PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING

The National Competency Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS) is an integrated theoretical framework that defines the
different dimensions of effective teaching.

What does Competency-Based Mean?

Means that the standards or criteria for characterizing good teaching are defined in terms of the
teacher’s credential, LET scores, grades in graduate school, personality traits, and so on, we look at what
the teacher can do competently.

What are these Seven Domains?

DOMAIN 1: SOCIAL REGARD FOR LEARNING

o Acts as a positive role model for students
DOMAIN 2: LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
o Creates environment that promotes fairness
o Makes the physical environment safe and conducive to learning
o Communicates higher learning expectations to each learner
o Establishes and maintains consistent standards of learners behavior
DOMAIN 3: DIVERSITY OF LEARNERS
o Is familiar with the learner’s background knowledge and experiences
o Demonstrates concern for holistic development of learners
DOMAIN 4: CURRICULUM
o Demonstrates mastery of the subject
o Communicates clear learning goals for the lessons that are appropriate for learners.
o Make good use of allotted instructional time
o Selects teaching methods, learning activities, and instructional materials or resources
appropriate to learners and aligned to the objectives of the lesson
DOMAIN 5: PLANNING, ASSESSING, AND REPORTING
o Communicates promptly and clearly to learners, parents, and superior about the progress of
learners
o Develops and uses a variety of appropriates assessment strategies to monitor and evaluate
learning
o Monitors regularly and provides feedback on learner’s understanding of content
DOMAIN 6: COMMUNITY LINKAGES
o Establishes learning environments that respond to the aspirations of the community
DOMAIN 7: PERSONAL GROWTH AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
o Takes pride in the nobility of teaching as a profession
o Builds professional links with colleagues to enrich teaching practice
o Reflects on the extent of the attainment of learning goals

NATIONAL ADOPTION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PHILIPPINE PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS (PPST)
– (Department Order 42, s. 2017)

 The Philippine Government has consistently pursued teacher quality reforms throu8gh a number of
initiatives. As a framework of teacher quality, the National Competency-Based Teacher Standards
 (NCBTS) was institutionalized through CHED Memorandum Order No. 52, s. 2007 and DepED Order No.
32, s. 2009
 The K to 12 Reform (RA 10533) in 2013 has changed the landscape of teacher quality requirements in
the Philippines
 The reform process warrants an equivalent supportive focus on the teacher quality- high quality
teachers who are properly equipped and prepared to assume the roles and functions of a K to 12
teacher.

7 DOMAINS OF PPST

Domain 1- Content, Knowledge and Pedagogy

Domain 2- Learning Environment

Domain 3- Diversity of Learners

Domain 4- Curriculum and Planning

Domain 5- Assessment and Reporting

Domain 6- Community Linkages and Professional Engagement

Domain 7- Personal Growth and Professional Development

Note: The 7 domains collectively comprise 37 strands that refer to more specific dimensions of teaching

DOMAIN 1- CONTENT KNOWLEDGE AND PEDAGOGY is composed of seven strands:

1. Content Knowledge and its application within and across curriculum areas
2. Research- based knowledge and principles of teaching and learning
3. Positive use of ICT
4. Strategies for promoting literacy and numeracy
5. Strategies for developing critical and creative thinking, as well as other higher order thinking skills
6. Mother Tongue, Filipino and English in teaching and learning
7. Classroom communication strategies

DOMAIN 2- Learning Environment consists of six strands:

1. Learner safety and security

2. Fair learning environment
3. Management of classroom structure and activities
4. Support for learner participation
5. Promotion for purposive learning
6. Management of learner behavior

DOMAIN 3- Diversity of Learners consists of 5 strands:

1. Learner’s gender, needs, strengths, interests and experiences

2. Learner’s linguistic, cultural, socio-economic and religious backgrounds
3. Learners with disabilities, giftedness and talents
4. Learners in difficult circumstances
5. Learners from indigenous groups
DOMAIN 4- Curriculum and Planning includes 5 strands:

1. Planning and management of teaching and learning process

2. Learning outcomes aligned with learning competencies
3. Relevance and responsiveness of learning programs
4. Professional collaboration to enrich teaching practice
5. Teaching and learning resources including ICT

DOMAIN 5- Assessment and Reporting is composed of 5 strands

1. Design, selection, organization and utilization of assessment strategies

2. Monitoring and evaluation of learner progress and achievement
3. Feedback to improve learning
4. Communication of learner needs, progress and achievement to key stakeholders
5. Use of assessment data to enhance teaching and learning practices and programs

DOMAIN 6- Community Linkages and Professional Engagement consists of 4 strands:

1. Establishment of learning environments that are responsive to community contexts

2. Engagement of parents and the wider school community in the educative process
3. Professional ethics
4. School policies and procedures

DOMAIN 7- Personal Growth and Professional Development contains 5 strands:

1. Philosophy of teaching
2. Dignity of teaching as profession
3. Professional links with colleagues
4. Professional reflection and learning to improve practice
5. Professional development goals

Four Career Stages of a Teacher

 The descriptors represent a continuum of development within the profession by providing a basis for
attracting, preparing, developing and supporting teachers.

Career Stage 1 or Beginning Teachers

 Have gained the qualifications recognized for entry into the teaching profession
 They have a strong understanding of the subjects/ areas in which they are trained in terms of content
knowledge and pedagogy
 They possess the requisite knowledge, skills and values that support the teaching and learning process
 They manage learning programs and have strategies that promote learning based on the learning needs
of their students
 They seek advice from experienced colleagues to consolidate their practice teaching

Career Stage 2 or Proficient Teachers

 Are professionally independent in the application of skills vital to the teaching and learning process
 They provide focused teaching programs that meet curriculum and assessment requirements
 They display skills in planning, implementing and managing learning programs
  They actively engage in collaborative learning with the professional community and other stakeholder
for mutual growth and advancement
 They are reflective practitioners who continually consolidate the knowledge, skills and practices of
Career Stage 1 teachers.

Career Stage 3 or Highly Proficient Teachers

 Consistent display a high level of performance in their teaching practice

 They manifest an in-depth and sophisticated understanding of the teaching and learning process
 They have high- education focused situation cognition, are more adept in problem solving and optimize
opportunities gained from experience
 Teachers work collaboratively with colleagues and provide them support and mentoring to enhance
their learning and practice
 They continually seek to develop their professional knowledge and practice by reflecting on their own
needs, and those of their colleagues and students

Career Stage 4 or Distinguished Teachers

 Embody the highest standard for teaching grounded in global best practices
 Exhibit exceptional capacity to improve their own teaching practice and that of others
 Recognized as leaders in education, contributors to the profession and initiators of collaborations and
partnerships
 Create lifelong impact in the lives of colleagues, students and others
 Consistently seek professional advancement and relevance in pursuit of teaching quality and excellence
 Exhibit commitment to inspire the education community and stakeholders for the improvement of
education provision in the Philippines.

3 types of Power of a Teacher

1. Expert Power- when a teacher makes his students feel that he knows what he is talking about
2. Referent Power- giving student a sense of belonging and acceptance
3. Legitimate Power- persons in authority

Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences of Students

Learning Styles- refers to the preferred way an individual processes information. Describes a person’s typical
mode of thinking, remembering or problem solving.

PERSPECTIVES ABOUT LEANRING- THINKING STYLES

1. SENSORY PREFERENCES
2. GLOBAL – ANALYTIC CONTINUUM

SENSORY PREFERENCES

1. Visual Learners
 These learners must see their teacher’s actions and facial expressions to fully understand the
content of the lesson
 They tend to prefer sitting in front so no one would block their view.
  They may think in pictures and learn best from visual aids including: diagrams, illustrated textbooks,
overhead transparencies, videos, flipcharts, and handouts.
 During a lecture or classroom discussion, visual learners prefer to take detailed notes to absorb
information.

