Hayq Monastry called Aqabe Se’at Setreqe Birhan who was
supported by Abun and monarch.
 Some of the Ewostatians were forced to withdrew and settele in peripherial areas, some other continued
their movement in monasteries like Debre Bizen, Debre San etc.
B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosi
 The Estifanisites:
 Named after their founder and spiritual leader abba Estifanos.
 Were dominant 15thc-16thc .
 Established riged monastic organization
 Initially the leader convinced the emperor(probably Takla Mariyam 1430-33)

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  But collide with Zara yaqob b/c he rejected supremacy & authority on spiritual matters.
 Zara Yaqob took very harsh measures against Estifanosites because of their opposition of the
veneration of St. Mary.
III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob
 Emperor Zara Yaqob( 1434 -1468) took several measures to stabilize and consolidate the Orthodox
Church. Some of his reforms were:
 He settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy.
 He made peace with house of Ewosttatewos
 Arged the cleargy to preach Christianity in remote areas.
 Ordered people to observe fasting on Wednesday and Friday and get father Confessors.
 He brought revival of religious literature by encouraging the establishment of library in every
Church.
 In the revival of R. literature Zara Yaqob wrote books like:
 Metsafe Birhan
 Metsafe Me’lad
 Metsafe Sillasie
 Metsafe Te’aqebo and Mister & etc.

4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim Sultanates

 A number of strong Muslim sultanates had emerged since 14 Th C.

 During this time trade was:
 One of the major factor for the rise and dev’ts of those states.
 Served not only as a major source of livelihood but also a major source of Conflict b/n Muslim sultanates
and Christian kingdom.
 One of the strong state emerged along trade routes and become a center of resistance of resitance until second half
of 16thc. Was sultanate of dal.

4.3.1. The Rise of Adal

 After its establishment , Ifat:
 Conducted a serious of Campaigns against its neighbouring sultanates & extended its hegemony over the
area.
 Resisted The expansion of Christian kingdom.
 One branch of Walasma dynasty moved to southeaster low lands and eastablished Sultanate of Adal in highland
district aroud Harar in 1367.
 Consolidated their power and began another face of Millitary campaign against Christian kingdom.
 Their first center was at Dakar, located at south east of Harar.
 Its center Changed to city of Harar in 1520.
 The Oromos forced them to change their center to Awsa in 1576/7., present day Afar.
4.3.2. Trade and the Expansion of Islam
 Islam spread to centeral and southwestern Parts of Ethiopia by muslim merchants and preachers.
 The most known muslim sultanates during this period were
 Ifat (1285 -1415)
 Adal (1415- 1577)
 The main trade outlet were:

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  Zeila in the east
 Old city states like Mogadishu, Brava and Merca ports for the hinterland.
 Massawa in the north east.

4.4. Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates

 Causes of the conflict :

- Was to control Zeila and commodities passed through it.
 The first conflict was b/n Ifat and ChHK which took palce in 1328.
- It was when Haqaddin I stopped Merchants of Amde –Tsion by confisicating goods, capturing and
imprisoning king’s agent.
 These actions led them to confrontation in which Haqadin was defeated and imprisoned and replaced by
his brother Sabardin.
 During Sabardin:
- both Ifat and fategar came under him
- Sultanets of hadiya and Dawaro made alliance with him.
 Yet Sabardin was defeated and captured. As aresult:
- Ifat, fatagar and Dawaro were incorporated and forced to pay tribute.
- Musilm sultanate like Sharka, Harar, Dara and Arbabani were weakened following decline of Ifat.
 Among various sultans of Muslim sultanates Emir Mahfuz made effective campaign to high lands.who
was died fighting against Libene-Dengel(1508 -40)
 He was succeeded by his son in low Imam Ibin, Ibrahim algaz., Ahmed Gragn.
 Trade had long been source of friendship, interaction,interdependence and conflict among these states.
 The difference in ecology b/n the two created economic interdependence.

4.5. External Relations

4.5.1.Relations with Egypt

 From 13th onwards :

- Christian Kingdom continued to maintain relations with Egypt.
- Yekuno- Amlak was requesting for Abun from Coptic Church.
- Both Egypt and Ethiopia were acting as protectors of Religoius minorities in their respective domains.
- Egypt wanted to secure source of Nile river..
 The relation b/n the two was smooth at one time and rough at another timedepending on different factors.
 4.5.2. Relations with Christian Europe
 As with Muslim Arab world , The Christian kingdom Maintained relations with Christian Eroupe.
 During the medival period contacts b/n the two regions were strongly attached by the legend of “ Prester John of
Indies”
 The first known Message to Ethiopia from Eroupean Monarch is the letter from King Henry IV of England dated
1400 AD adderessed “ Prester John”
 The Europeans even thought that it was possible to liberate Jerusalem with the help of this king.
 During the reign of king Dawit, the leaders of Rome, Constantinople, Syria. Armenia and Egypt Sent
letters to the king, in which they asked for support.
 King Dawit received some Italian crafts men consisting of mainly Florentine in 1402.
- Dawit sent his first delegates to Europe led by a Florentine man called Antonio Baratoli.
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 - Again Yeshaq sent delegation to ask for more Artisans and Military experts which was received by Alphonso
depaiva V in Valentia.
- In 1950 Silican Petro Rombulo who carried out successful trade mission on behalf of Dawit sent to Europe as
Zaryaqob’s ambassador accompanied by priest Fikre Mariam and 2 other individuals.
- This was to Alphonso of Argon (also king of Naples and Sicily)
- It was to get political , military and technical assistance.
- Alphonso responded Zara yaqob informing that he sent him artisans and Masons he requested.
 The most authentic evidence on Ethio- Europe links are maps of Egypt Novelo (1454) and Fra maaro’s
mappomons ( 1465) which clearly depicted places and peoples.
- Ventian Gregorio or Heironion Bicini visited Ethiopia in 1482.
- Pedro Cavilhav /peter de Cavilham arrived at the court of Eskindir (1478-1494) in 1493.
- The rivalary between Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates in the 15thC strengthened this relation ship.
- Queen Elleni (the daughter of Hadiya Garad who married to Zar yaqob played a great role in strengthening this
relation ship.

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