3056 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Part VI
Chapter 1
Definitions and General Requirements

1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Scope
The definitions providing meanings of different terms and general requirements for
the structural design of buildings, structures, and components thereof are specified in
this Chapter. These requirements shall apply to all buildings and structures or their
components regulated by this Code. All anticipated loads required for structural
design shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 2. Design
parameters required for the structural design of foundation elements shall conform to
the provisions of Chapter 3. Design of structural members using various construction
materials shall comply with the relevant provisions of Chapters 4 to 13. The FPS
equivalents of the empirical expressions used throughout Part 6 are listed in
Appendix A.
This Code shall govern in all matters pertaining to design, construction, and material
properties wherever this Code is in conflict with requirements contained in other
standards referenced in this Code. However, in special cases where the design of a
structure or its components cannot be covered by the provisions of this Code, other
relevant internationally accepted codes referred in this Code may be used.
1.1.2 Definitions
The following definitions shall provide the meaning of certain terms used in this
Chapter.
BASE SHEAR Total design lateral force or shear at the base of a
structure.
BASIC WIND Three-second gust speed at 10 m above the mean ground
SPEED level in terrain Exposure-B defined in Sec 2.4.6 and
associated with an annual probability of occurrence of
0.02.
BEARING WALL A structural system without a complete vertical load
SYSTEM carrying space frame.
BRACED FRAME An essentially vertical truss system of the concentric or
eccentric type which is provided to resist lateral forces.
BUILDING FRAME An essentially complete space frame which provides
SYSTEM support for loads.
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CONCENTRIC A steel braced frame designed in conformance with Sec

BRACED FRAME 10.20.13 or Sec 10.20.14.
(CBF)
COLLECTOR A member or element used to transfer lateral forces from
a portion of a structure to the vertical elements of the
lateral force resisting elements.
DEAD LOAD The load due to the weight of all permanent structural and
nonstructural components of a building or a structure,
such as walls, floors, roofs and fixed service equipment.
DIAPHRAGM A horizontal or nearly horizontal system acting to transmit
lateral forces to the vertical resisting elements. The term
"diaphragm" includes horizontal bracing systems.
DUAL SYSTEM A combination of Moment Resisting Frames and Shear
Walls or Braced Frames to resist lateral loads designed in
accordance with the criteria of Sec 1.3.2.4.
ECCENTRIC A steel braced frame designed in conformance with Sec
BRACED FRAME 10.20.15.
(EBF)
HORIZONTAL A horizontal truss system that serves the same function as
BRACING SYSTEM a floor or roof diaphragm.
INTERMEDIATE A concrete moment resisting frame designed in
MOMENT FRAME accordance with Sec 8.3.10.
(IMF)
LIVE LOAD The load superimposed by the use and occupancy of a
building.
MOMENT A frame in which members and joints are capable of
RESISTING FRAME resisting forces primarily by flexure.
ORDINARY A moment resisting frame not meeting special detailing
MOMENT FRAME requirements for ductile behaviour.
(OMF)
PRIMARY That part of the structural system assigned to resist lateral
FRAMING SYSTEM forces.
SHEAR WALL A wall designed to resist lateral forces parallel to the
plane of the wall (sometimes referred to as a vertical
diaphragm or a structural wall).
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SLENDER Buildings and structures having a height exceeding five

BUILDINGS AND times the least horizontal dimension, or having a
STRUCTURES fundamental natural frequency less than 1 Hz. For those
cases where the horizontal dimensions vary with height,
the least horizontal dimension at mid height shall be used.
SOFT STOREY A soft storey is one in which the lateral stiffness is less
than 70 percent of that in the storey above or less than 80
percent of the average stiffness of the three storeys above.
SPACE FRAME A three-dimensional structural system without bearing
walls composed of members interconnected so as to
function as a complete self-contained unit with or without
the aid of horizontal diaphragms or floor bracing systems.
SPECIAL MOMENT A moment resisting frame specially detailed to provide
FRAME (SMF) ductile behaviour complying with the requirements of
Chapter 8 or 10 for concrete or steel frames respectively.
SPECIAL A structural system not listed in Table 6.1.3 and specially
STRUCTURAL designed to carry the lateral loads. (See Sec 1.3.2.5).
SYSTEM
STOREY The space between any two floor levels including the roof
of a building. Storey-x is the storey below level x.
STOREY SHEAR, The summation of design lateral forces above the storey
under consideration.
STRENGTH The usable capacity of an element or a member to resist
the load as prescribed in these provisions.
TERRAIN The ground surface roughness condition when considering
the size and arrangement of obstructions to the wind.
THREE-SECOND The highest average wind speed over a 3 second duration
GUST SPEED at a height of 10 m. The three-second gust speed is
derived using Durst's model in terms of the mean wind
speed and turbulence intensity.
TOWER A tall, slim vertical structure.
VERTICAL LOAD- A space frame designed to carry all vertical gravity loads.
CARRYING FRAME
WEAK STOREY Storey in which the lateral strength is less than 80 percent
of that of the storey above.
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1.1.3 Symbols and Notation

The following symbols and notation shall apply to the provisions of this Chapter:
= Dead load on a member including self-weight and weight of
components, materials and permanent equipment supported by the
member
= Earthquake load
= Lateral force applied at level of a building
ℎ = Height of a building or a structure above ground level in metres
ℎ ,ℎ ,ℎ = Height in metres above ground level to level , - or -
respectively
ℎ
level = level of a structure above the base; = 1 designates the first
level above the base
level = Upper most level of a structure
ℎ
level = level of a structure above the base; = 1 designates the first
level above the base.
= Live load due to intended use or occupancy
= Span of a member or component.
= Overturning moment at level
= Total design lateral force or shear at the base
= Storey shear at storey level
= Response modification or reduction coefficient for structural
system given in Table 6.2.19 for seismic design.
= Fundamental period of vibration in seconds
= Load due to wind pressure.
′
= Weight of an element or component
= Seismic zone coefficient given in Figure 6.2.24 or Table 6.2.14 or
Table 6.2.15
∆ = Storey lateral drift.
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1.2 Basic Considerations

1.2.1 General
All buildings and structures shall be designed and constructed in conformance with
the provisions of this Section. The buildings and portions thereof shall support all
loads including dead load specified in this Chapter and elsewhere in this Code.
Impact, fatigue and self-straining forces shall be considered where these forces
occur.
1.2.2 Buildings and Structures
A structure shall ordinarily be described as an assemblage of framing members and
components arranged to support both gravity and lateral forces. Structures may be
classified as building and non-building structures. Structures that enclose a space and
are used for various occupancies shall be called buildings or building structures.
Structures other than buildings, such as water tanks, bridges, communication towers,
chimneys etc., shall be called non-building structures. When used in conjunction with
the word building(s), the word structure(s) shall mean non-building structures, e.g.
'buildings and structures' or 'buildings or structures'. Otherwise the word 'structures'
shall include both buildings and non-building structures.
1.2.3 Building and Structure Occupancy Categories

Buildings and other structures shall be classified, based on the nature of occupancy,
according to Table 6.1.1 for the purposes of applying flood, surge, wind and
earthquake provisions. The occupancy categories range from I to IV, where
Occupancy Category I represents buildings and other structures with a low hazard to
human life in the event of failure and Occupancy Category IV represents essential
facilities. Each building or other structure shall be assigned to the highest applicable
occupancy category or categories. Assignment of the same structure to multiple
occupancy categories based on use and the type of load condition being evaluated
(e.g., wind or seismic) shall be permissible.

When buildings or other structures have multiple uses (occupancies), the relationship
between the uses of various parts of the building or other structure and the
independence of the structural systems for those various parts shall be examined. The
classification for each independent structural system of a multiple-use building or
other structure shall be that of the highest usage group in any part of the building or
other structure that is dependent on that basic structural system.
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Table 6.1.1: Occupancy Category of Buildings and other Structures for Flood,
Surge, Wind and Earthquake Loads.

Nature of Occupancy Occupancy

Category
Buildings and other structures that represent a low hazard to human life in
I
the event of failure, including, but not limited to:
• Agricultural facilities
• Certain temporary facilities
• Minor storage facilities
All buildings and other structures except those listed in Occupancy
II
Categories I, III and IV
Buildings and other structures that represent a substantial hazard to human III
life in the event of failure, including, but not limited to:
• Buildings and other structures where more than 300 people
congregate in one area
• Buildings and other structures with day care facilities with a
capacity greater than 150
• Buildings and other structures with elementary school or
secondary school facilities with a capacity greater than 250
• Buildings and other structures with a capacity greater than 500
for colleges or adult education facilities
• Healthcare facilities with a capacity of 50 or more resident
patients, but not having surgery or emergency Treatment
facilities
• Jails and detention facilities
Buildings and other structures, not included in Occupancy Category IV,
with potential to cause a substantial economic impact and/or mass
disruption of day-to-day civilian life in the event of failure, including, but
not limited to:
• Power generating stationsa
• Water treatment facilities
• Sewage treatment facilities
• Telecommunication centers
Buildings and other structures not included in Occupancy Category IV
(including, but not limited to, facilities that manufacture, process, handle,
store, use, or dispose of such substances as hazardous fuels, hazardous
chemicals, hazardous waste, or explosives) containing sufficient quantities
of toxic or explosive substances to be dangerous to the public if released.
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Buildings and other structures designated as essential facilities, including, IV

but not limited to:
 Hospitals and other healthcare facilities having surgery or
emergency treatment facilities
 Fire, rescue, ambulance, and police stations and emergency
vehicle garages
 Designated earthquake, hurricane, or other emergency shelters
 Designated emergency preparedness, communication, and
operation centers and other facilities required for emergency
response
 Power generating stations and other public utility facilities
required in an emergency
 Ancillary structures (including, but not limited to,
communication towers, fuel storage tanks, cooling towers,
 Electrical substation structures, fire water storage tanks or other
structures housing or supporting water, or other fire-suppression
material or equipment) required for operation of Occupancy
Category IV structures during an emergency
 Aviation control towers, air traffic control centers, and
emergency aircraft hangars
 Community water storage facilities and pump structures required
to maintain water pressure for fire suppression
 Buildings and other structures having critical national defense
functions
Buildings and other structures (including, but not limited to, facilities that
manufacture, process, handle, store, use, or dispose of such substances as
hazardous fuels, hazardous chemicals, or hazardous waste) containing
highly toxic substances where the quantity of the material exceeds a
threshold quantity established by the authority having jurisdiction.
a
Cogeneration power plants that do not supply power on the national grid shall be
designated Occupancy Category II

1.2.4 Safety
Buildings, structures and components thereof, shall be designed and constructed to
support all loads, including dead loads, without exceeding the allowable stresses or
specified strengths (under applicable factored loads) for the materials of construction
in the structural members and connections.
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1.2.5 Serviceability
Structural framing systems and components shall be designed with adequate stiffness
to have deflections, vibration, or any other deformations within the serviceability
limit of building or structure. The deflections of structural members shall not exceed
the more restrictive of the limitations provided in Chapters 2 through 13 or that
permitted by Table 6.1.2 or the notes that follow. For wind and earthquake loading,
story drift and sway shall be limited in accordance with the provisions of Sec 1.5.6.
In checking the serviceability, the load combinations and provisions of Sec 2.7.5
shall be followed.
Table 6.1.2: Deflection Limitsa, b, c, h (Except earthquake load)

Construction +

Roof members:e
Supporting plaster ceiling /360 /360 /240
Supporting non-plaster ceiling /240 /240 /180
Not supporting ceiling /180 /180 /120

Floor members /360 - /240

Exterior walls and interior partitions

With brittle finishes - /240
With flexible finishes - /120

Farm buildings - /180

Greenhouses - /120

Where, , , and stands for span of the member under consideration, live load,
wind load and dead load respectively.

Notes:
a. For structural roofing and siding made of formed metal sheets, the total
load deflection shall not exceed /60. For secondary roof structural
members supporting formed metal roofing, the live load deflection shall
not exceed /150. For secondary wall members supporting formed metal
siding, the design wind load deflection shall not exceed /90. For roofs,
this exception only applies when the metal sheets have no roof covering.
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b. Interior partitions not exceeding 2 m in height and flexible, folding and

portable partitions are not governed by the provisions of this Section.

c. For cantilever members, shall be taken as twice the length of the

cantilever.

d. For wood structural members having a moisture content of less than 16%
at time of installation and used under dry conditions, the deflection
resulting from + 0.5 is permitted to be substituted for the deflection
resulting from + .

e. The above deflections do not ensure against ponding. Roofs that do not
have sufficient slope or camber to assure adequate drainage shall be
investigated for ponding. See Sec 1.6.5 for rain and ponding requirements.
f. The wind load is permitted to be taken as 0.7 times the “component and
cladding” loads for the purpose of determining deflection limits herein.

g. Deflection due to dead load shall include both instantaneous and long term
effects.

h. For aluminum structural members or aluminum panels used in skylights

and sloped glazing framing, roofs or walls of sunroom additions or patio
covers, not supporting edge of glass or aluminum sandwich panels, the
total load deflection shall not exceed /60. For continuous aluminum
structural members supporting edge of glass, the total load deflection shall
not exceed /175 for each glass lite or /60 for the entire length of the
member, whichever is more stringent. For aluminum sandwich panels used
in roofs or walls of sunroom additions or patio covers, the total load
deflection shall not exceed /120.