2 types

1. Visual-Iconic
 More interested in visual imagery such as film, graphic displays, or pictures in order to solidify learning
 Usually have good “picture memory” aka – iconic memory and attend to pictorial detail
 They would like to read a map better than to read a book.
2. Visual Symbolic
 Feel comfortable with abstract symbolism such as mathematical formulae or the written word
 Prefer to read a book then a map
 Read about things than hear about them
 Tend to be a good abstract thinkers who do not require practical means for learning

2, Auditory Learners-

 Learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through, listening to what other have to
say
 Interpret the underlying meanings of speech through listening to the tone of voice, speed and other
nuances
 Written information may have little meaning until it is heard
 Often benefit from reading text aloud and using a tape recorder
2 types:
2.1 Listeners
 They remember things said to them and make information their own
 They even carry on mental conversations and figure out how to extend what they learned by
reviewing in their heads what they heard other says.
2.2 Talkers
 Prefer to talk and discuss
 Find themselves talking to those around them
 In a class setting, when the instructor is not asking questions, auditory- verbal processors
(talkers) tend to whisper comments to themselves
3. Tactile Learners- learns through touch

GLOBAL-ANALYTIC CONTINUUM

ANALYTIC

 Tend toward the linear, step by step processing of learning

 Tend to see finite elements of patterns rather than the whole
 They are the “tree seers”
 More comfortable in a word of details and hierarchies of information

GLOBAL

 Lean towards non-linear thought

  Tend to see the whole pattern rather than particle elements
 They are “forest-seekers” who give attention only to overall structure and sometimes ignore details

Roger’s Sperry’s Model

1. Left-brained dominant individual

 Portrayed as linear , verbal, mathematical thinker
 Analytic in approach
 A successive processor (left brain) prefers to learn in a step by step sequential format, beginning
with details leading to a conceptual understanding of a skill.
 Successive Hemispheric Style
 Verbal
 Responds to word meaning
 Sequential
 Processes information linearly
 Responds to logic
 Plans ahead
 Recalls people’s name
 Speaks with few gestures
 Punctual
 Prefers formal study design
 Prefers bright lights while studying
2. Right-brained dominant individual
 Viewed as global, non-linear and holistic in thought preferences
 Holistic or global in approach
 A simultaneous processor prefers to learn beginning with a general concept and then going to
specifics
 Simultaneous Hemispheric Style
 Visual
 Responds to tome of voice
 Random
 Processes information in varied order
 Responds to emotion
 Impulsive
 Recalls people’s faces
 Gestures when speaking
 Less punctual
 Prefers sound/music background while studying

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES- created by Howard Gardner

A theory of “multiple intelligence,” suggesting abilities seem to cluster in different areas:

 Verbal-Linguistic Skills
 Logical-Mathematical Skills
 Bodily-kinesthetic skills
 Visual-Spatial Skills
 Interpersonal Abilities
  Intrapersonal abilities
 Musical abilities
 Naturalistic Abilities
 Existential Abilities

Differentiated Instruction (DI) is a teaching theory based on the premise that instructional approaches should vary and
be adapted in relation to individual and diverse students in classrooms.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

1. Learning is an experience which occurs inside the learner and is activated by the learner
2. Learning is the discovery of the personal meaning and relevance of ideas
3. Learning is a consequence of experience
4. Learning is a cooperative and collaborative
5. Learning is an evolutionary process
6. Learning is sometimes painful process
7. One of the richest resources for learning is the learner himself
8. The process of learning is emotional as well as intellectual
9. The process of problem solving and learning are highly unique ad individual

Laws of Learning

1. Law of Freedom- things freely learned are best learned

2. Law of Intensity- the more intense the material taught, the more it is likely learned
3. Law of Recency- things most recently learned are best remembered
4. Law of Primacy- things learned first create a strong impression. What is taught must be right the first time
5. Law of Readiness- individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn,
and they do learn well if they see no reason for learning
6. Law of Exercise- things most often repeated are best remembered
7. Law of Effect- learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling

Guiding Principles in Determining and Formulating Learning Objectives

 Begin with an end in mind

 Share lesson objective with students
 Learning objectives must be in two or three domains- cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains
 Lesson objective must be aligned with the aims of education embodied in the Philippine Constitution and other
laws and on the vision, mission statements of the educational institution
 Aim at the development of critical and creative thinking
 For accountability of learning, lesson objectives must be SMART

Taxonomy of Objectives

S- specific

M- measurable

A- Attainable

R- Relevant/ Result oriented

T- time-bounded/ Terminal

BLOOM’S REVISED TAXONOMY

Remembering

The student can recall, define, recognize or identify specific information during instruction. Knowledge
of terminology and conventions, trends and sequences, classification, categories, criteria and
methodologies.

Ex. Identify the capital of the Philippines

Understanding

The student can demonstrate understanding of information by translating it into different form or by
recognizing it in translated form
Ex. Giving definition in his or her own words, summarizing, giving an original example, recognizing an
example, interpreting, explaining, etc.
Ex. Interpret a table showing the population density of the world.

Applying

The student can apply the information in performing concrete actions. These actions may involve
figuring, writing, reading, handling equipment, implementing, carrying out, executing, using, etc.
Use of abstractions in particular situations
Ex. Predict the probable effect of a change in temperature on a chemical

Analyzing

The student can recognize the organization and structure of a body information, break this information
down its constituent parts and specify relationships between these parts
Comparing, organizing, deconstructing, interrogating, finding
o Example: deduce facts from hypothesis

Evaluating

Student can apply a standard in making judgment on the worth of something- an essay, action or design
Judging in terms of internal evidence or logical consistency
Justifying a decision or course of action
Ex: checking, hypothesizing, critiquing, experimenting, judging
Ex. Recognize fallacies in an argument

Creating

Putting parts together in a new form such as unique communication, a plan of operation
Student can bring information from various sources to create a product uniquely his or her own
Generating new ideas, products or ways of viewing things
Ex. Designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing
Ex. To produce an original piece of art
K TO 12: ASSESSING LEARNING IN DIFFERENT LEVELS

 The outcomes of the K to 12 curriculum are spelled out in terms of Standards and Competencies

2 standards

1. Content Standards- state what the learners should know and be able to do after the teaching-learning
process
2. Performance Standards- are what learners are able to do with what they know.
These standards are made more specific in the COMPETENCIES.

COMPETENCIES- are the specific knowledge, skills, and values and attitudes that leaners are supposed to demonstrate
after a teaching learning process.

The K to 12 Curriculum is said to prepare the learner in the 21 st century

 21st Century Skills in the k to 12

1. Life and Career Skills
2. Information, media and technology skills
3. Learning and innovation skills
- Involves critical thinking, communication skills, collaboration skills and creativity
to prepare the learner for the 21 st century, then the teaching and learning process in the K to 12 curriculum
ought to GO BEYOND SIMPLE RECALL AND COMPREHENSION
It should reach the level of applying, analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing which are basic to the
development of 21st century skills

BLOOM’S 3 DOMAINS OF KNOWLEDGE

1. Cognitive- knowledge- What will students know? Ex: Air Pollution

2. Psychomotor – skills- What will students be able to do? Ex: Researching on the level of pollution in the
locality and on the causes of air pollution
3. Affective- values, attitudes- What will students value or care about?

KENDALL AND MARZANO’S (2007)

3 DOMAINS OF KNOWLEDGE

1. Information (Declarative Knowledge)- this is declarative knowledge. Ex: facts, concepts, generalizations,
principles and laws.

