Introduction to Agronomy and Horticulture

Chapter 07 Plant Anatomy and Morphology

Nguyen, Minh Thanh (B11022351)
Nov. 06, 2021

2. What are the four basic types of plant tissues, and what are they composed of?
Plants have four basic types of tissue which are epidermis, vascular tissue, ground
tissue, and meristems.
Epidermis is the outer cell layer found on all plant organs: leaf, stem, root, and flowers.
Epidermis is the external shield that protect internal tissue from mechanical damage, and
bacterial and fungal invasion. Leaf and stem have different kinds of protections. Plants, for
the most part, coated with a waxy cover called cuticle that avoid plants from water loss. In
between the epidermal tissue and the cuticle lay hypodermal cells that are responsible for the
formation of cuticle. Many plants have spines or trichomes that provide shadow, aid the plants
from being chewed up by insects. On the surface of the leaf epidermis, there are tiny holes
named stomata that permit carbon dioxide to enter the plant, control water loss and prevent
fungal spore and microbes penetration by opening or closing based on the elements and plant
needs. In most leaves, the number of stomata is greater in the abaxial surface than in the
adaxial.
Vascular tissue is in charge of distributing sugars, minerals and water to all cells in a
plant. In plants, there are two types of vascular tissue. One is xylem which conducts water and
minerals from the roots to the leaves, and the other is phloem which diffuse minerals and
sugar water throughout the plant. Unlike animal’s vascular system in which nutrients and
other substances move in tubes composed of living cells, water and minerals travel upward
from roots to leaves and stems through dead, spongy, hollow xylem cells. When water
evaporates from the stomata, it creates a negative pressure in the plants that acts as a force of
suction pulling water upward. In addition, water has the properties of cohesion and adhesion
that make it stick to the xylem tube walls and to each other. In contrast, phloem cells are
living cells that transport sugar water from abundant areas to where is scarce, especially
growing parts like buds, flowers or roots.
Ground tissue which creates the mass of the plant exists in between of the epidermal
layer and vascular bundles. Ground tissue, such as the pith and cortex, consists of three cell
types: parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma cells. Parenchyma cells have thin cell
walls in order to let light and carbon dioxide infiltrate. They can also store energy in stems,
roots, seeds and fruits. Chloroplasts in parenchyma cells are those that give most plants the
color green and function as factories of photosynthesis. Collenchyma cells are present as a
layer underneath the epidermal tissue and around the vascular bundles. The thickness of cell
walls of collenchyma cells is uneven, mostly thicker in the corners. Because of the flexibility
and resilience, collenchyma cells provide support in areas where the need for extra strength is
great such as new vine, aerial roots, shoots and petioles. Sclerenchyma cells have lignified
elastic thick walls. After reaching maturity in size and shape, some parenchyma cells stop
growing and die. The remaining is layers of supportive cells that maintain the shape of the
plants.
Meristems are types of cells that can produce hormones, divide and develop into all
tissue and organs. There are several types of meristems. At the tips of shoots and roots do the
apical meristems exist. These cells promote primary growth. In grasses, intercalary meristems
are present and responsible for the development of the stem internodes and leaves. Then,
axillary meristems are located at the nodes where leaves contact with stems. Axillary
meristems boost the growing of buds for branches and flowers. And secondary meristems
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consist of two types: cork cambium and vascular cambium. Cork cambium can be vastly
found in woody plant stems where it creates new epidermis to replace the dead epidermis that
becomes the cork of the stems. Vascular cambium present in eudicot plants increases the
diameter of stems and roots.