1.2.6 Rationality
Structural systems and components thereof shall be analyzed, designed and
constructed based on rational methods which shall include, but not be limited to the
provisions of Sec 1.2.7.
1.2.7 Analysis
Analysis of the structural systems shall be made for determining the load effects on
the resisting elements and connections, based on well-established principles of
mechanics taking equilibrium, geometric compatibility and both short and long term
properties of the construction materials into account and incorporating the following:
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1.2.5 Serviceability
Structural framing systems and components shall be designed with adequate stiffness
to have deflections, vibration, or any other deformations within the serviceability
limit of building or structure. The deflections of structural members shall not exceed
the more restrictive of the limitations provided in Chapters 2 through 13 or that
permitted by Table 6.1.2 or the notes that follow. For wind and earthquake loading,
story drift and sway shall be limited in accordance with the provisions of Sec 1.5.6.
In checking the serviceability, the load combinations and provisions of Sec 2.7.5
shall be followed.
Table 6.1.2: Deflection Limitsa, b, c, h (Except earthquake load)

Construction +

Roof members:e
Supporting plaster ceiling /360 /360 /240
Supporting non-plaster ceiling /240 /240 /180
Not supporting ceiling /180 /180 /120

Floor members /360 - /240

Exterior walls and interior partitions

With brittle finishes - /240
With flexible finishes - /120

Farm buildings - /180

Greenhouses - /120

Where, , , and stands for span of the member under consideration, live load,
wind load and dead load respectively.

Notes:
a. For structural roofing and siding made of formed metal sheets, the total
load deflection shall not exceed /60. For secondary roof structural
members supporting formed metal roofing, the live load deflection shall
not exceed /150. For secondary wall members supporting formed metal
siding, the design wind load deflection shall not exceed /90. For roofs,
this exception only applies when the metal sheets have no roof covering.
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1.2.10 Stability Against Overturning and Sliding

Every building or structure shall be designed to resist the overturning and sliding
effects caused by the lateral forces specified in this Chapter.
1.2.11 Anchorage
Anchorage of the roof to wall and columns, and of walls and columns to foundations,
shall be provided to resist the uplift and sliding forces resulting from the application
of the prescribed loads. Additional requirements for masonry or concrete walls shall
be those given in Sec 1.7.3.6.
1.2.12 General Structural Integrity
Buildings and structural systems shall possess general structural integrity that is the
ability to sustain local damage caused due to misuse or accidental overloading, with
the structure as a whole remaining stable and not being damaged to an extent
disproportionate to the original local damage.
1.2.13 Proportioning of Structural Elements
Structural elements, components and connections shall be proportioned and detailed
based on the design methods provided in the subsequent Chapters for various
materials of construction, such as reinforced concrete, masonry, steel etc. to resist
various load effects obtained from a rational analysis of the structural system.
1.2.14 Walls and Framing
Walls and structural framing shall be erected true to plumb in accordance with the
design. Interior walls, permanent partitions and temporary partitions exceeding 1.8 m
of height shall be designed to resist all loads to which they are subjected. If not
otherwise specified elsewhere in this Code, walls shall be designed for a minimum
load of 0.25 kN/m2 applied perpendicular to the wall surfaces. The deflection of such
-
walls under a load of 0.25 kN/m2 shall not exceed ./0 of the span for walls with
-
brittle finishes and -.0 of the span for walls with flexible finishes. However, flexible,
folding or portable partitions shall not be required to meet the above load and
deflection criteria, but shall be anchored to the supporting structure.
1.2.15 Additions to Existing Structures
When an existing building or structure is extended or otherwise altered, all portions
thereof affected by such cause shall be strengthened, if necessary, to comply with
the safety and serviceability requirements provided in Sections 1.2.4 and 1.2.5
respectively.
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1.2.16 Phased Construction

When a building or structure is planned or anticipated to undergo phased
construction, structural members therein shall be investigated and designed for any
additional stresses arising due to such construction.
1.2.17 Load Combinations and Stress Increase
Every building, structure, foundation or components thereof shall be designed to
sustain, within the allowable stress or specified strength (under factored load), the
most unfavourable effects resulting from various combinations of loads specified in
Sec 2.7. Except otherwise permitted or restricted by any other Sections of this Code,
maximum increase in the allowable stress shall be 33% when allowable or working
stress method of design is followed. For soil stresses due to foundation loads, load
combinations and stress increase specified in Sec 2.7.2 for allowable stress design
method shall be used.

1.3 Structural Systems

1.3.1 General
Every structure shall have one of the basic structural systems specified in Sec 1.3.2
or a combination thereof. The structural configuration shall be as specified in Sec
1.3.4 with the limitations imposed in Sec 2.5.5.4.
1.3.2 Basic Structural Systems
Structural systems for buildings and other structures shall be designated as one of the
types A to G listed in Table 6.1.3. Each type is again classified as shown in the Table
by the types of vertical elements used to resist lateral forces. A brief description of
different structural systems are presented in following sub-sections.
1.3.2.1 Bearing wall system
A structural system having bearing walls/bracing systems without a complete vertical
load carrying frame to support gravity loads. Resistance to lateral loads is provided
by shear walls or braced frames.
1.3.2.2 Building frame system
A structural system with an essentially complete space frame providing support for
gravity loads. Resistance to lateral loads is provided by shear walls or braced frames
separately.
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1.3.2.3 Moment resisting frame system

A structural system with an essentially complete space frame providing support for
gravity loads. Moment resisting frames also provide resistance to lateral load
primarily by flexural action of members, and may be classified as one of the
following types:
(a) Special Moment Frames (SMF)
(b) Intermediate Moment Frames (IMF)
(c) Ordinary Moment Frames (OMF).
The framing system, IMF and SMF shall have special detailing to provide ductile
behaviour conforming to the provisions of Sections 8.3 and 10.20 of Part 6 for
concrete and steel structures respectively. OMF need not conform to these special
ductility requirements of Chapter 8 or 10.

Table 6.1.3: Basic Structural Systems

A. BEARING WALL SYSTEMS (no frame)

1. Special reinforced concrete shear walls

2. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls

3. Ordinary reinforced masonry shear walls

4. Ordinary plain masonry shear walls

B. BUILDING FRAME SYSTEMS (with bracing or shear wall)

1. Steel eccentrically braced frames, moment resisting connections at columns away

from links

2. Steel eccentrically braced frames, non-moment-resisting, connections at columns

away from links

3. Special steel concentrically braced frames

4. Ordinary steel concentrically braced frames

5. Special reinforced concrete shear walls

6. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls

7. Ordinary reinforced masonry shear walls

8. Ordinary plain masonry shear walls

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C. MOMENT RESISTING FRAME SYSTEMS (no shear wall)

1. Special steel moment frames
2. Intermediate steel moment frames
3. Ordinary steel moment frames
4. Special reinforced concrete moment frames
5. Intermediate reinforced concrete moment frames
6. Ordinary reinforced concrete moment frames

D. DUAL SYSTEMS: SPECIAL MOMENT FRAMES CAPABLE OF RESISTING

AT LEAST 25% OF PRESCRIBED SEISMIC FORCES (with bracing or shear
wall)
1. Steel eccentrically braced frames
2. Special steel concentrically braced frames
3. Special reinforced concrete shear walls
4. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls
E. DUAL SYSTEMS: INTERMEDIATE MOMENT FRAMES CAPABLE OF
RESISTING AT LEAST 25% OF PRESCRIBED SEISMIC FORCES (with
bracing or shear wall)
1. Special steel concentrically braced frames
2. Special reinforced concrete shear walls
3. Ordinary reinforced masonry shear walls
4. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls
F. DUAL SHEAR WALL-FRAME SYSTEM: ORDINARY REINFORCED
CONCRETE MOMENT FRAMES AND ORDINARY REINFORCED
CONCRETE SHEAR WALLS
G. STEEL SYSTEMS NOT SPECIFICALLY DETAILED FOR SEISMIC
RESISTANCE

1.3.2.4 Dual system

A structural system having a combination of the following framing systems:
(a) Moment resisting frames (SMF, IMF or steel OMF), and
(b) Shear walls or braced frames.
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1.2.10 Stability Against Overturning and Sliding

Every building or structure shall be designed to resist the overturning and sliding
effects caused by the lateral forces specified in this Chapter.
1.2.11 Anchorage
Anchorage of the roof to wall and columns, and of walls and columns to foundations,
shall be provided to resist the uplift and sliding forces resulting from the application
of the prescribed loads. Additional requirements for masonry or concrete walls shall
be those given in Sec 1.7.3.6.
1.2.12 General Structural Integrity
Buildings and structural systems shall possess general structural integrity that is the
ability to sustain local damage caused due to misuse or accidental overloading, with
the structure as a whole remaining stable and not being damaged to an extent
disproportionate to the original local damage.
1.2.13 Proportioning of Structural Elements
Structural elements, components and connections shall be proportioned and detailed
based on the design methods provided in the subsequent Chapters for various
materials of construction, such as reinforced concrete, masonry, steel etc. to resist
various load effects obtained from a rational analysis of the structural system.
1.2.14 Walls and Framing
Walls and structural framing shall be erected true to plumb in accordance with the
design. Interior walls, permanent partitions and temporary partitions exceeding 1.8 m
of height shall be designed to resist all loads to which they are subjected. If not
otherwise specified elsewhere in this Code, walls shall be designed for a minimum
load of 0.25 kN/m2 applied perpendicular to the wall surfaces. The deflection of such
-
walls under a load of 0.25 kN/m2 shall not exceed ./0 of the span for walls with
-
brittle finishes and -.0 of the span for walls with flexible finishes. However, flexible,
folding or portable partitions shall not be required to meet the above load and
deflection criteria, but shall be anchored to the supporting structure.
1.2.15 Additions to Existing Structures
When an existing building or structure is extended or otherwise altered, all portions
thereof affected by such cause shall be strengthened, if necessary, to comply with
the safety and serviceability requirements provided in Sections 1.2.4 and 1.2.5
respectively.
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Table 6.1.4: Vertical Irregularities of Structures

Vertical Definition Reference

Irregularity Section
Type

I a. Stiffness Irregularity (Soft Storey):

Soft storey is one in which the lateral stiffness is less than 70 1.7.3.8,
percent of that in the storey above or less than 80 percent of 2.5.5 to
the average stiffness of the three storeys above. 2.5.14
b. Stiffness Irregularity (Extreme Soft Storey): and
2.5.17
Extreme soft storey irregularity is defined to exist where there
is a story in which the lateral stiffness is less than 60% of that
in the story above or less than 70% of the average stiffness of
the three stories above.
II Mass Irregularity:
Mass irregularity shall be considered to exist where the effective 2.5.5 to
mass of any storey is more than 150 percent of the effective 2.5.14
mass of an adjacent storey. A roof which is lighter than the floor
below need not be considered.
III Vertical Geometric Irregularity:
Vertical geometric irregularity shall be considered to exist 2.5.5 to
where horizontal dimension of the lateral force-resisting system 2.5.14
in any storey is more than 130 percent of that in an adjacent
storey, one-storey penthouses need not be considered.
IV In-Plane Discontinuity in Vertical Lateral Force-Resisting
Element: 1.7.3.8,
An in-plane offset of the lateral load-resisting elements greater 2.5.5 to
than the length of those elements. 2.5.14
Va Discontinuity in Capacity (Weak Storey):
A weak storey is one in which the storey strength is less than 80 2.5.5 to
percent of that in the storey above. The storey strength is the 2.5.14
total strength of all seismic-resisting elements sharing the storey and
shear for the direction under consideration. 2.5.17
Vb Extreme Discontinuity in Capacity (Very Weak Storey):
A very weak storey is one in which the storey strength is less 2.5.5 to
than 65 percent of that in the storey above. 2.5.14
and
2.5.17
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Table 6.1.5: Plan (Horizontal) Irregularities of Structures

Plan Definition Reference

Irregularity Section
Type
I Torsional Irregularity (to be considered when diaphragms
are not flexible): 1.7.3.8,
a. Torsional irregularity shall be considered to exist when the 2.5.5 to
maximum storey drift, computed including accidental 2.5.14
torsion, at one end of the structure is more than 1.2 times
the average of the storey drifts at the two ends of the
structure.
b. Extreme Torsional Irregularity is defined to exist where the
maximum story drift, computed including accidental
torsion, at one end of the structure transverse to an axis is
more than 1.4 times the average of the story drifts at the
two ends of the structure. Extreme torsional irregularity
requirements in the reference sections apply only to
structures in which the diaphragms are rigid or semirigid.

II Reentrant Corners:
Plan configurations of a structure and its lateral force-resisting 1.7.3.8,
system contain reentrant corners, where both projections of the 2.5.5 to
structure beyond a reentrant corner are greater than 15 percent 2.5.14
of the plan dimension of the structure in the given direction.

III Diaphragm Discontinuity:

Diaphragms with abrupt discontinuities or variations in 1.7.3.8,
stiffness, including those having cutout or open areas greater 2.5.5 to
than 50 percent of the gross enclosed area of the diaphragm, or 2.5.14
changes in effective diaphragm stiffness of more than 50
percent from one storey to the next.