Ex: Information

a. Vocabulary- isosceles, equilateral, right triangle

b. Generalization- All right triangles have one angle of 90 degrees.
2. Mental Procedures – This is PROCEDURAL Knowledge. Ex: writing a term paper, reading amp, algorithms like
computing long division
3. Psychomotor/ Physical Procedures (motor skills)- Ex: constructing a right triangle with a compass and a ruler.
Playing basketball, building furniture
 These 3 domains are processed in 6 different levels:
6 LEVELS OF KNOWLEDGE
1. Retrieval (Cognitive System)
2. Comprehension (Cognitive system)
3. Analysis ( Cognitive System)
4. Knowledge Utilization ( Cognitive System)
5. Metacognitive system
6. Self-system

RA 10533, the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013 states:

“The Curriculum shall use pedagogical approaches that are constructivist, inquiry-based, reflective, collaborative
and integrative…” It shall be learner-centered, inclusive, and developmentally appropriate.

Teaching Approaches of Subjects in the K to 12

1. Learner-centered- learners- primary consideration

2. Inclusive- No exclusivity, teacher taught everybody
3. Developmentally appropriate- within their developmental stage and learning activities fit the
developmental stage of children
4. Relevant and Responsive
a. Relevant- answer their questions and concerns no to mile-wide inch-deep understanding
b. Responsive- making teaching meaningful to student’s daily experiences.
5. Research Based- interesting, updated, convincing and persuasive
6. Culture Sensitive- Mindful of the diversity of learners because all learners are unique.
7. Contextualized and Global
8. Constructivist- building upon prior knowledge; leaners constructed new lesson meanings
9. Inquiry-based- student –centered generated questions- core of the learning process
10. Integrative- lesson was multidisciplinary
a. Interdisciplinary- separate subject brought together. Ex: Math in Ap and Science
b. Trans disciplinary- real-life
11. Mother tongue Based- language of instruction from K to Grade 3 is mother tongue

DAVID KRATHWOL’S AFFECTIVE DOMAIN

RECEIVING
 The student shows willingness to attend in particular classroom stimuli or phenomenon
in the environment
 Ex: to listen attentively to group discussion
RESPONDING
 The student is required active participation based on the stimuli
 Ex: to contribute to group discussion by asking questions
VALUING
 The student displays definite involvement or commitment toward some experience
 Ex: to argue over an issue involving health care
 To support, to debate, etc.
ORGANIZATION
  The student has integrated a new value into his general set of values and can give it its
proper place in a priority system
 Ex: to discuss, theorize, formulate, balance and to examine
 Ex: to organize a meeting concerning a neighborhood’s housing integration
CHARACTERIZATION
 The student acts consistently according to the value and is firmly committed to
experience
 Ex: to display a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis

ANITA HARLOW’S PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

 Reflex Movements
o Students actions can occur involuntarily in response to some stimuli
o Ex: includes flexion, extension, stretch, postural adjustments
 Basic Fundamental Movement
o Students have innate pattern formed from a combination of reflex movement
o Ex: walking, running, pushing, twisting, gripping, grasping, manipulating
 Perceptual activities
o Students can translate stimulus received through senses into appropriate desired
movements
o Ex: coordinated movements such as jumping rope, punting, or catching
 Physical Activities
o Students have developed basic movements that are essential to the development of
more highly skilled movements
o Ex: all activities which requires strenuous efforts for long period of tie, muscular
exertion, quick wide range of motion at the hip joints and quick precise movements
 Skilled Movements
o Students have developed more complex movements requiring a certain degree of
efficiency
o Ex: all skilled activities obvious in sports, recreation and dance
 Non-discursive communication
o Students have the ability to communicate through body movements
o Ex: body postures, gestures, and facial expressions efficiently executed in skilled dance
movements and choreographies

MOORE’S 3 LEVELS OF LEARNING PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

1. IMITATION- entry level

a. a student can carry out the rudiments of the skills with the instructional support from the teacher
2. MANIPULATION
a. Students perform skills independently
3. PRECISION- HIGHEST LEVEL
a. Students can perform the skill accurately, efficiently and effortlessly
b. Automaticity- ability to perform a skills with unconscious effort which then frees the student to
concentrate on other activities
How to Write Lesson Objectives

Objectives:

 Are outcome rather than instructional process

 Are measurable outcomes statements
 If an outcome statements isn’t precise enough to measure whether the outcome has been achieved, it
isn’t an objective. It is a GOAL.

MAGER’S THREE MAIN COMPONENTS OF AN EFFECTIVE OBJECTIVE:

1. Performance
 What the student should be able to do
 Ex: identify, compute
2. Condition
 The conditions under which the performance will occur
3. Acceptable Performance/ criterion of Success
 The criteria by which the performance will be judged

Examples:

1. In an hour and given a light microscope, the teacher is able to demonstrate how to focus the microscope
under the LPO and HPO
2. Given a list of universities in the city, identify at least 3 which are government supported
3. Using the six descriptions of the elements of a good short story, identify in writing the six elements in the
short story by O’ HENRY, with complete accuracy.

Content Standards

 Define students what should know and be able to do

 These are benchmarks which identify the expected understandings and skills for a content standards at
different grade levels
 Ex: the learner demonstrates understanding of the importance of good eating habits.

Performance Standards

 Describe how well students need to achieve in order to meet content standards; the proficiency level which
the students are expected to demonstrate what they know and what they are able to do.
 Ex: the learner observes healthy eating habits

Competencies

 More specific versions of the standards; are specific tasks performed with mastery

Selection & Organization of content

 Our leaders in the basic education level came up with Philippine elementary Learning Competencies
(PECLs) and Philippine Secondary Learning Competencies (PSCLs) – this is where standards and
competencies are laid down.
GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN THE SELECTION AND ORGANIZATION OF CONTENT

1. Observe the following qualities:

 Validity- means teaching the content we ought to teach according to the national standards in the Basic
Education Curriculum
 Significance- the content we teach should respond to the needs and interest of the learners
 Balance- content includes not only facts but also concepts and values
 Self- sufficiency- content should cover the essentials of the lesson and a “ mile-wide and an inch-deep”
 Guiding Principles in the Selection and Organization of content
 Interest- the teacher considers the interest of the leaners, their developmental stages, and cultural and
ethnic background
 Utility- refers to the usefulness/ application of the content to the life of the leaner after it has been
learned by the learner
 Feasibility- the content can be covered in the amount of time available for instruction
2. At the base of the structure of cognitive subject matter content is facts.
 Provide opportunities for experimentation
 Let students present the ideas of others
 Emphasize conceptual understanding
3. Subject matter content is an integration of cognitive, skills and affective elements

Structure or Subject Matter Content

1. Cognitive – facts, concepts, principles hypotheses, theories

2. Skills- manipulative skills, thinking skills, metaphoric thinking, critical thinking and creative thinking
3. Attitudes and values

Cognitive

1. Facts- is an idea or action that can be verified; basic unit of cognitive subject matter content
2. Concept- categorization of events, places, people ideas
3. Principle- relationship between and among facts and concepts
4. Hypotheses- educated guesses about relationships
5. Theories- refer to sets of facts, concepts, and principles that describes possible underlying unobservable
mechanisms that regulate human learning, development and behavior