5. What are the four organs that most plants have? What are their specific functions?
Most plants have four organs: roots, stems, leaves, and flowers.
Roots in both eudicot and monocot plants act as an anchor that secures the plant firmly
to a substance so that the plant can stand upright and all organs above the ground can be
oriented to the sun. The roots have the cylindrical shape that allows all sides to absorb water
and minerals equally and convey them upward to the stems and leaves. This shape also helps
the roots penetrate the soil more easily. Apart from the meristems, roots can also produce
plant hormones such as cytokinin and gibberellin used for shoot growth. Because the roots
control the number of hormones manufactured, the development of shoots can be controlled.
So that under harsh elements, shoots will not consume more that what the roots can absorb
and it will save carbohydrates for other organs. Roots that can store carbohydrates for winter
use like those of dandelions, carrots, or beets are called taproots. Willows, or bamboos spread
their roots horizontally and produce new shoot buds which later in time become new plants.
Roots can also function as holdfasts clinging to rock or brick like those of Ivy. Mistletoes
have parasitic roots that draw out water and nutrients from host plants through their roots.
Stems are the ascending part of the plant that play the pivotal role in supporting the
plant, bearing branches, leaves, flowers, and fruits. Vascular bundles in stems are the channels
that transport water, nutrients, and sap from the roots to different parts on the plant and vice
versa. Stems are the only parts of a plant that carry nodes and internodes. On the node areas,
buds are usually located at the connection of stems and leaves. These buds can develop into a
new leaf, stem or flower. The bud on the top of the plant is called the apical bud which
elongates the plant. For the most part, stem have cylindrical, vertical structure. But some
plants undergo modifications in order to perform additional functions like storage, support,
vegetative propagation… Rhizomes, also known as creeping rootstalks, are underground
stems what grow horizontally to produce new plants, such as bamboo, ginger, turmeric.
Similarly, stolons or runners are those that grow horizontally and can produce new plants
from the nodes on the stems, but situated aboveground. Strawberry, white clover, and
pennywort are examples of this type of stems. Tubers are stem modifications of storage.
Carbohydrates are stored in the enlarged fleshy stems such as potato. Garlic, onion and lily
are stem modifications called bulbs. Corms are solid, fleshy underground stems. This type of
modification includes taro, and saffron.
Leaves are the place that the majority of photosynthesis and transpiration take place.
Leaves use sunlight energy captured in the chlorophyll, water carried from the roots and
carbon dioxide exchanged through stomata to photosynthesize carbohydrates. The
photosynthesis process can be simplified as below:
6CO2 + 12H2O + solar energy -> C6H12O6 +6O2 + 6H2O
Monocot leaves consist of a sheath, collar and leaf blade. Monocot veins are long and
strap shaped patterns of parallel venation. Eudicot plants can have either simple or compound
leaves with reticule venation. Simple leaves are leaves that attach to the stem with a petiole
or sessile. At the axil between the petiole and stem does a bud exist. Compound leaves
comprise many leaflets that connect to a rachis alternately, symmetrically or palmately.
Flowers are modified leaves that contain sexual organs of the plants. Generally, flowers
are made of stamens, pistil, petals and sepals. The stamens are the male component of the
plants, which includes the anther. The anther is the manufacturer where pollen with sperms is

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made. The pistil is the female component of the plants which embodies the stigma, style and
ovary. Complete flowers are those that have stamens, pistils, petals, and sepals. Incomplete
flowers are those that lack one or more of the portions that complete flowers have. Perfect
flowers have both stamens and pistils. Complete flowers are perfect flowers, but not all
perfect flowers are complete. Imperfect flowers are those that have either male or female
reproduction component.

12. Explain the difference between monoecious and dioecious plants.

Both monoecious and dioecious plants have imperfect flowers. However, dioecious
plants are those that male flowers grow on male plants and female plants produce female
flowers. In order for fertilization to happen, both male and female plants must be present. Gac
(Momordica cochinchinensis) is a type of perennial dioecious plant.
Monoecious plants that male and female flowers exist separately on the same plant but
in different areas like banana, or zucchini.

15. What are the two types of germination? Describe each.

The two types of germination are epigeal and hypogeal.
Epigeal emergence is the type of germination that occurs in dicot plants such as
cucumber, and longan. In this type of germination, the hypocotyl stretches and lifts the
cotyledons out above the soil. After arising, the cotyledons develop chlorophyll to
photosynthesize. When the first pair of true leaves appear, the cotyledons start to die off.
Hypogeal emergence is the type of germination that occurs in monocot plants such as
corn, and wheat. In this type of germination, the cotyledons remain below the soil. After the
epicotyl surfaces, the first true leaves will grow.