IV Out-of-plane Offsets: 1.7.3.8,

Discontinuities in a lateral force path, such as out-of-plane 2.5.5 to
offsets of the vertical elements. 2.5.14

V Nonparallel Systems:
The vertical lateral load-resisting elements are not parallel to or 2.5.5 to
symmetric about the major orthogonal axes of the lateral force- 2.5.15
resisting system.
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1.4 Design For Gravity Loads

1.4.1 General
Design of buildings and components thereof for gravity loads shall conform to the
requirements of this Section. Gravity loads, such as dead load and live loads applied
at the floors or roof of a building shall be determined in accordance with the
provisions of Chapter 2 of this Part.
1.4.2 Floor Design
Floor slabs and decks shall be designed for the full dead and live loads as specified in
Sections 2.2 and 2.3 respectively. Floor supporting elements such as beams, joists,
columns etc. shall be designed for the full dead load and the appropriately reduced
live loads set forth by the provisions of Sec 2.3.13. Design of floor elements shall
also conform to the following provisions:
(a) Uniformly Distributed Loads: Where uniform floor loads are involved,
consideration may be limited to full dead load on all spans in combination
with full live load on adjacent spans and on alternate spans to determine
the most unfavourable effect of stresses in the member concerned.
(b) Concentrated Loads: Provision shall be made in designing floors for a
concentrated load as set forth in Sec 2.3.5 applied at a location wherever
this load acting upon an otherwise unloaded floor would produce stresses
greater than those caused by the uniform load required therefore.
(c) Partition Loads: Loads due to permanent partitions shall be treated as a
dead load applied over the floor as a uniform line load having intensity
equal to the weight per metre run of the partitions as specified in Sec
2.2.5. Loads for light movable partitions shall be determined in
accordance with the provisions of Sec 2.3.6.
(d) Design of Members: Floor members, such as slabs or decks, beams, joists
etc. shall be designed to sustain the worst effect of the dead plus live
loads or any other load combinations as specified in Sec 2.7. Where floors
are used as diaphragms to transmit lateral loads between various resisting
elements, those loads shall be determined following the provisions of Sec
1.7.3.8. Detailed design of the floor elements shall be performed using the
procedures provided in Chapters 4 to 13 of Part 6 for various construction
materials.
(e) Floors and associated structural members shall have adequate strength
and stiffness to prevent undesirable vibration due to human activity (e.g
walking, dancing, jumping, sporting activities etc.) or vibration caused by
machines which causes discomfort to the occupants and which is
detrimental to the safety, integrity and durability of the structure.
3074 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

1.4.3 Roof Design

Roofs and their supporting elements shall be designed to sustain, within their
allowable stresses or specified strength limits, all dead loads and live loads as set out
by the provisions of Sections 2.2 and 2.3 respectively. Design of roof members shall
also conform to the following requirements:
(a) Application of Loads: When uniformly distributed loads are considered
for the design of continuous structural members, load including full dead
loads on all spans in combination with full live loads on adjacent spans
and on alternate span, shall be investigated to determine the worst effects
of loading. Concentrated roof live loads and special roof live loads, where
applicable, shall also be considered in design.
(b) Unbalanced Loading: Effects due to unbalanced loads shall be considered
in the design of roof members and connections where such loading will
result in more critical stresses. Trusses and arches shall be designed to
resist the stresses caused by uniform live loads on one half of the span if
such loading results in reverse stresses, or stresses greater in any portion
than the stresses produced by this unit live load when applied upon the
entire span.
(c) Rain Loads: Roofs, where ponding of rain water is anticipated due to
blockage of roof drains, excessive deflection or insufficient slopes, shall
be designed to support such loads. Loads on roofs due to rain shall be
determined in accordance with the provisions of Sec 2.6.2. In addition to
the dead load of the roof, either the roof live load or the rain load,
whichever is of higher intensity, shall be considered in design.
1.4.4 Reduction of Live Loads
The design live loads specified in Sec 2.3, may be reduced to appropriate values as
permitted by the provisions of Sections 2.3.13 and 2.3.14.
1.4.5 Posting of Live Loads
In every building, of which the floors or parts thereof have a design live load of 3.5
kN/m2 or more, and which are used as library stack room, file room, parking garage,
machine or plant room, or used for industrial or storage purposes, the owner of the
building shall ensure that the live loads for which such space has been designed, are
posted on durable metal plates as shown in Figure 6.1.1, securely affixed in a
conspicuous place in each space to which they relate. If such plates are lost,
removed, or defaced, owner shall be responsible to have them replaced.
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1.4.6 Restrictions on Loading

The building owner shall ensure that the live load for which a floor or roof is or has
been designed, will not be exceeded during its use.

Figure 6.1.1 Sample live load sign

1.4.7 Special Considerations

In the absence of actual dead and live load data, the minimum values of these loads
shall be those specified in Sections 2.2 and 2.3. In addition, special consideration
shall be given to the following aspects of loading and due allowances shall be made
in design if occurrence of such loading is anticipated after construction of a building:
(a) Increase in Dead Load: Actual thickness of the concrete slabs or other
members may become larger than the designed thickness due to
movements or deflections of the formwork during construction.
(b) Future Installations: Changes in the numbers, types and positions of
partitions and other installations may increase actual load on the floors of
a building.
(c) Occupancy Changes: Increase in live loads due to changes of occupancy
involving loads heavier than that being designed for.
3076 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

1.4.8 Deflection and Camber

Structural systems and members thereof shall be designed to have adequate stiffness
to limit deflections. The deflections of structural members shall not exceed the more
restrictive of the limitations of Chapters 2 to 13 of this Part or that permitted by
Table 6.1.2.or provisions of Sec 1.2.5 of this Chapter. In calculating deflections due
to gravity loads, long term effects (e.g. creep, shrinkage or stress relaxation) should
also be considered.

1.5 Design For Lateral Loads

1.5.1 General
Every building, structure or portions thereof shall be designed to resist the lateral
load effects, such as those due to wind or earthquake forces, in compliance with the
requirements prescribed in this Section.
1.5.2 Selection of Lateral Force for Design
Any of the lateral loads prescribed in Chapter 2, considered either alone or in
combination with other forces, whichever produces the most critical effect, shall
govern the design. However, the structural detailing requirements shall comply with
those prescribed in Sec 1.7 of this Chapter. When a dual structural system is used to
resist lateral loads, design shall also conform to Sec 1.3.2.4 of this Chapter.
1.5.3 Design for Wind Load
Design of buildings and their components to resist wind induced forces shall comply
with the following requirements:
1.5.3.1 Direction of wind
Structural design for wind forces shall be based on assumption that wind may blow
from any horizontal direction.
1.5.3.2 Design considerations
Design wind load on the primary framing systems and components of a building or
structure shall be determined on the basis of the procedures provided in Sec 2.4
Chapter 2 Part 6 considering the basic wind speed, shape and size of the building,
and the terrain exposure condition of the site. For slender buildings and structures,
dynamic response characteristics, such as fundamental natural frequency, shall be
determined to estimate gust response coefficient. Load effects, such as forces,
moments, and deflections etc. on various components of building due to wind shall
be determined from static analysis of the structure as specified in Sec 1.2.7.1 of this
Chapter.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3077

1.5.3.3 Shielding effect

Reductions in wind pressure on buildings and structures due to apparent direct
shielding effects of the up wind obstructions, such as man-made constructions or
natural terrain features, shall not be permitted.
1.5.3.4 Dynamic effects
Dynamic wind forces such as that from along-wind vibrations caused by the dynamic
wind-structure interaction effects, as set forth by the provisions of Sec 2.4.8 Chapter
2 Part 6, shall be considered in the design of regular shaped slender buildings. For
other dynamic effects such as cross-wind or torsional responses as may be
experienced by buildings or structures having unusual geometrical shapes (i.e.
vertical or plan irregularities listed in Tables 6.1.4 and 6.1.5), response
characteristics, or site locations, structural design shall be made based on the
information obtained either from other reliable references or from wind-tunnel test
specified in Sec 1.5.3.5 below, complying with the other requirements of this
Section.
1.5.3.5 Wind tunnel test
Properly conducted wind-tunnel tests shall be required for those buildings or
structures having unusual geometric shapes, response characteristics, or site locations
for which cross-wind response such as vortex shedding, galloping etc. warrant
special consideration, and for which no reliable literature for the determination of
such effects is available. This test is also recommended for those buildings or
structures for which more accurate wind-loading information is desired than those
given in this Section and in Sec 2.4. Tests for the determination of mean and
fluctuating components of forces and pressures shall be considered to be properly
conducted only if the following requirements are satisfied:
(a) The natural wind has been modelled to account for the variation of wind
speed with height,
(b) The intensity of the longitudinal components of turbulence has been taken
into consideration in the model,
(c) The geometric scale of the structural model is not more than three times
the geometric scale of the longitudinal component of turbulence,
(d) The response characteristics of the wind tunnel instrumentation are
consistent with the measurements to be made, and
(e) The Reynolds number is taken into consideration when determining
forces and pressures on the structural elements.
3078 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Tests for the purpose of determining the dynamic response of a structure shall be
considered to be properly conducted only if requirements (a) through (e) above are
fulfilled and, in addition, the structural model is scaled with due consideration to
length, distribution of mass, stiffness and damping of the structure.
1.5.3.6 Wind loads during construction
Buildings, structures and portions thereof under construction, and construction
structures such as formwork, staging etc. shall be provided with adequate temporary
bracings or other lateral supports to resist the wind load on them during the erection
and construction phase.
1.5.3.7 Masonry construction in high-wind regions
Design and construction of masonry structures in high-wind regions shall conform to
the requirements of relevant Sections of Chapter 7 Part 6.
1.5.3.8 Height limits
Unless otherwise specified elsewhere in this Code, no height limits shall be imposed,
in general, on the design and construction of buildings or structures to resist wind
induced forces.
1.5.4 Design for Earthquake Forces
Design of structures and components thereof to resist the effects of earthquake forces
shall comply with the requirements of this Section.
1.5.4.1 Basic design consideration
For the purpose of earthquake resistant design, each structure shall be placed in one
of the seismic zones as given in Sec 2.5.4.2 and assigned with a structure importance
category as set forth in Sec 2.5.5.1. The seismic forces on structures shall be
determined considering seismic zoning, site soil characteristics, structure importance,
structural systems and configurations, height and dynamic properties of the structure
as provided in Sec 2.5. The structural system and configuration types for a building
or a structure shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of Sec 2.5.5.4.
Other seismic design requirements shall be those specified in this Section.
1.5.4.2 Requirements for directional effects
The directions of application of seismic forces used in the design shall be those
which will produce the most critical load effects. Earthquake forces act in both
principal directions of the building simultaneously. Design provisions for considering
earthquake component in orthogonal directions have been provided in Sec 2.5.13.1.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3079

1.5.4.3 Structural system and configuration requirements

Seismic design provisions impose the following limitations on the use of structural
systems and configurations:
(a) The structural system used shall satisfy requirements of the Seismic
Design Category (defined in Sec. 2.5.5.2) and height limitations given in
Sec 2.5.5.4.
(b) Structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D having vertical
irregularity Type Vb of Table 6.1.4 shall not be permitted. Structures with
such vertical irregularity may be permitted for Seismic Design Category
B or C but shall not be over two stories or 9 m in height.
(c) Structures having irregular features described in Table 1.3.2 or Table
1.3.3 shall be designed in compliance with the additional requirements of
the Sections referenced in these Tables.
(d) Special Structural Systems defined in Sec 1.3.2.5 may be permitted if it
can be demonstrated by analytical and test data to be equivalent, with
regard to dynamic characteristics, lateral force resistance and energy
absorption, to one of the structural systems listed in Table 6.2.19, for
obtaining an equivalent R and Cd value for seismic design.
1.5.4.4 Methods of analysis
Earthquake forces and their effects on various structural elements shall be
determined by using either a static analysis method or a dynamic analysis method
whichever is applicable based on the limitations set forth in Sections 2.5.5 to 2.5.12
and conforming to Sec 1.2.7.
1.5.4.5 Minimum design seismic force
The minimum design seismic forces shall be those determined in accordance with the
Sections 2.5.5 to 2.5.14 whichever is applicable.
1.5.4.6 Distribution of seismic forces
The total lateral seismic forces and moments shall be distributed among various
resisting elements at any level and along the vertical direction of a building or
structure in accordance with the provisions of Sections 2.5.5 to 2.5.12 as appropriate.
1.5.4.7 Vertical components of seismic forces
Design provisions for considering vertical component of earthquake ground motion
is given in Sec 2.5.13.2
3080 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

1.5.4.8 Height limits

Height limitations for different structural systems are given in Table 6.2.19 of Sec
2.5.3.4 Chapter 2 Part 6 of this Code as a function of seismic design category.
1.5.4.9 Non-building structures
Seismic lateral force on non-building structures shall be determined in accordance
with the provisions of ASCE 7: Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and other
Structures. However, provisions of ASCE 7 may be simplified, consistent with the
provisions of Sec 2.5 Part 6 of this Code. Other design requirements shall be those
provided in this Chapter.
1.5.5 Overturning Requirements
Every structure shall be designed to resist the overturning effects caused by wind or
earthquake forces specified in Sections 2.4 and 2.5 respectively as well other lateral
forces like earth pressure, tidal surge etc. The overturning moment Mx at any storey
level-x of a building shall be determined as:
= ∑ 5- 3ℎ ℎ 4 (6.1.1)
Where,
ℎ , ℎ , ℎ = Height in metres at level- , -x or -n respectively.
= Lateral force applied at level- , = 1 to .
At any level, the increment of overturning moment shall be distributed to the various
resisting elements in the same manner as the distribution of horizontal shear
prescribed in Sec 2.5.7.5. Overturning effects on every element shall be carried down
to the foundation level.
1.5.6 Drift and Building Separation
1.5.6.1 Storey drift limitation
Storey drift is the horizontal displacement of one level of a building or structure
relative to the level above or below due to the design gravity (dead and live loads) or
lateral forces (e.g. wind and earthquake loads). Calculated storey drift shall include
both translational and torsional deflections and conform to the following
requirements:
(a) Storey drift, ∆, for loads other than earthquake loads, shall be limited as
follows:
∆ ≤ 0.005ℎ for < 0.7 second
∆ ≤ 0.004ℎ for ≥ 0.7 second
∆ ≤ 0.0025ℎ for unreinforced masonry structures.
3074 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