Skills

1. Manipulative Skill
 This includes courses that are dominantly skilled oriented like Home Economics, PE and the like.
Learning begins with naïve manipulation and ends up in expert and precise manipulation.
2. Thinking Skills
 Divergent Thinking
i. Includes fluent thinking , flexible thinking, original thinking and elaborative thinking
ii. Fluent thinking- characterized by generation of lots of ideas
iii. Flexible thinking- characterized by variety of thoughts in kinds of ideas generated
iv. Elaborative Thinking- uses prior knowledge top expand and add upon things and ideas
 Convergent Thinking- have one single best thought
 Problem Solving
i. Algorithm- uses step by step instruction
 ii. Heuristic- uses general problem solving strategy
3. Metaphoric Thinking- uses analogic thinking, figure of speech where a word is used in a manner different from
its ordinary designation to suggest parallelism or similarity
4. Critical Thinking- involves evaluating information or arguments in terms of their accuracy and worth
5. Creative Thinking- involves producing something that is both original and worthwhile
 What creative thinking behaviors should be developed?
 Awareness
 Curiosity
 Imagination- ability to speculate about things that are not necessarily based on reality
 Fluency- ability to produce a large quantity of ideas
 Elaboration- ability to add on to an idea; build groups of related ideas or expand ideas
 Perseverance
 Originality

Guiding Principles in the S3election and use of Teaching Strategies

1. Learning is an active process

2. The more senses that are involved in learning the better the learning
3. Emotion has the power to increase retention and learning
4. Learning is meaningful when it is connected with the student’s everyday life
5. Good teaching goes beyond recall of information
6. An integrated approach is far more effective than teaching isolated bits of information.

EFFECTIVE QUESTIONING AND REACTING TECHNIQUES

Time tested Principles of Learning

1. Effective Learning starts with questions, not answers.

2. Interactive teaching is made possible with teacher’s effective questioning and reacting techniques
3. Questioning enables teachers to check learners understanding. It also benefits leaners as it encourages
engagement and focuses their thinking on key concepts and ideas

TYPES OF QUESTIONS THAT TEACHER ASKS

1. Factual/convergent/closed/low level
 Who, what, where, when questions that have ONE acceptable answer
2. Divergent/ Open-ended/ High Level/ Higher Order/ Conceptual
 Open-ended; has more than on acceptable answer
3. Affective
 Ex: how do you feel?

QUESTIONING BEHAVIOR OF TEACHERS

1. Varying Type of questions

2. Asking non-directed questions (ask the question first before calling the student to answer)
3. Calling on non-volunteers
4. Prompting by rephrasing or by providing partial answers
5. Probing ( seeking more details for clarification)
6. Requiring abstract thinking (not just simple recall but reuire HOTS)
 7. Asking open-ended questions (divergent)
8. Allowing sufficient WAIT TIME
9. Involving as many as possible

REACTING BEHAVIOR TO TEACHERS

1. Providing acceptance feedback

2. Providing corrective feedback
3. Giving appropriate and sincere praise
4. Repeating the answer
5. Explaining the answer/expanding
6. Rephrasing the question
7. Asking follow up questions
8. Redirecting questions to other pupils
9. Soliciting student questions
10. Encouraging through non-verbal behavior

DIFFERENT APPROACHES ND METHODS

 An approach gives rise to a strategy which may use more than one method of teaching
 One teaching method may be employed differently by two different teachers whose teaching styles may lead to
the use of different techniques
 Teaching technique has something to do with teacher’s personal type of teaching.

Examples of Teaching Approaches

TEACHER CENTERED LEARNER-CENTERED

Subject matter centered Learner centered
Teacher dominated Interactive
Banking approach Constructivist
Disciplinal Integrated
Individualistic Collaborative
Direct Direct, guided

1. Teacher-Centered Approach
- The teacher is approach to be only reliable source of information in contrast to the learner-centered
approach which is premised on the belief that the learner is also an important resource because he/she
knows something.
- Teaching consists in teacher telling and prescribing what learners should do
2. Subject Matter Centered Approach
- Subject matter gains primacy over that of the learner
by all means, teachers finish teaching subject matter as scheduled even if learners have not learned it.
Sticking to course syllabi is priority of the said teachers.
3. Teacher dominated Approach
- The teacher does what he/she planned without necessarily considering the learner’s interests, concerns
and situations. In contrast to leaner centered classroom, the teacher makes adjustments in his/her
lesson plans to accommodate learner’s interests and concerns.
4. Constructivist Approach
 - Students are expected to construct knowledge and meaning out of what they are taught by connecting
them to prior experience.
5. Banking Approach
- Teacher deposits knowledge into the “empty minds of students” to commit memory
- The students perceived to be empty receptacles waiting to be filled. These facts that are deposited are
withdrawn gradually every time quizzes/ tests are given until at the end of the term everything is
withdrawn in the final exam thus student’s minds are once more to be filled in the next school year
6. Integrated Approach
- Makes the teacher connects what he/she teaches to the other lessons of the same subject or connects
his/her lesson with other subjects maki8ng his/her approach interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary
7. Collaborative Approach
- Will welcome group work, team work, partnerships, group discussion while an individualistic approach
will want individual students working by themselves
8. Direct Teaching Approach
- Teacher tells or shows or demonstrates what is to be taught while in the guided approach, teacher
guides the learner to discover things for himself or herself.

Direct / Expositive Instruction Approach

1. Direct instruction
2. Deductive Method
3. Demonstration Method

Guided/ exploratory approach

1. Inductive method
2. Inquiry
3. Problem solving
4. Project
5. Metacognitive
6. Constructivist
7. Reflective teaching
8. Cooperative learning
9. Peer teaching/ tutoring
10. Partner learning
I. Direct instruction/ Lecture Method
 Aimed at helping students acquire procedural knowledge which is knowledge exercised in the
performance of some task

Instructional Characteristic of Direct Method

 Teacher directed
 Emphasis is on the teaching of skills
 Taught in step by step fashion
 A form of learning through imitation, sometimes termed as “behavioral modeling”
 Used to teach facts, principles and laws
 Used if there is a large amount of information that needs to be studied
 Used if the material studied is very difficult or if there is not enough resource materials.
 1.1 Demonstration Method
 Here, the teacher or an assigned student or group shows how a process is done while the
students become observers.
 Is used when materials are not enough.
Six components of Direct Instruction
1. Modeling
 The teacher identifies the skills required and show how it is used
 The teacher “shares a cognitive secret” of how to execute a strategy
2. Guided practice
 Teachers and students work together on a skill or task and figure on how to apply
strategy
 The teacher stay in the background, but guides students by asking such questions as
why they have rejected or accepted some information.
3. Consolidation
 The teacher helps the students to consider a skill in relation to several examples and to
determine whether the skill should or should not be used.
4. Independent practice
 The students complete assignments by themselves, first in class with the teacher
present to provide if necessary and then at home or on their own without the assistance
of the teacher.
5. Application
 The teacher asks students to apply the skill in a new problem
6. Review
 The periodically reviews the when, why and how of the skill
 It is incorporated into classroom and homework assignments over an extended period.

II. Indirect Instruction- is best used when the learning process is inquiry-based, the result is discovery and the
learning context is a problem.
 This can come as:
i. Inquiry method
ii. Problem solving method
iii. Project method
 The inquiry method may become a problem solving method when the focus of inquiry is a problem to be
solved. These inquiry and problem solving may be made a student project or if given a project, the
student will employ a lot of inquiry and may end up a lot of discovery.
1. Inquiry Method
 Is sometimes termed as “discovery” “heuristic”, and “problem solving”
 Defined as a teaching method which is modeled after the investigative
processes of scientists.

STEPS IN THE INQUIRY METHOD

1. Define the topic/ introduce the question

2. Guide the students plan where and how to gather data, information
3. Students present findings through graphs, carts, power point presentation, models and writing.
INSTRUCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INQUIRY METHOD

 Investigative processes such as inferring, hypothesizing, measuring, predicting, etc. are employed
 The procedure in gathering information is not prescribed by the teachers
 Children are highly motivated to search
 The answers arrived are genuine products of their own efforts.
2. Problem Solving Method
 Strategy that employs specific method in searching for information
5 Basic Steps of the Scientific method or investigatory process are:
1. Sensing and defining the problem
2. Formulating hypothesis
3. Testing the likely hypothesis
4. Analysis, interpretation, and evaluation of evidence
5. Formulating conclusion
3. Project Method
 Is a teaching method that requires the students to present in concrete form the
results of information gathered about a concept, principle or innovation
 Sometimes referred to as “self-directed study”
 Learners solve a practical problem over a period of several days or weeks
 The projects may be suggested by the teacher, but they are planned and
executed as far as possible by the student themselves, individually or in groups
 Project work focuses on applying , not imparting, specific knowledge or skills,
and on improving student involvement and motivation in order to foster
development independent thinking, self-confidence and social responsibility.
4. Cooperative Learning
 Make use of classroom organization where students work in groups or teams to
help each other learn
 Students work in teams to tackle academic tasks
 Reward systems are group-oriented rather than individually-oriented
 Teams are made up of mixed abilities, high average and low achievers
 Each individual learner is accountable for his/her learning
5. Peer Tutoring/ Peer Teaching
 The best way to learn something is to teach it
 Peer tutoring is commonly employed when the teacher requests the older,
brighter and more cooperative member of the class tutor other classmates.

Tutoring Arrangement may be done:

 Instructional tutoring- older students help younger ones on a one-on-one basis or

one-to-a-group basis
 Same age tutoring- this works well with children who can act as interactive parts.
 Monitorial tutoring- the class may be divided into groups and monitors are assigned
to lead each group
 Structured Tutoring- a definite procedure is followed highly structured tutoring is
administered by trained tutors
 Semi-structured tutoring- combination of unstructured where the tutor guides
his/her tutee through carefully planned learning guide.
6. Partner Learning
 Is learning with a partner, having a study buddy
 A study buddy become responsible for each other’s learning. However, each
student is held accountable for his/her own learning.
7. Inductive Method
 Is also referred to as indirect instruction
 It begins from specific to general
 It begins with questions, problems, and details and end up with answers,
generalizations, conclusions.
 In this method, instead of the teacher giving the rule in adding similar fractions,
she will give them at least five examples of added similar fractions at one time.

Advantages of Inductive Method

 Learners are more engaged in the teaching-learning process
 Learning becomes more interesting at the outset because of it begins
with the experiences of the learners
 Develops HOTS
8. Reflective Teaching
 Students/teachers learn through an analysis and evaluation of past experiences.
Without analysis, no new learning and ideas can be constructed
Strategies of Reflective teaching
 Self-analysis
 Writing journals
 Keeping portfolio
9. Metacognitive Approach
 From the prefix “meta” means beyond
 Is an approach that goes beyond cognition
 Thinking about thinking
 Has something to do with our students monitoring their thought processes
while they are thinking. It is allowing out students to think aloud
 Research indicates that “effective problem solvers” subvocalize; that is they talk
to themselves frequently.
10. Constructivist Approach
 A view learning as an active process that results from self- constructed
meanings
 A meaningful connection is established between prior knowledge and the
present learning activity
 Students here continue reflecting and evaluating accumulated knowledge with
an end in view of constructing new meanings.
 Teachers role is to facilitate learning environment
 Lessons are activity centered I order for them to experience or gain personal
knowledge through active involvement.
11. Integrated Approach
 Is intradisciplinary, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary
 Intradisciplianry- when teachers integrate the subdisciplines within a subject
area
  Interdisciplinary- or content based – is done when two different subjects such
as Aral Pan and Science are integrated
 Transdisciplinary- teachers organize the curriculum around student’s questions
and concerns. Teaches using real-life context.

Whole Group Instruction- geared on average students since it is assumed that this will meet the needs of the greatest
number of students

Whole Group Instruction

 Case Study- problematic situation written or described in a narrative form

 Devil’s advocate- a method of dealing with complex problem or conflicting situation in the context of
opposition. The “devil” serves as a critic-attacking idea presented and defended by learners.
 Role play- a dramatic enactment between two or more people intended to represent a situation
 Think-Pair-Share- -each student thinks about a topic provided by the teacher, they pair up with another
student to discuss it until they generate a concept, conclusion, and then share their thoughts with the
entire class
 Trips- take learners to see something for themselves like visits to museum, historical spots, congress,
etc.
 Simulations and Games- similar to a lengthy role play involving several participants intended to
represent a work, a problem situation, or a real-life situation
 Small Group Instruction- provides opportunity for students to become actively engaged in learning and
for teachers to monitors student progress better

Small Group Instruction

 Buzz group- a small group (5-6) assembled to work on common issues and work out a solution and
report such to larger group
 Brainstorming- process of getting as many ideas as there are learners in a span of time.
 Cooperative Learning- students divide the work among themselves by helping one another and receive
a group performance score
 Ability grouping- grouping learners according to their ability and mental preparedness
 Group debate- a method by which learners are divided into two group or panels to examine an issue
from different view points, after which solution and action plan are arrived at.
 Panel discussion- is a technique of discussion where teacher invites 3 or more experts and they talk
about single topic
 Jigsaw technique- the whole class is divided into teams or functional groups. Each student in the team
becomes an expert on one topic by working with members from other teams who have been assigned
the corresponding similar topic. Upon returning to their teams, each one in turn teaches respective
group.

Other Strategies and Techniques: Six Thinking Hats

Proposed by Edward de Bono, a modern education who came up with educational reforms like Six Thinking Hats.
Students wear color coded hats to focus on a particular aims, goals and objectives.
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

 The process of organizing and conducting the business of the classroom relatively free of
behavior problems. It is often perceived as related to the preservation of order and the
maintenance of control.

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

 Consistent, proactive discipline is the crux of effective classroom management

 Establish routines for all daily tasks and needs
 Strike a balance between variety and challenge in student’s activities
 As classroom manager, be aware of all actions and activities in the classroom (with-it-ness
principle)
 Resolve minor inattention and disruption before they become major disruption
 Make good use of every instructional moment. Minimize discipline time to maximize
instructional time

APPROCHES TO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Teacher-Centered Dialectical Learner-centered
Assertive Approach (discipline) Business Academic Approach Success Approach (optimism)
(negotiation)
Behavioral Approach (reward and Group Managerial approach Acceptance Approach
punishment) (collaboration) (recognition)

Group Guidance Approach (life

support)

1. Assertive Approach
 Expects teachers to specify rules of behavior and consequences for disobeying them and to communicate
these rules and consequences clearly
 Teachers expect them to behave in a certain way in class (Duke and Mechel)
2. Behavior modification approach
 Strives to increase the occurrence of appropriate behavior through a system of rewards and reduce
likelihood of inappropriate behavior through punishments
3. Business academic approach
 Developed by Evertson and Emmer
 Emphasizes the organization and management of students as they engage in academic work.
4. Group managerial approach
 Based on Jacob Kounin’s research
 Emphasizes the importance of responding immediately to group student behavior that might be
inappropriate or undesirable in order to prevent problems rather than having to deal with them after they
emerge
i. Ripple Effect
 occurs when a teacher corrects a misbehavior in one student and this positively influences
the behavior of nearby students.
ii. With-it-ness
  Is the skill to know what is going on in all parts of the classroom at all times; nothing is
missed
 One has eyes in the back of his head
iii. Pygmalion Effect/ Rosenthal effect
 Is the phenomenon whereby the greater the expectation placed upon people, the better
they perform. The effect is named after the Greek myth of Pygmalion, a sculptor who fell in
love with a statue he had curved
iv. Hawthorne Effect
 (Also referred to as observer effect) – is a type of reactivity in which individuals modify or
improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed.
v. John Henry Effect
 Is the opposite of Hawthorne Effect. It is when a supposedly control group that gets no
intervention compares themselves to the experimental group and through extra effort gets
the same effects or results
vi. Placebo Effect
 a remarkable phenomenon in which a placebo—a fake treatment, an inactive substance like
sugar, distilled water, or saline solution—can sometimes improve a patient’s condition
simply because the preson has the expectation that it will be helpful.
vii. Halo Effect-
 Is a cognitive bias in which an observer’s overall impression of a person, company, brand, or
product influences the observer’s feelings and thoughts about that entity’s character or
properties
 It was named by psychologist Edward Thorndike in reference to a person being perceived as
having a halo. Thus, by seeing that somebody was painted with a halo, the observer can tell
that this must have been a good and worthy person.
viii. Jastrow’s Effect
 According to Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968), Jastrow (1900) reported a different striking
effect on workers being trained on the then new IBM Hollerith punch card machines in the
US census bureau
 The first group were expected by the inventor to produce 550 per day, and did so but had
great difficulty in improving on that. However a second group who were isolated from the
expectation were soon doing 2100 per day.