1.4.3 Roof Design

Roofs and their supporting elements shall be designed to sustain, within their
allowable stresses or specified strength limits, all dead loads and live loads as set out
by the provisions of Sections 2.2 and 2.3 respectively. Design of roof members shall
also conform to the following requirements:
(a) Application of Loads: When uniformly distributed loads are considered
for the design of continuous structural members, load including full dead
loads on all spans in combination with full live loads on adjacent spans
and on alternate span, shall be investigated to determine the worst effects
of loading. Concentrated roof live loads and special roof live loads, where
applicable, shall also be considered in design.
(b) Unbalanced Loading: Effects due to unbalanced loads shall be considered
in the design of roof members and connections where such loading will
result in more critical stresses. Trusses and arches shall be designed to
resist the stresses caused by uniform live loads on one half of the span if
such loading results in reverse stresses, or stresses greater in any portion
than the stresses produced by this unit live load when applied upon the
entire span.
(c) Rain Loads: Roofs, where ponding of rain water is anticipated due to
blockage of roof drains, excessive deflection or insufficient slopes, shall
be designed to support such loads. Loads on roofs due to rain shall be
determined in accordance with the provisions of Sec 2.6.2. In addition to
the dead load of the roof, either the roof live load or the rain load,
whichever is of higher intensity, shall be considered in design.
1.4.4 Reduction of Live Loads
The design live loads specified in Sec 2.3, may be reduced to appropriate values as
permitted by the provisions of Sections 2.3.13 and 2.3.14.
1.4.5 Posting of Live Loads
In every building, of which the floors or parts thereof have a design live load of 3.5
kN/m2 or more, and which are used as library stack room, file room, parking garage,
machine or plant room, or used for industrial or storage purposes, the owner of the
building shall ensure that the live loads for which such space has been designed, are
posted on durable metal plates as shown in Figure 6.1.1, securely affixed in a
conspicuous place in each space to which they relate. If such plates are lost,
removed, or defaced, owner shall be responsible to have them replaced.
3082 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.6. Structural members subject to miscellaneous loads, not specified in Sec 2.6 shall
be designed using well established methods given in any reliable references, and
complying with the other requirements of this Code.

1.6.2 Self-Straining Forces

Self-straining forces such as those arising due to assumed differential settlements of

foundations and from restrained dimensional changes due to temperature, moisture,
shrinkage, creep, and similar effects, shall be taken into consideration in the design
of structural members.

1.6.3 Stress Reversal and Fatigue

Structural members and joints shall be investigated and designed against possible
stress reversals caused due to various construction loads. Where required, allowance
shall be made in the design to account for the effects of fatigue. The allowable stress
may be appropriately reduced to account for such effects in the structural members.

1.6.4 Flood, Tidal/Storm Surge and Tsunami

Buildings, structures and components thereof shall be designed, constructed and

anchored to resist flotation, collapse or any permanent movement due to loads
including flood, tidal/Storm surge and tsunami, when applicable. Structural members
shall be designed to resist both hydrostatic and significant hydrodynamic loads and
effects of buoyancy resulting from flood or surge. Flood and surge loads on buildings
and structures shall be determined in accordance with Sec 2.6.3. Load combination
including flood and surge loads shall conform to Sec 2.7. Design of foundations to
sustain these load effects shall conform to the provisions of Sec 1.8.
Stability against overturning and sliding caused due to wind and flood or surge loads
simultaneously shall be investigated, and such effects shall be resisted with a
minimum factor of safety of 1.5, considering dead load only.
1.6.5 Rain Loads
Roofs of the buildings and structures as well as their other components which may
have the capability of retaining rainwater shall be designed for adequate gravity load
induced by ponding. Roofs and such other components shall be analysed and
designed for load due to ponding caused by accidental blockage of drainage system
complying with Sec. 2.6.2.
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1.6.6 Other Loads

Buildings and structures and their components shall be analyzed and designed for
stresses caused by the following effects:
(a) Temperature Effects (Sec 2.6.4).
(b) Soil and Hydrostatic Pressure (Sec 2.6.5).
(c) Impacts and Collisions
(d) Explosions (Sec 2.6.6).
(e) Fire
(f) Vertical Forces on Air Raid Shelters (Sec 2.6.7).
(g) Loads on Helicopter Landing Areas (Sec 2.6.8).
(h) Erection and Construction Loads (Sec 2.6.9).
(i) Moving Loads for Crane Movements
(j) Creep and Shrinkage
(k) Dynamic Loads due to Vibrations
(l) Construction Loads
Design of buildings and structures shall include loading and stresses caused by the
above effects in accordance with the provisions set forth in Chapter 2.

1.7 Detailed Design Requirements

1.7.1 General
All structural framing systems shall comply with the requirements of this Section.
Only the elements of the designated lateral force resisting systems can be used to
resist design lateral forces specified in Chapter 2. The individual components shall be
designed to resist the prescribed forces acting on them. Design of components shall
also comply with the specific requirements for the materials contained in Chapters 4
to 13. In addition, such framing systems and components shall comply with the
design requirements provided in this Section.
1.7.2 Structural Framing Systems
The basic structural systems are defined in Sec 1.3.2 and shown in Table 6.1.3, and
each type is subdivided by the types of framing elements used to resist the lateral
forces. The structural system used shall satisfy requirements of seismic design
category and height limitations indicated in Table 6.2.19. Special framing
requirements are given in the following Sections in addition to those provided in
Chapters 4 to 13.
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1.4.8 Deflection and Camber

Structural systems and members thereof shall be designed to have adequate stiffness
to limit deflections. The deflections of structural members shall not exceed the more
restrictive of the limitations of Chapters 2 to 13 of this Part or that permitted by
Table 6.1.2.or provisions of Sec 1.2.5 of this Chapter. In calculating deflections due
to gravity loads, long term effects (e.g. creep, shrinkage or stress relaxation) should
also be considered.

1.5 Design For Lateral Loads

1.5.1 General
Every building, structure or portions thereof shall be designed to resist the lateral
load effects, such as those due to wind or earthquake forces, in compliance with the
requirements prescribed in this Section.
1.5.2 Selection of Lateral Force for Design
Any of the lateral loads prescribed in Chapter 2, considered either alone or in
combination with other forces, whichever produces the most critical effect, shall
govern the design. However, the structural detailing requirements shall comply with
those prescribed in Sec 1.7 of this Chapter. When a dual structural system is used to
resist lateral loads, design shall also conform to Sec 1.3.2.4 of this Chapter.
1.5.3 Design for Wind Load
Design of buildings and their components to resist wind induced forces shall comply
with the following requirements:
1.5.3.1 Direction of wind
Structural design for wind forces shall be based on assumption that wind may blow
from any horizontal direction.
1.5.3.2 Design considerations
Design wind load on the primary framing systems and components of a building or
structure shall be determined on the basis of the procedures provided in Sec 2.4
Chapter 2 Part 6 considering the basic wind speed, shape and size of the building,
and the terrain exposure condition of the site. For slender buildings and structures,
dynamic response characteristics, such as fundamental natural frequency, shall be
determined to estimate gust response coefficient. Load effects, such as forces,
moments, and deflections etc. on various components of building due to wind shall
be determined from static analysis of the structure as specified in Sec 1.2.7.1 of this
Chapter.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3085

(iii) Bodies of connections shall have sufficient ductility and rotation

capability to preclude any fracture of the anchoring elements or
brittle failures at or near welding.
(iv) Bodies of the connection shall be designed for 1.33 times the
seismic force determined by Sec. 2.5.15 of Chapter 2, or equivalent.
(v) All fasteners in the connection system, such as bolts, inserts, welds,
dowels etc. shall be designed for 4 times the forces determined by
Sec. 2.5.15 of Chapter 2 or equivalent.
(vi) Fasteners embedded in concrete shall be attached to, or hooked
around reinforcing steel, or otherwise terminated so as to transfer
forces to the reinforcing steel effectively.
1.7.3.3 Ties and continuity
All parts of a structure shall be interconnected. These connections shall be capable of
transmitting the prescribed lateral force to the lateral force resisting system.
Individual members, including those not part of the seismic force–resisting system,
shall be provided with adequate strength to resist the shears, axial forces, and
moments determined in accordance with this Code. Connections shall develop the
strength of the connected members and shall be capable of transmitting the seismic
force ( G ) induced by the parts being connected.
1.7.3.4 Collector elements
Collector elements shall be provided which are capable of transferring the lateral
forces originating in other portions of the structure to the element providing the
resistance to those forces.
1.7.3.5 Concrete frames
When concrete frames are provided by design to be part of the lateral force resisting
system, they shall conform to the provisions of Chapter 8 of this Part.
1.7.3.6 Anchorage of concrete and masonry structural walls
The concrete and masonry structural walls shall be anchored to supporting
construction. The anchorage shall provide a positive direct connection between the
wall and floor or roof and shall be capable of resisting the horizontal forces specified
in Sections 2.4.11 and 2.5.15, or a minimum force of 4.09 kN/m of wall. Walls shall
be designed to resist bending between anchors where the anchor spacing exceeds 1.2
m. In masonry walls of hollow units or cavity walls, anchors shall be embedded in a
reinforced grouted structural element of the wall. Deformations of the floor and roof
diaphragms shall be considered in the design of the supported walls and the
anchorage forces in the diaphragms shall be determined in accordance with Sec
1.7.3.9 below.
3086 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

1.7.3.7 Boundary members

Specially detailed boundary members shall be considered for shear walls and shear
wall elements whenever their design is governed by flexure.
1.7.3.8 Floor and roof diaphragms
Deflection in the plane of the diaphragm shall not exceed the permissible deflection
of the attached elements. Permissible deflection shall be that deflection which will
permit the attached element to maintain its structural integrity under the individual
loading and continue to support the prescribed loads. Design of diaphragms shall also
comply with the following requirements.
(a) Diaphragm Forces: Diaphragms shall be designed to resist the seismic
forces given in Sec 2.5 or for similar non-seismic lateral forces,
whichever is greater.
(b) Diaphragm Ties: Diaphragms supporting concrete or masonry walls shall
have continuous ties, or struts between the diaphragm chords to distribute
the anchorage forces specified in Sec 1.7.3.6 above. Added chords may
be provided to form sub-diaphragms to transmit the anchorage forces to
the main cross ties.
(c) Wood Diaphragms: Where wood diaphragms are used to laterally support
concrete or masonry walls, the anchorage shall conform to Sec 1.7.3.6
above. In seismic Zones 2, 3 and 4 the following requirements shall also
apply:
(i) Anchorage shall not be accomplished by use of toe nails or nails
subject to withdrawal, nor shall wood ledgers or framing be used in
cross-grain bending or cross-grain tension.
(ii) The continuous ties required by paragraph (b) above, shall be in
addition to the diaphragm sheathing.
(d) Structures having irregularities
(i) For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D and having a
plan irregularity of Type I, II, III, or IV in Table 6.1.5 or a vertical
structural irregularity of Type IV in Table 6.1.4, the design forces
determined from Sec 2.5.7 shall be increased 25 percent for
connections of diaphragms to vertical elements and to collectors and
for connections of collectors to the vertical elements. Collectors and
their connections also shall be designed for these increased forces
unless they are designed for the load combinations with over
strength factor.
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(ii) For structures having a plan irregularity of Type II in Table 6.1.5,

diaphragm chords and collectors shall be designed considering
independent movement of any projecting wings of the structure.
Each of these diaphragm elements shall be designed for the more
severe of the following cases:
 Motion of the projecting wings in the same direction.
 Motion of the projecting wings in opposing directions.
Exception:
This requirement may be deemed to be satisfied if the procedures of Sec 2.5.8 when
seismic forces are present, in conjunction with a three dimensional model, have been
used to determine the lateral seismic forces for design.
1.7.3.9 Framing below the base
When structural framings continue below the base, the following requirements shall
be satisfied.
(a) Framing between the Base and the Foundation: The strength and
stiffness of the framing between the base and the foundation shall not be
less than that of the superstructure. The special detailing requirements of
Sec 8.3 or Sec 10.20, as appropriate for reinforced concrete or steel, shall
apply to columns supporting discontinuous lateral force resisting
elements and to SMF, IMF, and EBF system elements below the base that
are required to transmit forces resulting from lateral loads to foundation.
(b) Foundations : The foundation shall be capable of transmitting the design
base shear and the overturning forces from the superstructure into the
supporting soil, but the short term dynamic nature of the loads may be
taken into account in establishing the soil properties. Sec 1.8 below
prescribes the additional requirements for specific types of foundation
construction.