GROUP GUIDANCE APPROACH BY FRITZ REDI

3 CAUSES OF MISBEHAVIOR

1. Individual Case History

2. Group Condition
3. Mixture of individual and group cases

Group elements to be considered to maintain good discipline:

1. Dissatisfaction with classroom work-

 The work is too easy or too difficult
 The work load is too light or too heavy. Assignments are poorly planned or poorly explained
 Assignments are considered unfair by students because they have not been prepared for them. Learning
experiences emphasize verbalization, omitting motor skills, and manipulative activities.
  Work is badly scheduled, badly sequenced or confusing.
2. Poor interpersonal relations
 Problems are caused by friendships or tensions among individuals, cliques, or subgroups; badly filled
group roles, and by student-teacher friction
3. Disturbances in group climate
 The climate is punitive, tinged with partiality (certain children can do no wrongs, others are accused for
almost anything) too competitive (leading to hostile or defeatist attitudes), too exclusive (the group
rejects individuals who don’t fit)
4. Poor Group Organization
 The group is characterized by too much autocratic pressure or too little supervision and security.
Standards for group behavior are too high or too low.
5. Sudden change and group emotions- the group is experiencing high level of anxiety (just before exam period)
Contemporary events lead to unusual depression, fear or excitement.

STUDENT PROBLEM TYPES BASED ON TEACHER DESCRIPTIONS

1. Distractible
 These children have short attention spans
 They seem unable to sustain attention and concentration and are highly distractible
 Signs
 has difficulty adjusting to changes
 rarely completes a task
 easily distracted by sights, sounds or speech
2. Underachiever
 These do the “minimum” to get by
 They do not value school work
 Signs:
 Indifferent to schoolwork- minimum work output- not challenged by school work- poorly
motivated
3. Low Achiever
 These children have difficulty even though they may be willing to work
 Their problem is low potential, or lack of readiness, rather than poor motivation
 Signs:
 Difficulty following directions
 Difficulty completing work
 Poor retention
 Progresses slowly
4. Withdrawn
 These children avoid personal interaction but are rejected, ignored or excluded.
 Signs:
 Quiet and sober
 Does not initiate or volunteer
 Does not call attention to self
5. Defiant
 These children resist authority and carry on a power struggle with the teacher
 They want to have their own way and not to be told what to do.
 Signs:
  Resists verbally with statements, “you can’t make me”
 Derogatory statements about teachers and others
 Resist non-verbally with frowns and grimaces
 Looking away when spoken to
 Mimics postures of teachers
 Deliberately does what teacher says not to do.
6. Rejected by peers
 These children seek peer interaction but are rejected, ignored or excluded
 Signs:
 Forced to work and play alone
 Lacks social skills
 Often picked on or teased
7. Hostile Aggressive
 These children express hostility through direct, intense behavior
 They are nor easily controlled
 Signs:
 Intimidates and threatens
 Hits and pushes
 Damages property
 Hostile
 Easily angered
8. Passive Aggressive
 These children express opposition and resistance to the teacher, but INDIRECTLY.
 It is often hard to tell whether they are resisting, deliberately or not.
 Signs:
 Subtly oppositional and stubborn
 Tries to control
 Borderline compliance
 Drags feet
9. Hyperactive
 These children show excessive and almost constant movement even when sitting
 Often their movements appear to be without purposes
 Signs:
 Blurts out answers and comments
 Often out of seta
 Bothers children with noises
 Energetic but poorly directed
 Excessively touches people or objects
10. Failure Syndrome
 These children are convinced that they cannot do their own work.
 They expect to fail even after succeeding.
 Signs:
 Easily frustrated
 Easily gives up
 Says, “I can’t do it”
11. Perfectionist
  These children are unduly anxious about making mistakes
 Their self-imposed standards are unrealistically high so that they are never satisfied with their work
 Signs:
 Often anxious
 Fearful, frustrated
 Holds back from class participation unless sure of self

PRINCIPLES FOR PUNISHING STUDENTS (O’LEARY AND O’LEARY, 1977)

1. Use punishment sparingly

2. Make it clear why the student is being punished
3. Provide the student with alternative means of obtaining some positive reinforcement
4. Reinforce student behaviors which are incompatible with those you wish to weaken or eliminate.
5. Avoid punishing while angry or emotional
6. Punish when inappropriate behavior starts rather than when it ends
7. Avoid corporal punishment.

PRINCIPLES OF PUNISHMENT BY GOOD AND BROPHY

1. Threat of punishment is usually more effective than punishment itself especially when phrased in such way that
there are unknown consequence
2. Punishment should be threatened or warmed before implemented
3. The punishment should be accompanied with positive statements of expectations and rules, focusing on what
students should be doing
4. Punishment should be systematic
5. Do not punish the entire class or group because of the misbehavior of an individual
6. Avoid excessive punishment since this may unite the students in sullen defense against their teacher

COGNITIVE STRUCTURES by Charles Lettteri

List of seven comprehension or thinking skills that students can develop to enhance the way they process
information:

2. Analysis (field dependence- independence)

 The ability to break down information into component parts for the purpose of identification and
categorization
3. Focusing (scanning)
 The ability to select relevant or important information without being distracted or confused by
irrelevant secondary information
4. Comparative Analysis (reflective- impulsivity)
 The ability to select a correct item from among several alternatives and compare information and make
proper choices
5. Narrowing (breadth of categorization)
 The ability to identify and place new information into categories through its attributes (physical
characteristics, principles or functions)
6. Complex cognitive (complexity-simplicity)
 The ability to integrate complex information into categories through its attributes (physical
characteristics, principles or functions)
7. Sharpening (sharpening-leveling)
  The ability to maintain distinctions between cognitive structures (including old and new information)
and to avoid confusion or overlap.
8. Tolerance (tolerant- intolerant)
 The ability to monitor and modify thinking, the ability to deal with ambiguous or unclear information
without getting frustrated.

COGNITIVE FRAMEWORK BY WEINTEIN AND MAYER

1. Basic Rehearsal Strategies

 The ability remember names or words and the order of things
2. Complex rehearsal strategies
 Making appropriate choices or selections (such as knowing what to copy when the teacher explains
something or what to underline or outline while reading.
3. Basic elaboration strategies
 Such as relating two or more items (such as nouns and verbs)
4. Complex elaboration strategies
 Analyzing or synthesizing new information with old information
5. Basic organizational strategies
 Categorizing, grouping or ordering new information
6. Comprehension monitoring
 Checking progress, recognizing when one is on the right track or confused right or wrong
7. Affective Strategies
 Being relaxed, yet alert and attentive during a test situation and when studying

4 MISTAKEN GOALS OF MISBEHAVIOR BY ADLER

1. Goal is to get attention (to keep others busy or to get special service)
 child’s characteristic
 disrupt the classroom
 ask for favors
 tattle for one another
 refuse to work or are slow to finish assignments
 request help when it is not required
 stops misbehavior temporarily, but later resumes same or another disturbing behavior
 child’s belief
 I count only when I’m being noticed or getting special service
 I’m only important when I’m keeping you busy with me.