1.8 Foundation Design Requirements

1.8.1 General
The design and construction of foundation, foundation components and connection
between the foundation and superstructure shall conform to the requirements of this
Section and applicable provisions of Chapter 3 and other portions of this Code.
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1.8.2 Soil Capacities

The bearing capacity of the soil, or the capacity of the soil-foundation system
including footing, pile, pier or caisson and the soil, shall be sufficient to support the
structure with all prescribed loads, considering the settlement of the structure. For
piles, this refers to pile capacity as determined by pile-soil friction and bearing which
may be determined in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 3. For the load
combination including earthquake, the soil capacity shall be sufficient to resist loads
at acceptable strains considering both the short time loading and the dynamic
properties of the soil. The stress and settlement of soil under applied loads shall be
determined based on established methods of Soil Mechanics.
1.8.3 Superstructure-to-Foundation Connection
The connection of superstructure elements to the foundation shall be adequate to
transmit to the foundation the forces for which the elements are required to be
designed.
1.8.4 Foundation-Soil Interface
For regular buildings the base overturning moments for the entire structure or for any
one of its lateral force-resisting elements, shall not exceed two-thirds of the dead load
resisting moment. The weight of the earth superimposed over footings may be used
to calculate the dead load resisting moment.
1.8.5 Special Requirements for Footings, Piles and Caissons in Seismic Zones
2, 3 and 4
1.8.5.1 Piles and caissons
Piles and caissons shall be designed for flexure whenever the top of such members is
anticipated to be laterally displaced by earthquake motions. The criteria and detailing
requirements of Sec 8.3 for concrete and Sec 10.20 for steel shall apply for a length
of such members equal to 120 percent of the flexural length.
1.8.5.2 Footing interconnection
(a) Footings and pile caps shall be completely interconnected by strut ties or
other equivalent means to restrain their lateral movements in any
orthogonal direction.
(b) The strut ties or other equivalent means as specified in (a) above, shall be
capable of resisting in tension or compression a force not less than 10%
of the larger footing or column load unless it can be demonstrated that
equivalent restraint can be provided by frictional and passive soil
resistance or by other established means.
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1.8.6 Retaining wall design

Retaining walls shall be designed to resist the lateral pressure of the retained material,
under drained or undrained conditions and including surcharge, in accordance with
established engineering practice. For such walls, the minimum factor of safety against
base overturning and sliding due to applied earth pressure shall be 1.5.

1.9 Design and Construction Review

Every building or structure designed shall have its design documents prepared in
accordance with the provisions of Sec 1.9.1. The minimum requirements for design
review and construction observation shall be those set forth under Sections 1.9.2 and
1.9.3 respectively.
1.9.1 Design Document
The design documents shall be prepared and signed by the Engineer responsible for
the structural design of any building or structure intended for construction. The
design documents shall include a design report, material specifications and a set of
structural drawings, which shall be prepared in compliance with Sections 1.9.2 and
1.9.3 below for submittal to the concerned authority. For the purpose of this
provision, the concerned authority shall be either persons from the government
approval agency for the construction, or the owner of the building or the structure, or
one of his representatives.
1.9.2 Design Report
The design report shall contain the description of the structural design with basic
design information as provided below, so that any other structural design engineer
will be able to independently verify the design parameters and the member sizes
using these basic information. The design report shall include, but not be limited to,
the following:
(a) Mention of this Code including relevant Part, Chapter and Section.
(b) Name of other referenced standards, and the specific portions, stating
chapter, section etc. of these Code and standards including any specialist
report used for the structural design.
(c) Methods used for the calculation of all applied loads along with basic
load coefficients and other basic information including any assumption or
judgment made under special circumstances.
3090 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021
(d) A drawing of the complete mathematical model prepared in accordance
with Sec 1.2.7.1 to represent the structure and showing on it the values,
locations and directions of all applied loads, and location of the lateral
load resisting systems such as shear walls, braced frames etc.
(e) Methods of structural analysis, and results of the analysis such as shear,
moment, axial force etc., used for proportioning various structural
members and joints including foundation members.
(f) Methods of structural design including types and strength of the materials
of construction used for proportioning the structural members.
(g) Reference of the soil report or any other documents used in the design of
the structure, foundation or components thereof.
(h) Statement supporting the validity of the above design documents with
date and signature of the engineer responsible for the structural design.
(i) When computer programs are used, to any extent, to aid in the analysis or
design of the structure, the following items, in addition to items (a) to (g)
above, shall be required to be included in the design report:
(i) A sketch of the mathematical model used to represent the structure
in the computer generated analysis.
(ii) The computer output containing the date of processing, program
identification, identification of structures being analysed, all input
data, units and final results. The computer input data shall be clearly
distinguished from those computed in the program.
(iii) A program description containing the information necessary to
verify the input data and interpret the results to determine the nature
and extent of the analysis and to check whether the computations
comply with the provisions of this Code.
(iv) The first sheet of each computer run shall be signed by the engineer
responsible for the structural design.
1.9.3 Structural Drawings and Material Specifications
The structural drawings shall include, but not be limited to, the following:
(a) The first sheet shall contain :
(i) Identification of the project to which the building or the structure, or
portion thereof belongs,
(ii) Reference to the design report specified in Sec 1.9.2 above,
(iii) Date of completion of design, and
(iv) Identification and signature with date of the engineer responsible for
the structural design.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3081

Where, ℎ = height of floor. The period used in this calculation shall be

the same as that used for determining the base shear in Sec 2.5.7.2.
(b) The drift limits set out in (a) above may be exceeded where it can be
demonstrated that greater drift can be tolerated by both structural and
nonstructural elements without affecting life safety.
(c) For earthquake loads, the story drift, ∆ shall be limited in accordance with
the limits set forth in Sec 2.5.14.1
1.5.6.2 Sway limitation
The overall sway (horizontal deflection) at the top level of the building or structure
-
due to wind loading shall not exceed 500 times the total height of the building above
ground, in accordance with Sec 2.7.5.
1.5.7 Building Separation
All components of a structure shall be designed and constructed to act as an integral
unit unless they are separated structurally by a distance sufficient to avoid contact
under the most unfavorable condition of deflections due to lateral loads. For seismic
loads, design guidelines are given in Sec 2.5.14.3.
1.5.8 P-Delta Effects
The resulting member forces and moments and the storey drifts induced by P-Delta
effects need not be considered when the stability coefficient (F) remains within 0.10.
This coefficient (described in Sec 2.5.7.9) may be evaluated for any storey as the
product of the total vertical dead and live loads above the storey and the lateral drift
in that storey divided by the product of the storey shear in that storey and the height
of that storey.
1.5.9 Uplift Effects
Uplift effects caused due to lateral loads shall be considered in design. When
allowable (working) stress method is used for design, dead loads used to reduce
uplift shall be multiplied by a factor of 0.85.

1.6 Design For Miscellaneous Loads

1.6.1 General
Buildings, structures and components thereof, when subject to loads other than dead,
live, wind and earthquake loads, shall be designed in accordance with the provisions
of this Section. Miscellaneous loads, such as those due to temperature, rain, flood
and surge etc. on buildings or structures, shall be determined in accordance with Sec
3092 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

1.9.4 Design Review

The design documents specified in Sec 1.9.1 shall be available for review when
required by the concerned authority. Review shall be accomplished by an
independent structural engineer qualified for this task and appointed by the
concerned authority. Design review shall be performed through independent
calculations, based on the information provided in the design documents prepared
and signed by the original structural design engineer, to verify the design parameters
including applied loads, methods of analysis and design, and final design dimensions
and other details of the structural elements. The reviewing engineer shall also check
the sufficiency and appropriateness of the supplied structural drawings for
construction.
1.9.5 Construction Observation
Construction observation shall be performed by a responsible person who will be a
competent professional appointed by the owner of the building or the structure.
Construction observation shall include, but not be limited to, the following:
(a) Specification of an appropriate testing and inspection schedule prepared
and signed with date by the responsible person;
(b) Review of testing and inspection reports; and
(c) Regular site visit to verify the general compliance of the construction
work with the structural drawings and specifications provided in Sec
1.9.3 above.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3093

PART VI
Chapter 2
Loads on Buildings and Structures

2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Scope
This Chapter specifies the minimum design forces including dead load, live load,
wind and earthquake loads, miscellaneous loads and their various combinations.
These loads shall be applicable for the design of buildings and structures in
conformance with the general design requirements provided in Chapter 1.
2.1.2 Limitations
Provisions of this Chapter shall generally be applied to majority of buildings and
other structures covered in this Code subject to normally expected loading
conditions. For those buildings and structures having unusual geometrical shapes,
response characteristics or site locations, or for those subject to special loading
including tornadoes, special dynamic or hydrodynamic loads etc., site-specific or
case-specific data or analysis may be required to determine the design loads on them.
In such cases, and all other cases for which loads are not specified in this Chapter,
loading information may be obtained from reliable references or specialist advice
may be sought. However, such loads shall be applied in compliance with the
provisions of other Parts or Sections of this Code.

2.1.3 Terminology
The following definitions apply only to the provisions of this Chapter:

ALLOWABLE A method for proportioning structural members such that

STRESS DESIGN the maximum stresses due to service loads obtained from an
METHOD (ASD) elastic analysis does not exceed a specified allowable value.
This is also called Working Stress Design Method (WSD).
APPROVED Acceptable to the authority having jurisdiction.
BASE The level at which the earthquake motions are considered to
be imparted to the structures or the level at which the
structure as a dynamic vibrator is supported.
BASE SHEAR Total design lateral force or shear due to earthquake at the
base of a structure.
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BASIC WIND Three-second gust speed at 10 m above the ground in

SPEED, V Exposure B (Sec 2.4.6.3) having a return period of 50 years.
BEARING WALL A structural system without a complete vertical load
SYSTEM carrying space frame.
BRACED FRAME An essentially vertical truss system of the concentric or
eccentric type provided to resist lateral forces.
BUILDING, A building that does not comply with the requirements for
ENCLOSED open or partially enclosed buildings.
BUILDING Cladding, roofing, exterior walls, glazing, door assemblies,
ENVELOPE window assemblies, skylight assemblies, and other
components enclosing the building.
BUILDING, LOW- Enclosed or partially enclosed buildings that comply with
RISE the following conditions
1. Mean roof height h less than or equal to 18.3 m.
2. Mean roof height h does not exceed least horizontal
dimension.

≥
BUILDING, OPEN A building having each wall at least 80 percent open. This

0.8 where,
condition is expressed for each wall by the equation

= total area of openings in a wall that receives positive

external pressure (m2).
= the gross area of that wall in which is identified
(m2).
BUILDING, A building that complies with both of the following
PARTIALLY conditions:
ENCLOSED 1. The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive
external pressure exceeds the sum of the areas of openings
in the balance of the building envelope (walls and roof) by
more than 10 percent.
2. The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive
external pressure exceeds 0.37 m2 or 1 percent of the area of
that wall, whichever is smaller, and the percentage of
openings in the balance of the building envelope does not
exceed 20 percent.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3095

These conditions are expressed by the following equations:

1. > 1.10
> 0.37m or > 0.01
/ ≤ 0.20
2. , whichever is smaller, and

Where, , are as defined for open building

= the sum of the areas of openings in the building
envelope (walls and roof) not including , in m2.
= the sum of the gross surface areas of the building
envelope (walls and roof) not including , in m2.
BUILDING, A building in which both windward and leeward wind loads
SIMPLE are transmitted through floor and roof diaphragms to the
DIAPHRAGM same vertical MWFRS (e.g., no structural separations).
BUILDING An essentially complete space frame which provides
FRAME SYSTEM support for gravity loads.
BUILDING OR Slender buildings or other structures that have a
OTHER fundamental natural frequency less than 1 Hz.
STRUCTURE,
FLEXIBLE
BUILDING OR A building or other structure having no unusual geometrical
OTHER irregularity in spatial form.
STRUCTURE,
REGULAR
SHAPED
BUILDING OR A building or other structure whose fundamental frequency
OTHER is greater than or equal to 1 Hz.
STRUCTURES,
RIGID
CAPACITY A plot of the total applied lateral force, , versus the lateral
CURVE displacement of the control point, , as determined in a
nonlinear static analysis.
COMPONENTS Elements of the building envelope that do not qualify as
AND CLADDING part of the MWFRS.
CONTROL POINT A point used to index the lateral displacement of the
structure in a nonlinear static analysis.
CRITICAL Amount of damping beyond which the free vibration will
DAMPING not be oscillatory.
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CYCLONE Areas vulnerable to cyclones; in Bangladesh these areas

PRONE REGIONS include the Sundarbans, southern parts of Barisal and
Patuakhali, Hatia, Bhola, eastern parts of Chittagong and
Cox’s Bazar
DAMPING The effect of inherent energy dissipation mechanisms in a
structure (due to sliding, friction, etc.) that results in
reduction of effect of vibration, expressed as a percentage
of the critical damping for the structure.
DESIGN Smoothened idealized plot of maximum acceleration of a
ACCELERATION single degree of freedom structure as a function of structure
RESPONSE period for design earthquake ground motion.
SPECTRUM
DESIGN The earthquake ground motion considered (for normal
EARTHQUAKE design) as two-thirds of the corresponding Maximum
Considered Earthquake (MCE).
DESIGN FORCE, F Equivalent static force to be used in the determination of
wind loads for open buildings and other structures.
DESIGN Equivalent static pressure to be used in the determination of
PRESSURE, p wind loads for buildings.
DESIGN The product of the nominal strength and a resistance factor.
STRENGTH
DIAPHRAGM A horizontal or nearly horizontal system of structures acting
to transmit lateral forces to the vertical resisting elements.
The term "diaphragm" includes reinforced concrete floor
slabs as well as horizontal bracing systems.
DUAL SYSTEM A combination of a Special or Intermediate Moment
Resisting Frame and Shear Walls or Braced Frames
designed in accordance with the criteria of Sec 1.3.2.4
DUCTILITY Capacity of a structure, or its members to undergo large
inelastic deformations without significant loss of strength or
stiffness.
EAVE HEIGHT, h The distance from the ground surface adjacent to the
building to the roof eave line at a particular wall. If the
height of the eave varies along the wall, the average height
shall be used.
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ECCENTRIC A steel braced frame designed in conformance with Sec

BRACED FRAME 10.20.15.
(EBF)
EFFECTIVE The area used to determine GCp. For component and
WIND AREA, A cladding elements, the effective wind area as mentioned in
Sec 2.4.11 is the span length multiplied by an effective
width that need not be less than one-third the span length.
For cladding fasteners, the effective wind area shall not be
greater than the area that is tributary to an individual
fastener.
EPICENTRE The point on the surface of earth vertically above the focus
(point of origin) of the earthquake.
ESCARPMENT Also known as scarp, with respect to topographic effects in
Sec 2.4.7, a cliff or steep slope generally separating two
levels or gently sloping areas (see Figure 6.2.4).
ESSENTIAL Buildings and structures which are necessary to remain
FACILITIES functional during an emergency or a post disaster period.
FACTORED The product of the nominal load and a load factor.
LOAD
FLEXIBLE A floor or roof diaphragm shall be considered flexible, for
DIAPHRAGM purposes of this provision, when the maximum lateral
deformation of the diaphragm is more than two times the
average storey drift of the associated storey. This may be
determined by comparing the computed midpoint in-plane
deflection of the diaphragm under lateral load with the
storey drift of adjoining vertical resisting elements under
equivalent tributary lateral load.
FLEXIBLE An element or system whose deformation under lateral load
ELEMENT OR is significantly larger than adjoining parts of the system.
SYSTEM
FREE ROOF Roof (monoslope, pitched, or troughed) in an open building
with no enclosing walls underneath the roof surface.
GLAZING Glass or transparent or translucent plastic sheet used in
windows, doors, skylights, or curtain walls.
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1.7.3.7 Boundary members

Specially detailed boundary members shall be considered for shear walls and shear
wall elements whenever their design is governed by flexure.
1.7.3.8 Floor and roof diaphragms
Deflection in the plane of the diaphragm shall not exceed the permissible deflection
of the attached elements. Permissible deflection shall be that deflection which will
permit the attached element to maintain its structural integrity under the individual
loading and continue to support the prescribed loads. Design of diaphragms shall also
comply with the following requirements.
(a) Diaphragm Forces: Diaphragms shall be designed to resist the seismic
forces given in Sec 2.5 or for similar non-seismic lateral forces,
whichever is greater.
(b) Diaphragm Ties: Diaphragms supporting concrete or masonry walls shall
have continuous ties, or struts between the diaphragm chords to distribute
the anchorage forces specified in Sec 1.7.3.6 above. Added chords may
be provided to form sub-diaphragms to transmit the anchorage forces to
the main cross ties.
(c) Wood Diaphragms: Where wood diaphragms are used to laterally support
concrete or masonry walls, the anchorage shall conform to Sec 1.7.3.6
above. In seismic Zones 2, 3 and 4 the following requirements shall also
apply:
(i) Anchorage shall not be accomplished by use of toe nails or nails
subject to withdrawal, nor shall wood ledgers or framing be used in
cross-grain bending or cross-grain tension.
(ii) The continuous ties required by paragraph (b) above, shall be in
addition to the diaphragm sheathing.
(d) Structures having irregularities
(i) For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D and having a
plan irregularity of Type I, II, III, or IV in Table 6.1.5 or a vertical
structural irregularity of Type IV in Table 6.1.4, the design forces
determined from Sec 2.5.7 shall be increased 25 percent for
connections of diaphragms to vertical elements and to collectors and
for connections of collectors to the vertical elements. Collectors and
their connections also shall be designed for these increased forces
unless they are designed for the load combinations with over
strength factor.
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LOAD EFFECTS Forces, moments, deformations and other effects produced

in structural members and components by the applied loads.
LOAD FACTOR A factor that accounts for unavoidable deviations of the
actual load from the nominal value and for uncertainties in
the analysis that transforms the load into a load effect.
LOADS Forces or other actions that arise on structural systems from
the weight of all permanent constructions, occupants and
their possessions, environmental effects, differential
settlement, and restrained dimensional changes. Permanent
loads are those loads in which variations in time are rare or
of small magnitude. All other loads are variable loads.
MAGNITUDE OF The magnitude of earthquake is a number, which is a
EARTHQUAKE measure of energy released in an earthquake.
MAIN WIND- An assemblage of structural elements assigned to provide
FORCE support and stability for the overall structure. The system
RESISTING generally receives wind loading from more than one
SYSTEM surface.
(MWFRS)
MAXIMUM The most severe earthquake ground motion considered by
CONSIDERED this Code.
EARTHQUAKE
(MCE)
MEAN ROOF The average of the roof eave height and the height to the
HEIGHT, h highest point on the roof surface, except that, for roof
angles of less than or equal to 10o, the mean roof height
shall be the roof heave height.
MODAL MASS Part of the total seismic mass of the structure that is
effective in mode k of vibration.
MODAL Amount by which mode k contributes to the overall
PARTICIPATION vibration of the structure under horizontal and vertical
FACTOR earthquake ground motions.
MODAL SHAPE When a system is vibrating in a normal mode, at any
COEFFICIENT particular instant of time, the vibration amplitude of mass
expressed as a ratio of the vibration amplitude of one of
the masses of the system, is known as modal shape
coefficient
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MOMENT A frame in which members and joints are capable of

RESISTING resisting lateral forces primarily by flexure. Moment
FRAME resisting frames are classified as ordinary moment frames
(OMF), intermediate moment frames (IMF) and special
moment frames (SMF).
NOMINAL The magnitudes of the loads such as dead, live, wind,
LOADS earthquake etc. specified in Sections 2.2 to 2.6 of this
Chapter.
NOMINAL The capacity of a structure or component to resist the
STRENGTH effects of loads, as determined by computations using
specified material strengths and dimensions and formulas
derived from accepted principles of structural mechanics or
by field tests or laboratory tests of scaled models, allowing
for modelling effects and differences between laboratory
and field conditions.
NUMBER OF Number of storeys of a building is the number of levels
STOREYS (n) above the base. This excludes the basement storeys, where
basement walls are connected with ground floor deck or
fitted between the building columns. But, it includes the
basement storeys, when they are not so connected.
OPENINGS Apertures or holes in the building envelope that allow air to
flow through the building envelope and that are designed as
“open” during design winds as defined by these provisions.
ORDINARY A moment resisting frame not meeting special detailing
MOMENT requirements for ductile behaviour.
FRAME (OMF)
PERIOD OF Fundamental period (for 1st mode) of vibration of building
BUILDING for lateral motion in direction considered.
P-DELTA EFFECT It is the secondary effect on shears and moments of frame
members due to action of the vertical loads due to the
lateral displacement of building resulting from seismic
forces.
RATIONAL An analysis based on established methods or theories using
ANALYSIS mathematical formulae and actual or appropriately assumed
data.
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RECOGNIZED Published research findings and technical papers that are

LITERATURE approved.
RESISTANCE A factor that accounts for unavoidable deviations of the
FACTOR actual strength from the nominal value and the manner and
consequences of failure. This is also known as strength
reduction factor.
RESPONSE It is the factor by which the actual base shear force that
REDUCTION would develop if the structure behaved truly elastic during
FACTOR earthquake, is reduced to obtain design base shear. This
reduction is allowed to account for the beneficial effects of
inelastic deformation (resulting in energy dissipation) that
can occur in a structure during a major earthquake, still
ensuring acceptable response of the structure.
RIDGE With respect to topographic effects in Sec 2.4.7, an
elongated crest of a hill characterized by strong relief in two
directions (Figure 6.2.4).
SEISMIC DESIGN A classification assigned to a structure based on its
CATEGORY importance factor and the severity of the design earthquake
ground motion at the site.
SEISMIC-FORCE- That part of the structural system that has been considered
RESISTING in the design to provide the required resistance to the
SYSTEM seismic forces.
SHEAR WALL A wall designed to resist lateral forces acting in its plane
(sometimes referred to as a vertical diaphragm or a
structural wall).
SITE CLASS Site is classified based on soil properties of upper 30 m.
SITE-SPECIFIC Data obtained either from measurements taken at a site or
DATA from substantiated field information required specifically
for the structure concerned.
SOFT STOREY Storey in which the lateral stiffness is less than 70 percent
of the stiffness of the storey above or less than 80 percent of
the average lateral stiffness of the three storeys above.
SPACE FRAME A three-dimensional structural system without bearing walls
composed of members interconnected so as to function as a
complete self-contained unit with or without the aid of
horizontal diaphragms or floor bracing systems.
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SPECIAL A moment resisting frame specially detailed to provide

MOMENT ductile behaviour complying with the seismic requirements
FRAME (SMF) provided in Chapters 8 and 10 for concrete and steel frames
respectively.
STOREY The space between consecutive floor levels. Storey-x is the
storey below level-x.
STOREY DRIFT The horizontal deflection at the top of the story relative to
bottom of the storey.
STOREY SHEAR The total horizontal shear force at a particular storey (level).
STRENGTH The usable capacity of an element or a member to resist the
load as prescribed in these provisions.
STRENGTH A method of proportioning structural members using load
DESIGN factors and resistance factors satisfying both the applicable
METHOD limit state conditions. This is also known as Load Factor
Design Method (LFD) or Ultimate Strength Design Method
(USD).
TARGET An estimate of the maximum expected displacement of the
DISPLACEMENT control point calculated for the design earthquake ground
motion in nonlinear static analysis.
VERTICAL LOAD- A space frame designed to carry all vertical gravity loads.
CARRYING
FRAME
WEAK STOREY Storey in which the lateral strength is less than 80 percent
of that of the storey above.
WIND-BORNE Areas within cyclone prone regions located:
DEBRIS 1. Within 1.6 km of the coastal mean high water line
REGIONS where the basic wind speed is equal to or greater than
180 km/h or
2. In areas where the basic wind speed is equal to or
greater than 200 km/h.
WORKING See ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN METHOD.
STRESS DESIGN
METHOD (WSD)
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2.1.4 Symbols and Notation

The following symbols and notation apply only to the provisions of this Chapter:

= Effective wind area, in m2

= Area of open buildings and other structures either normal to the wind
direction or projected on a plane normal to the wind direction, in m2.
= Gross area of that wall in which is identified, in m2.
= Sum of gross surface areas of the building envelope (walls and roof)
not including , in m2
= Total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external
pressure, in m2.
= Sum of the areas of openings in the building envelope (walls and
roof) not including , in m2
= Total area of openings in the building envelope in m2
= Gross area of the solid freestanding wall or solid sign, in m2
= Torsion amplification factor at level- .
= Horizontal dimension of building measured normal to wind direction,
in m.
= Deflection amplification factor.
= Force coefficient to be used in determination of wind loads for other
structures
= Net pressure coefficient to be used in determination of wind loads for
open buildings
! = External pressure coefficient to be used in determination of wind
loads for buildings
= Normalized acceleration response spectrum.
" = Numerical coefficient to determine building period
# = Diameter of a circular structure or member in m (as used in Sec 2.4).
# = Dead loads, or related internal moments and forces, Dead load
consists of: a) weight of the member itself, b) weight of all materials
of construction incorporated into the building to be permanently
supported by the member, including built-in partitions, c) weight of
permanent equipment (as used in Sec 2.7).
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#$ = Depth of protruding elements such as ribs and spoilers in m.

% = Total load effects of earthquake that include both horizontal and
vertical, or related internal moments and forces. The horizontal
seismic load effect shall include system overstrength factor, o, if
applicable. For specific definition of the earthquake load effect, %,
see Sec 2.5.
Eh = Horizontal seismic load effect when the effect of system overstrength
factor, o, is not included.
Emh = Horizontal seismic load effect when the effect of system overstrength
factor, o, is included.
Ev = Vertical effect of seismic load.
& = Design wind force for other structures, in N (as used in Sec 2.4).
& = Loads due to weight and pressures of fluids with well-defined
densities and controllable maximum heights or related internal
moments and forces (as used in Sec 2.7).
&' = Loads due to flood or tidal surge or related internal moments and
forces.
& , &) , & = Design lateral force applied to level- , -*, or - respectively.
&+ = Lateral forces on an element or component or on equipment supports.
, = Gust effect factor
, = Gust effect factor for MWFRSs of flexible buildings and other
structures
, ! = Product of external pressure coefficient and gust effect factor to be
used in determination of wind loads for buildings
, ! = Product of the equivalent external pressure coefficient and gust-
effect factor to be used in determination of wind loads for MWFRS
of low-rise buildings
, ! = Product of internal pressure coefficient and gust effect factor to be
used in determination of wind loads for buildings
, !) = Combined net pressure coefficient for a parapet
- = Height of hill or escarpment in Figure 6.2.4 in m.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3091

(b) The second sheet shall contain detail material specifications showing:
(i) Specified compressive strength of concrete at stated ages or stages
of construction for which each part of structure is designed.
(ii) Specified strength or grade of reinforcement
(iii) Specified strength of prestressing tendons or wires
(iv) Specified strength or grade of steel
(v) Specified strengths for bolts, welds etc.
(vi) Specified strength of masonry, timber, bamboo, ferrocement
(vii) Minimum concrete compressive strength at time of post-tensioning
(viii) Stressing sequence for post-tensioning tendons
(ix) General notes indicating clear cover, development lengths of
reinforcements, or any other design parameter relevant to the
member or connection details provided in drawings to be followed,
as applicable, and
(x) Identification and signature with date of the Engineer responsible
for the structural design.
(c) Drawing sheets, other than the first two, shall include structural details of
the elements of the structure clearly showing all sizes, cross-sections and
relative locations, connections, reinforcements, laps, stiffeners, welding
types, lengths and locations etc. whichever is applicable for a particular
construction. Floor levels, column centres and offset etc., shall be
dimensioned. Camber of trusses and beams, if required, shall be shown
on drawings. For bolt connected members, connection types such as slip,
critical, tension or bearing type, shall be indicated on the drawing.
(d) Drawings shall be prepared to a scale large enough to show the
information clearly and the scales shall be marked on the drawing sheets.
If any variation from the design specifications provided in sheet two
occurs, the drawing sheet shall be provided additionally with the design
specifications including material types and strength, clear cover and
development lengths of reinforcements, or any other design parameter
relevant to the member or connection details provided in that drawing
sheet. Each drawing sheet shall also contain the signature with date of the
engineer responsible for the structural design.
3106 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