What the child needs and what adults can do to encourage

 Notice me- involve me

 Redirect by involving child in a useful task
 “I love you and ___.”
 Touch without words
 Set up nonverbal signals
 Ignore the misbehavior while encouraging appropriate behavior. Try to catch the student being good.
2. Goal is to seek power (to be boss)
 Child’s characteristics
  Argue
 Contradict
 Have temper tantrums
 Attempt to upset the teacher. Success brings more striving for power
 Intensifies behavior
 Feels he/she won when parents/ teachers are upset
 Child’s belief
 I belong only when I’m boss or in control, or proving no one can boss me
 “you can’t make me”
 Goal is to seek power

What the child needs and what adults can do to encourage

 Let me Help- Give me choices

 Get help from child to set reasonable and few limits
 Acknowledge that you can’t make him/her ,and ask for his/her help
 What the child’s needs and what adults can do to encourage
 Redirect to positive power
 Offer a limited choice
 Withdraw from conflict and calm down
 Be firm and kind
 Act, don’t talk.
3. Goal is to Isolate oneself *assumed inadequacy- to give up and be left along)
 Child’s characteristics
 Withdraw from situations where they assume their inadequacy will be obvious
 Need to convince the teacher of their disability, so they will be left alone
 Retreats further
 No improvement
 No response
 Child’s belief
 I don’t believe I can so, I’ll convince others not to expect anything from me
 I am helpless and unable; it’s no use trying because I won’t do it right.
 Goal is to isolate oneself (assumed inadequacy-to give up and be left alone)

What the child needs

 Have faith in me—don’t give up on me

 Take time for training
 Take small steps
 Make the task easier until the child experiences success
 Show faith
 What the child needs and what the adults can do to encourage
 Encourage any positive attempt, no matter how small
 Don’t give up
 Enjoy the child
 Build his/her interests
 Encourage, encourage, encourage
  Use family/class meetings
4. Goal is to seek Revenge (to get even)
 Child’s characteristics
 May act in cruel, violent and vicious ways
 Are paranoid and need to retaliate
 When punished, feel justified in their original actions
 Damages property
 Gets even
 Escalates the same behavior or chooses another weapon
 I don’t think I belong, so I’ll hurt others as I feel hurt
 I can’t be liked or loved

What the child needs and what adults can do to encourage

 Help me—I’m hurting

 Apologize
 Avoid punishment and retaliation
 Show you care
 Encourage strengths
 Use family/class meetings
 Deal with hurt feelings “Your behavior tells me you must feel hurt, can we talk about it?”
 Use reflective listening
 Don’t take behavior personally
 Share your feelings

Good Classroom Techniques

1. With-it-ness – is the skills to know what is going on in all parts of the classroom at all times
2. Overlapping- means handling two or more activities or groups at the same time. Essentially, it is the ability to
monitor the whole class at all times.
3. Smoothness- is th3e ability to make smooth lesson transitions, keep an appropriate pace, and involve all
students in a lesson. Smoothness should be present to prevent jerkiness.

* Jerkiness can be avoided by not observing any of the following:

1. Stimulus-bounded
 The teacher is so immersed in a small group of students or activities that he or she ignores other
students or misses an event that is potentially disruptive.
2. Thrust
 The teacher bursts into activities without assessing student readiness and gives orders, statements
or questions that only confuse students
3. Dangle
 The teacher ends an activity or drops a topic before it is completed
4. Truncation
 The teacher ends an activity ABRUPTLY.
5. Flip-flop
 The teacher terminates one activity, goes to another, and then returns to the previously terminated
acitivity. The teacher lacks clear direction and sequence of activities.
 4. Momentum refers to the force and flow of the lesson. An effective pulls the student along. Effective teachers
move through the lesson at a brisk pace and appear to have very few slowdowns in the flow of activities.
5. Group Focus is the process where the whole class is involved with the use of the teacher’s alerting techniques
o Antiseptic Bouncing- is asking a student to leave the room if he or she is uncontrollably giggling or
misbehaving that affects the majority of the class.
o Program Restructuring- is recognizing a poor lesson or activity and trying to replace it for something
else in order to restore a desired behavior.
o Humor effect- makes use of joke to release tension in a tensed situation
o Proximity and Touch control- is placing the teacher’s presence close to the misbehaving student
o Interest Boosting- a response directed to a student that seems to be losing interest in a lesson, pay
some additional attention to other students and their work
o Signal interference- refers to non verbal response to stop student’s misbehavior.
o Planned ignoring- refers to ignoring an action that the student may be doing for attention
o Direct Appeal- is responding when appropriate, pointing out the connection between the conduct or
misconduct and its consequences

Types of Classroom Manager

1. Authoritative/ democratic
 Teachers who clearly and fairly communicates standards for discipline and performance to students
 The democratic teacher is kind, caring and warm but also firm.
 Here, the teacher tries to provide stimulation from within through a sharing of responsibility and
encouragement, rather than demands. Self-esteem is developed by a sharing of responsibility and
students are encouraged when they make mistakes.
2. Authoritarian
 Places firm limits and controls on the student
 Is characterized by power, domination, pressure and criticism
 Assumes the sole responsibility for making all decisions for the class and uses pressure, sharp voice,
and fear in forcing
 Students in this type of atmosphere often develop a fear of failure, low self-esteem, and a defeatist
attitude.
 Students in this class are likely reluctant to initiate activities since they feel powerless.
3. Permissive/ Laissez Faire
 Places few demands or controls on the students
 Teacher accepts the student’s impulses and actions and is less likely to monitor their behavior
 Is more concerned with the students’ emotional well-being than he is with classroom control
 Here, anything goes, which generally leads to chaos. The classroom is often disorganized, which
causes student frustration, a high level of stress, and a feeling of being totally overwhelmed and
lost.
4. Uninvolved
 Teachers who are indifferent and undemanding of student involvement

Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience

 Edgar Dale- (1900-1985) served the Ohio State university faculty from 1929-1970. Perhaps, Professor Dale’s
most famous concept was called the “cone of experiences”, a graphic depiction of the relationship between how
information is presented in instruction and the outcomes for leaners.

What is Cone of Experience?

 First introduced in Dale’s 1946 book, audio-visual methods in teaching

 Designed to “show the progression of learning experiences” (dale 1969 p. 108) from the concrete to the
abstract

Concrete VS. Abstract Learning

Concrete Learning

 First-hand experiences
 Learner has some control over the outcome
 Incorporates the use of all five senses

Abstract Learning

 Difficulty when not enough previous experience or exposure to a concept

 Every level of the cone uses abstract thinking in cone way

Levels of Cone of Experience

Enactive- direct experiences

o Direct, purposeful
o Contrived
o Dramatized
Iconic- pictorial experiences
o Demonstrations
o Study trips
o Exhibits
o Educational television
o Motion pictures
o Recordings, radio, still pictures
Symbolic- highly abstract experiences
o Visual symbols
o Verbal symbols

Direct and Purposeful Experiences

 Direct, first hand experiences

 Have direct participation in the outcome
 Use of all our senses
 Ex: working in a homeless shelter, tutoring younger children

Contrived Experiences

 Is edited copies of direct experiences

  Design to stimulate to real-life situation
 Ex: model, mock-ups, objects, specimens, games and simulations

 Model
- A reproduction of a real thing in small scale, or large scale or exact size but made up of synthetic
materials
- Substitute to real things which may or may not operational
 Mock-ups
- Is a special model where the parts of a model are singled out , heightened and magnified in order to
focus on that part or process under study
- Example is planetarium
 Objects
- May also include artifacts displayed in museum or things displayed in an exhibit or preserved insect
specimen in science
 Specimen
- A portion or quantity of material use in testing, examination
 Simulation
- - representation of a manageable real event in which the learner is an active participant engaged in
learning behavior or in applying previously acquired skills or knowledge
 Games
- Forms of physical exercise taught to children at school
- Make classes more interactive
- Develop the decision-making skills and knowledge construction skills.
- Purposes of Games:
 To practice or refine knowledge or skills already acquired
 Identify gaps or weakness in knowledge or skills
 Serve as summation or review
 Develop new relationships among concepts and principles.