;)<" = Net design wind pressure from Eq. 6.2.4, in N/m2

;)<"2= = Net design wind pressure for Exposure A at h = 9.1 m and I = 1.0
from Figure 6.2.3, in N/m2.
;! = Combined net pressure on a parapet from Eq. 6.2.22, in N/m2.
; = Net design wind pressure from Eq. 6.2.3, in N/m2.
; 2= = Simplified design wind pressure for Exposure A at h = 9.1 m and I =
1.0 from Figure 6.2.2, in N/m2.
; = Total vertical design load at level-
;> = Wind pressure acting on windward face in Figure 6.2.9, in N/m2.
? = Background response factor from Eq. 6.2.8
@ = Resonant response factor from Eq. 6.2.12
@ = Response reduction factor for structural systems. (as used in Sec 2.5)
@ = Rain load, or related internal moments and forces. (as used in Sec
2.7)
@A , @3 , @B = Values from Eq. 6.2.15
@ = Reduction factor from Eq. 6.2.18
@) = Value from Eq. 6.2.13
C = Soil factor.
C' = Design Spectral Acceleration (in units of g)
CD = Undrained shear strength of cohesive layer
E = Fundamental period of vibration of structure, in seconds, of the
structure in the direction under consideration. (as used in Sec 2.5)
E = Self-straining forces and cumulative effect of temperature, creep,
shrinkage, differential settlement, and shrinkage-compensating
concrete, or combinations thereof, or related internal moments and
forces. (as used in Sec 2.7)
E< = Effective fundamental period of the structure in the direction under
consideration, as determined for nonlinear static analysis
= Basic wind speed obtained from Figure 6.2.1 or Table 6.2.8, in m/s.
The basic wind speed corresponds to a 3-s gust speed at 10 m above
ground in Exposure Category B having an annual probability of
occurrence of 0.02.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3107

= Total design base shear calculated by equivalent static analysis. (as

used in Sec 2.5)
= Unpartitioned internal volume m3
F/̅ = mean hourly wind speed at height 4̅, m/s.
1 = Total applied lateral force at the first increment of lateral load in
nonlinear static analysis.
H = Effective yield strength determined from a bilinear curve fitted to the
capacity curve
7 = Total design base shear calculated by response spectrum analysis
"3 = Total design base shear calculated by time history analysis
= Shear wave velocity of soil layer
= Design storey shear in storey
I = Width of building in Figures 6.2.12, 6.2.14(a) and 6.2.14(b), and
width of span in Figures 6.2.13 and 6.2.15 in m.
I = Total seismic weight of building. (as used in Sec 2.5)
I = Wind load, or related internal moments and forces. (as used in Sec
2.7)
J = Distance to center of pressure from windward edge in Figure 6.2.18,
in m.
K = Seismic zone coefficient.
L = Width of pressure coefficient zone, in m.
M = Mean hourly wind speed factor in Eq. 6.2.16 from Table 6.2.10
MN = 3-s gust speed factor from Table 6.2.10
O = Turbulence intensity factor in Eq. 6.2.7 from Table 6.2.10
P' = Accidental eccentricity of floor mass at level-
Q = Acceleration due to gravity.
QR = Peak factor for background response in Equations 6.2.6 and 6.2.10
QS = Peak factor for resonant response in Eq. 6.2.10
QT = Peak factor for wind response in Equations 6.2.6 and 6.2.10
3108 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

ℎ = Mean roof height of a building or height of other structure, except

that eave height shall be used for roof angle  of less than or equal to
10o, in m.
ℎ< = Roof eave height at a particular wall, or the average height if the
eave varies along the wall
ℎ , ℎ) , ℎ = Height in metres above the base to level ,-* or - respectively
ℎ = Storey Height of storey (below level- )
V = Integral length scale factor from Table 6.2.10 in m.
*1 = Building natural frequency, Hz
W = Design pressure to be used in determination of wind loads for
buildings, in N/m2
WB = Wind pressure acting on leeward face in Figure 6.2.9, in N/m2
X = Velocity pressure, in N/m2.
X3 = Velocity pressure evaluated at height 4 5 ℎ, in N/m2
X = Velocity pressure for internal pressure determination, in N/m2.
X! = Velocity pressure at top of parapet, in N/m2.
X/ = Velocity pressure evaluated at height z above ground, in N/m2.
Y = Rise-to-span ratio for arched roofs.
Z = Vertical dimension of the solid freestanding wall or solid sign from
Figure 6.2.20, in m.
[ ,[ = Portion of I which is assigned to level and respectively
= Distance upwind or downwind of crest in Figure 6.2.4, in m.
4 = Height above ground level, in m.
4̅ = Equivalent height of structure, in m.
4 = Nominal height of the atmospheric boundary layer used in this
standard. Values appear in Table 6.2.10
4\ ) = Exposure constant from Table 6.2.10
∆' = Maximum allowable storey drift
∆ = Design storey drift of storey
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3109

∈ = Ratio of solid area to gross area for solid freestanding wall, solid
sign, open sign, face of a trussed tower, or lattice structure
_
∈ = Integral length scale power law exponent in Eq. 6.2.9 from Table
6.2.10
Ω = Horizontal seismic overstrength factor from Table 6.2.19
a = 3-s gust-speed power law exponent from Table 6.2.10
ab = Reciprocal of L from Table 6.2.10
aF = Mean hourly wind-speed power law exponent in Eq. 6.2.16 from
Table 6.2.10
c = Damping ratio, percent critical for buildings or other structures
= Horizontal displacement at level-i relative to the base due to applied
lateral forces.
= The displacement of the control point at load increment d.

e = The target displacement of the control point.

1 = The displacement of the control point at the first increment of lateral

load.

H = The effective yield displacement of the control point determined

from a bilinear curve fitted to the capacity curve
f = Value used in Eq. 6.2.15 (see Sec 2.4.8.2)
f = Damping correction factor
g = Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees. (as used in Sec
2.4)
g = Stability coefficient to assess P-delta effects. (as used in Sec 2.5)
h = Adjustment factor for building height and exposure from Figures
6.2.2 and 6.2.3
i = Height-to-width ratio for solid sign
j = Viscous damping ratio of the structure
kl = Modal shape coefficient at level for mode m
3110 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.2 Dead Loads

2.2.1 General
The minimum design dead load for buildings and portions thereof shall be
determined in accordance with the provisions of this Section. In addition, design of
the overall structure and its primary load-resisting systems shall conform to the
general design provisions given in Chapter 1.
2.2.2 Definition
Dead Load is the vertical load due to the weight of permanent structural and non-
structural components and attachments of a building such as walls, floors, ceilings,
permanent partitions and fixed service equipment etc.
2.2.3 Assessment of Dead Load
Dead load for a structural member shall be assessed based on the forces due to:
 weight of the member itself,
 weight of all materials of construction incorporated into the building to be
supported permanently by the member,
 weight of permanent partitions,
 weight of fixed service equipment, and
 net effect of prestressing.
2.2.4 Weight of Materials and Constructions
In estimating dead loads, the actual weights of materials and constructions shall be
used, provided that in the absence of definite information, the weights given in
Tables 6.2.1 and 6.2.2 shall be assumed for the purposes of design.
Table 6.2.1: Unit Weight of Basic Materials

Material Unit Weight Material Unit Weight

3
(kN/m ) (kN/m3)
Aluminium 27.0 Granite, Basalt 26.4
Asphalt 21.2 Iron - cast 70.7
Brass 83.6 - wrought 75.4
Bronze 87.7 Lead 111.0
Brick 18.9 Limestone 24.5
Cement 14.7 Marble 26.4
Coal, loose 8.8 Sand, dry 15.7
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3111

Material Unit Weight Material Unit Weight

3
(kN/m ) (kN/m3)

Concrete -stone aggregate 22.8* Sandstone 22.6

(unreinforced)

-brick aggregate 20.4* Slate 28.3

(unreinforced)
Copper 86.4 Steel 77.0
Cork, normal 1.7 Stainless Steel 78.75

Cork, compressed 3.7 Timber 5.9-11.0

Glass, window (soda-lime) 25.5 Zinc 70.0

* for reinforced concrete, add 0.63 kN/m3 for each 1% by volume of main reinforcement

Table 6.2.2: Weight of Construction Materials.

Material/Component/Member Weight per Material/Component/Member Weight per

Unit Area Unit Area
2
(kN/m ) (kN/m2)

Floor Walls and Partitions

Asphalt, 25 mm thick 0.526 Acrylic resin sheet, flat, per 0.012
Clay tiling, 13 mm thick 0.268 mm thickness

Concrete slab (stone aggregate)*: Asbestos cement sheeting:

solid, 100 mm thick 2.360 4.5 mm thick 0.072

solid, 150 mm thick 3.540 6.0 mm thick 0.106

Galvanized steel floor deck (excl. 0.147- Brick masonry work, excl.
topping) 0.383 plaster:

Magnesium oxychloride: burnt clay, per 100 mm 1.910

normal (sawdust filler), 25 mm 0.345 thickness

thick sand-lime, per 100 mm 1.980

heavy duty (mineral filler), thickness

0.527
25 mm thick Concrete (stone aggregate)*:

Terrazzo paving 16 mm thick 0.431 100 mm thick 2.360

3096 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

CYCLONE Areas vulnerable to cyclones; in Bangladesh these areas

PRONE REGIONS include the Sundarbans, southern parts of Barisal and
Patuakhali, Hatia, Bhola, eastern parts of Chittagong and
Cox’s Bazar
DAMPING The effect of inherent energy dissipation mechanisms in a
structure (due to sliding, friction, etc.) that results in
reduction of effect of vibration, expressed as a percentage
of the critical damping for the structure.
DESIGN Smoothened idealized plot of maximum acceleration of a
ACCELERATION single degree of freedom structure as a function of structure
RESPONSE period for design earthquake ground motion.
SPECTRUM
DESIGN The earthquake ground motion considered (for normal
EARTHQUAKE design) as two-thirds of the corresponding Maximum
Considered Earthquake (MCE).
DESIGN FORCE, F Equivalent static force to be used in the determination of
wind loads for open buildings and other structures.
DESIGN Equivalent static pressure to be used in the determination of
PRESSURE, p wind loads for buildings.
DESIGN The product of the nominal strength and a resistance factor.
STRENGTH
DIAPHRAGM A horizontal or nearly horizontal system of structures acting
to transmit lateral forces to the vertical resisting elements.
The term "diaphragm" includes reinforced concrete floor
slabs as well as horizontal bracing systems.
DUAL SYSTEM A combination of a Special or Intermediate Moment
Resisting Frame and Shear Walls or Braced Frames
designed in accordance with the criteria of Sec 1.3.2.4
DUCTILITY Capacity of a structure, or its members to undergo large
inelastic deformations without significant loss of strength or
stiffness.
EAVE HEIGHT, h The distance from the ground surface adjacent to the
building to the roof eave line at a particular wall. If the
height of the eave varies along the wall, the average height
shall be used.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3113

2.2.5 Weight of Permanent Partitions

When partition walls are indicated on the plans, their weight shall be considered as
dead load acting as concentrated line loads in their actual positions on the floor. The
loads due to anticipated partition walls, which are not indicated on the plans, shall be
treated as live loads and determined in accordance with Sec 2.3.6.
2.2.6 Weight of Fixed Service Equipment
Weights of fixed service equipment and other permanent machinery, such as
electrical feeders and other machinery, heating, ventilating and air-conditioning
systems, lifts and escalators, plumbing stacks and risers etc. shall be included as dead
load whenever such equipment are supported by structural members.
2.2.7 Additional Loads
In evaluating the final dead loads on a structural member for design purposes,
allowances shall be made for additional loads resulting from the (i) difference
between the prescribed and the actual weights of the members and construction
materials; (ii) inclusion of future installations; (iii) changes in occupancy or use of
buildings; and (iv) inclusion of structural and non-structural members not covered in
Sections 2.2.2 and 2.2.3.

2.3 Live Loads

2.3.1 General

The live loads used for the structural design of floors, roof and the supporting
members shall be the greatest applied loads arising from the intended use or
occupancy of the building, or from the stacking of materials and the use of
equipment and propping during construction, but shall not be less than the minimum
design live loads set out by the provisions of this Section. For the design of structural
members for forces including live loads, requirements of the relevant Sections of
Chapter 1 shall also be fulfilled.