Difference between games and simulation

 games are played to win; there is a competition

 Simulation need not winner, seems to be more easily applied to the issues rather than to processes.

Other types of contrived experiences

1. Aquarium- is a representation of plant and animal

2. Terrarium- is a representation of plant and animal on land
3. Aviary - is a collection of live birds
4. Herbarium- is a collection of dried herbs
5. Herbary- is a collection of live herbs
6. Vivarium- is a representation of plant and animal life putting together those of the same habitat
7. Planetarium- is a representation of the planets and their relative sizes and distance from each other
8. Solarium – is a representation of the solar system
9. Diorama- three dimensional representation of events, ideas or concepts against a scenic background
10. Orchidarium- a collection of orchids
Dramatized Experiences

 Reconstructed Experiences
 Can be used to simplify an event or idea to its most important parts
 Divided into two categories-
o Acting- actual participation
o Observing- watching a dramatization take place

Iconic Experiences on the Cone

 Progressively moving toward greater use of imagination

 Successful use in a classroom depends on how much imaginative involvement the method can illicit
from students]
 Involves:
o Demonstrations
o Study trips
o Echibits
o Motion pictures
o Educational television
o Radio, recordings, and still pictures
A. Demonstrations
 Visualized explanation of an important fact, idea or process
 Shows how certain things are done\
 Ex:
o How to make a peanut butter
o How to play the piano
o How to lift a fingerprint
B. Study Trips
 Watch people do things in real situations
 Observe an event that is unavailable in the classroom

C. Exhibit

 Something seen by a spectator

 TWO TYPES:
i. Ready made
 Museum
 Career fair
ii. Home-made
 Classroom project
 National history day competition

D. Television

 Bring immediate interaction with events from around the world

 Edit an event to create clearer understanding than if experienced actual event first hand

E. Motion Pictures
  Can omit unnecessary or unimportant material
 Used to slow down a fast process
 Viewing, seeing and hearing experience
 Can re-create events with simplistic drama that even slower students can grasp.

F. Recordings, Radio and Still Pictures

 Can often be understood by those who cannot read

 Helpful to students who cannot deal with the motion or pace of a real event or television

Symbolic Experiences

 Very little immediate physical action

 Difficulty only if one doesn’t have enough direct experience to support the symbol
 Used at all levels of the Cone in carrying importance
 Involves:
i. Visual Symbols
 No longer involves reproducing real situations
 Chalkboard and overhead projector the most widely used media
 Help students see an idea, event, or process
 Ex:
a. Chalkboard
b. Flat maps
c. Diagrams
d. Charts
ii. Verbal Symbols
 Two types:
a. Written words- more abstract
b. Spoken words- less abstract
c. Ex:
i. Discussion
ii. Explanation/lecture

Graphic Organizers

Diagrams- It is any line drawing that shows arrangement and relations as a parts to the whole, relative values,
origins and development, chronological fluctuations, distribution, etc.

Types of a Diagram

1. Affinity Diagram- used to cluster complex apparently unrelated data into natural and meaningful groups.
2. Tree Diagram- used to chart out, in increasing detail, the various tasks that must be accomplished to complete a
project or achieve a specific objective.
3. Fishbone Diagram- also called cause-and-effect diagram; is structured form of brainstorming that graphically
shows the relationship of possible causes and subcauses directly related to an identified effect/problem.

Charts
  Is a diagrammatic representation of relationships among individuals within an organization

Examples of Charts

1. Time chart- is tabular time chart that represents data in ordinal sequence

2. Tree of Stream Chart- depicts development, growth and change by beginning with a single course (trunk) which
spreads out in many branches or by beginning with the many tributaries with ten coverage into a single channel. Ex:
Genealogical Tree

3. Flow Chart- Is a visual way of charting or showing a process from beginning to end

4. Organizational Chart- shoes how one part of the organization relates to other parts of the organization.

5. Comparison and Contrast- used to show similarities and differences between two things

6. Pareto Chart-

 is a type of bar chart, prioritized in descending order to magnitude or importance from left to right.
 It shows at a glance which factors are occurring most.

7. Gannt Chart- is an activity time chart

GRAPHS

1. Pie or Circle Graph- recommended for showing parts of whole

2. Bar Graph- used in comparing the magnitude of similar items at different ties or seeing relative sizes of the parts of a
whole.

3. Pictorial Graph- makes use of picture symbols

GRAPHICAL ORGANIZERS

There are six types:

1. Descriptive graphic organizer- gathers facts about a topic

2. Time sequence graphic organizer- organizes information in a sequential or chronological order
3. Process/ cause-effect graphic organizer- organizes information that leads to an outcome or show steps to an
end result
4. Episode graphic organizer- combines multiple ways of organizing information about a specific event
5. Generalization graphic organizer- presents the details and the generalization arrived at
6. Concept Pattern Organizer- organizes information or declarative knowledge into patterns to show relationships
and connections of concepts
7. Advance Organizer- gives an overview of the topics.

USING AND EVALUATING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

 The proper use of materials

 To ensure effective use of instructional material, Hayden Smith and Thomas Nagel, 1972 book authors
on instructional media, advise us to abide by the acronym PPPF.
 Prepare yourself. You know your lesson objective and what you expect from the class after the session and why
you have selected such particular instructional material. You have a plan on how you will proceed, what
questions to ask how you will evaluate learning and how you will tie loose ends before the bell rings.
Prepare your students. Set class expectations and learning goals. It is sound practice to give them guide
questions for them to be able to answer during the discussion. Motivate them and keep them interested and
engaged.
Present the material under the best possible conditions. This is means “running out of gas” which usually results
from poor planning. (Smith 1972) using media and materials, especially if they are mechanical in nature, often
require rehearsal and a carefully planned performance. Wise are you if you try the materials ahead of your class
to avoid a fiasco.
Follow up. Remember that you use instructional material to achieve an objective, not to kill time nor give
yourself a break, neither to merely entertain the class. You use the instructional for the attainment of lesson
objectives. You use of the instructional material is not the end in itself. It is a means to an end, the attainment of
a learning objective. So, there is need to follow up to find out if objective was attained or not.
PPPF
o Prepare yourself
o Prepare your student
o Present the material
o Follow up

Grace Goodel’s Reading Skills Ladder

1. Basic sight words

2. Using phonetic analysis
3. Using structural analysis
4. Using contextual clues
5. Vocabulary building
6. Finding the main idea
7. Finding the supporting details
8. Interfering meanings, drawing conclusions
9. Classifying and organizing facts
10. Using parts of the book
11. Using the dictionary
12. Using the encyclopedias and other references books
13. Borrowing library books for research and enjoyment
14. Starting your private library collection
15. Exposure to reading from mass media
16. Reading from the internet.