2.3.2 Definition

Live load is the load superimposed by the use or occupancy of the building not
including the environmental loads such as wind load, rain load, earthquake load or
dead load.
3114 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.3.3 Minimum Floor Live Loads

The minimum floor live loads shall be the greatest actual imposed loads resulting
from the intended use or occupancy of the floor, and shall not be less than the
uniformly distributed load patterns specified in Sec 2.3.4 or the concentrated loads
specified in Sec 2.3.5 whichever produces the most critical effect. The live loads
shall be assumed to act vertically upon the area projected on a horizontal plane.
2.3.4 Uniformly Distributed Loads
The uniformly distributed live load shall not be less than the values listed in Table
6.2.3, reduced as may be specified in Sec 2.3.13, applied uniformly over the entire
area of the floor, or any portion thereof to produce the most adverse effects in the
member concerned.
2.3.5 Concentrated Loads
The concentrated load to be applied non-concurrently with the uniformly distributed
load given in Sec 2.3.4, shall not be less than that listed in Table 6.2.3. Unless
otherwise specified in Table 6.2.3 or in the following paragraph, the concentrated
load shall be applied over an area of 300 mm  300 mm and shall be located so as to
produce the maximum stress conditions in the structural members.
In areas where vehicles are used or stored, such as car parking garages, ramps, repair
shops etc., provision shall be made for concentrated loads consisting of two or more
loads spaced nominally 1.5 m on centres in absence of the uniform live loads. Each
load shall be 40 percent of the gross weight of the maximum size vehicle to be
accommodated and applied over an area of 750 mm  750 mm. For the storage of
private or pleasure-type vehicles without repair or fuelling, floors shall be
investigated in the absence of the uniform live load, for a minimum concentrated
wheel load of 9 kN spaced 1.5 m on centres, applied over an area of 750 mm  750
mm. The uniform live loads for these cases are provided in Table 6.2.3. The
condition of concentrated or uniform live load producing the greater stresses shall
govern.
Table 6.2.3: Minimum Uniformly Distributed and Concentrated Live Loadsa

Occupancy or Use Uniform Concentrated

kN/m2 kN
Apartments (see Residential)
Access floor systems
Office use 2.40 9.0
Computer use 4.80 9.0
Armories and drill rooms 7.20 --
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3115

Occupancy or Use Uniform Concentrated

kN/m2 kN
Assembly areas and theaters
Fixed seats (fastened to floor) 2.90 --
Lobbies 4.80 --
Movable seats 4.80 --
Platforms (assembly) 4.80 --
Stage floors 7.20 --
Balconies (exterior) 4.80 --
On one- and two-family residences only, and not 2.90 --
exceeding 19.3 m2
Bowling alleys, poolrooms, and similar recreational areas 3.60 --
Catwalks for maintenance access 2.00 1.33
Corridors
First floor 4.80 --
Other floors, same as occupancy served except as indicated
Dance halls and ballrooms 4.80 --
Decks (patio and roof) Same as area served, or
for the type of occupancy
accommodated
Dining rooms and restaurants 4.80 --
Dwellings (see Residential) --
Elevator machine room grating (on area of 2,580 mm2 ) -- 1.33
Finish light floor plate construction (on area of 645 mm2) -- 0.90
Fire escapes 4.80 --
On single-family dwellings only 2.00 --
Fixed ladders See Sec 2.3.11
Garages (passenger vehicles only), Trucks and buses 2.0b,c
Grandstands See Stadiums and arenas,
Bleachers
Gymnasiums—main floors and balconies 4.80 --
Handrails, guardrails, and grab bars See Sec 2.3.11
Hospitals
Operating rooms, laboratories 2.90 4.50
Patient rooms 2.00 4.50
Corridors above first floor 3.80 4.50
3116 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Occupancy or Use Uniform Concentrated

kN/m2 kN
Hotels See Residential
Libraries
Reading rooms 2.90 4.50
Stack rooms 7.20 d 4.50
Corridors above first floor 3.80 4.50
Manufacturing*
Light 4.00 6.00
Medium 6.00 9.00
Heavy 12.00 13.40
Garments manufacturing floor except stacking or storage 4.00e --
area
Stacking or storage area of garments manufacturing 6.00 f 10.00 f
industry
Marquees 3.60 --
Office Buildings
File and computer rooms shall be designed for
heavier loads based on anticipated occupancy
Lobbies and first-floor corridors 4.80 9.00
Offices 2.40 9.00
Corridors above first floor 3.80 9.00
Penal Institutions
Cell blocks 2.00 --
Corridors 4.80 --
Residential
Dwellings (one- and two-family)
Uninhabitable attics without storage 0.50 --
Uninhabitable attics with storage 1.00 --
Habitable attics and sleeping areas 1.50 --
All other areas except stairs and balconies 2.00 --
Hotels and multifamily houses
Private rooms and corridors serving them 2.00 --
Public rooms and corridors serving them 4.80 --
Reviewing stands, grandstands, and bleachers 4.80 g --
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3117

Occupancy or Use Uniform Concentrated

kN/m2 kN
Roofs
Ordinary flat roof 1.00 h --
Pitched and curved roofs See Table 6.2.4
Roofs used for promenade purposes 2.90 --
Roofs used for roof gardens or assembly purposes 4.80 --
i
Roofs used for other special purposes See Note below
Awnings and canopies
Fabric construction supported by a lightweight rigid 0.24
skeleton structure (nonredu- --
ceable)
All other construction 1.00 --
Primary roof members exposed to a work floor
Single panel point of lower chord of roof trusses or -- 9.00
any point along primary structural members
supporting roofs over manufacturing, storage
warehouses, and repair garages
All other occupancies -- 1.33
All roof surfaces subject to maintenance workers -- 1.33
Schools
Classrooms 2.00 4.50
Corridors above first floor 3.80 4.50
First-floor corridors 4.80 4.50
Scuttles, skylight ribs, and accessible ceilings 0.90
Sidewalks, vehicular driveways, and yards subject to 12.00 j 35.60 k
trucking
Stadiums and arenas
g
Bleachers 4.80 --
g
Fixed seats (fastened to floor) 2.90 --
Stairs and exit ways 4.80 See Notel
One- and two-family residences only 2.00 below
--
3118 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Occupancy or Use Uniform Concentrated

kN/m2 kN
Storage areas above ceilings 1.00 --
Storage warehouses (shall be designed for
heavier loads if required for anticipated
storage)
Light 6.00 --
Heavy 12.00 --
Stores
Retail
First floor 4.80 4.50
Upper floors 3.60 4.50
Wholesale, all floors 6.00 4.50
Vehicle barriers See Sec 2.3.11
Walkways and elevated platforms (other than exit ways) 2.90 --
Yards and terraces, pedestrian 4.80 --

Notes:
a It must be ensured that the average weight of equipment, machinery, raw materials
and products that may occupy the floor is less than the specified value in the Table.
In case the weight exceeds the specified values in the Table, actual maximum
probable weight acting in the actual manner shall be used in the analysis and
design.
b Floors in garages or portions of a building used for the storage of motor vehicles
shall be designed for the uniformly distributed live loads of Table 6.2.3 or the
following concentrated load: (1) for garages restricted to passenger vehicles
accommodating not more than nine passengers, 13.35 kN acting on an area of 114
mm by 114 mm footprint of a jack; and (2) for mechanical parking structures
without slab or deck that are used for storing passenger car only, 10 kN per wheel.
c Garages accommodating trucks and buses shall be designed in accordance with an
approved method, which contains provisions for truck and bus loadings.
d The loading applies to stack room floors that support non-mobile, double-faced
library book stacks subject to the following limitations: (1) The nominal book
stack unit height shall not exceed 2290 mm; (2) the nominal shelf depth shall not
exceed 300 mm for each face; (3) parallel rows of double-faced book stacks shall
be separated by aisles not less than 900 mm wide.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3119
e Subject to the provisions of reduction of live load as per Sec 2.3.13
f Uniformly distributed and concentrated load provisions are applicable for a
maximum floor height of 3.5 m. In case of higher floor height, the load(s) must be
proportionally increased.
g
In addition to the vertical live loads, the design shall include horizontal swaying
forces applied to each row of the seats as follows: 0.350 kN per linear meter of
seat applied in a direction parallel to each row of seats and 0.15 kN per linear
meter of seat applied in a direction perpendicular to each row of seats. The
parallel and perpendicular horizontal swaying forces need not be applied
simultaneously.
h Where uniform roof live loads are reduced to less than 1.0 kN/m2 in accordance
with Sec 2.3.14.1 and are applied to the design of structural members arranged so
as to create continuity, the reduced roof live load shall be applied to adjacent spans
or to alternate spans, whichever produces the greatest unfavorable effect.
i Roofs used for other special purposes shall be designed for appropriate loads as
approved by the authority having jurisdiction.
j Other uniform loads in accordance with an approved method, which contains
provisions for truck loadings, shall also be considered where appropriate.
k The concentrated wheel load shall be applied on an area of 114 mm by 114 mm
footprint of a jack.
l Minimum concentrated load on stair treads (on area of 2,580 mm2 ) is 1.33 kN.
* The loading in industrial buildings varies considerably and so the loadings under
the terms ‘light,’ ‘medium’ and ‘heavy’ are introduced in order to allow for which
the relevant floor is designed. It is however important to assess the actual loads to
ensure that they are not in excess of the stipulated load, in case where they are in
excess, the design shall be based on the actual loadings.

2.3.6 Provision for Partition Walls

When partitions, not indicated on the plans, are anticipated to be placed on the floors,
their weight shall be included as an additional live load acting as concentrated line
loads in an arrangement producing the most severe effect on the floor, unless it can
be shown that a more favourable arrangement of the partitions shall prevail during
the future use of the floor.
In the case of light partitions, wherein the total weight per metre run is not greater
than 5.5 kN, a uniformly distributed live load may be applied on the floor in lieu of
the concentrated line loads specified above. Such uniform live load per square metre
shall be at least 33% of the weight per metre run of the partitions, subject to a
minimum of 1.2 kN/m2.
3102 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

SPECIAL A moment resisting frame specially detailed to provide

MOMENT ductile behaviour complying with the seismic requirements
FRAME (SMF) provided in Chapters 8 and 10 for concrete and steel frames
respectively.
STOREY The space between consecutive floor levels. Storey-x is the
storey below level-x.
STOREY DRIFT The horizontal deflection at the top of the story relative to
bottom of the storey.
STOREY SHEAR The total horizontal shear force at a particular storey (level).
STRENGTH The usable capacity of an element or a member to resist the
load as prescribed in these provisions.
STRENGTH A method of proportioning structural members using load
DESIGN factors and resistance factors satisfying both the applicable
METHOD limit state conditions. This is also known as Load Factor
Design Method (LFD) or Ultimate Strength Design Method
(USD).
TARGET An estimate of the maximum expected displacement of the
DISPLACEMENT control point calculated for the design earthquake ground
motion in nonlinear static analysis.
VERTICAL LOAD- A space frame designed to carry all vertical gravity loads.
CARRYING
FRAME
WEAK STOREY Storey in which the lateral strength is less than 80 percent
of that of the storey above.
WIND-BORNE Areas within cyclone prone regions located:
DEBRIS 1. Within 1.6 km of the coastal mean high water line
REGIONS where the basic wind speed is equal to or greater than
180 km/h or
2. In areas where the basic wind speed is equal to or
greater than 200 km/h.
WORKING See ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN METHOD.
STRESS DESIGN
METHOD (WSD)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3121
2.3.10 Partial Loading and Other Loading Arrangements
The full intensity of the appropriately reduced live load applied only to a portion of
the length or area of a structure or member shall be considered, if it produces a more
unfavourable effect than the same intensity applied over the full length or area of the
structure or member.
Where uniformly distributed live loads are used in the design of continuous members
and their supports, consideration shall be given to full dead load on all spans in
combination with full live loads on adjacent spans and on alternate spans whichever
produces a more unfavourable effect.
2.3.11 Other Live Loads
Live loads on miscellaneous structures and components, such as handrails and
supporting members, parapets and balustrades, ceilings, skylights and supports, and
the like, shall be determined from the analysis of the actual loads on them, but shall
not be less than those given in Table 6.2.5.
2.3.12 Impact and Dynamic Loads
The live loads specified in Sec 2.3.3 shall be assumed to include allowances for
impacts arising from normal uses only. However, forces imposed by unusual
vibrations and impacts resulting from the operation of installed machinery and
equipment shall be determined separately and treated as additional live loads. Live
loads due to vibration or impact shall be determined by dynamic analysis of the
supporting member or structure including foundations, or from the recommended
values supplied by the manufacture of the particular equipment or machinery. In
absence of definite information, values listed in Table 6.2.6 for some common
equipment, shall be used for design purposes.
Table 6.2.5: Miscellaneous Live Loads

Structural Member or Component Live Load(1)

(kN/m)
A. Handrails, parapets and supports:
(a) Light access stairs, gangways etc.
(i) width ≤ 0.6 m 0.25
(ii) width > 0.6 m 0.35
(b) Staircases other than in (a) above, ramps, balconies:
(i) Single dwelling and private 0.35
(ii) Staircases in residential buildings 0.35
(iii) Balconies or portion thereof, stands etc. having fixed seats 1.5
within 0.55 m of the barrier
(iv) Public assembly buildings including theatres, cinemas, 3.0
assembly halls, stadiums, mosques, churches, schools etc.
(v) Buildings and occupancies other than (i) to (iv) above 0.75
3122 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

B. Vehicle barriers for car parks and ramps:

(a) For vehicles having gross mass ≤ 2500 kg 100(2)
(b) For vehicles having gross mass > 2500 kg 165(2)
(c) For ramps of car parks etc. see note(3)
Notes: (1) These loads shall be applied non-concurrently along horizontal and vertical
directions, except as specified in note (2) below.
(2) These loads shall be applied only in the horizontal direction, uniformly
distributed over any length of 1.5 m of a barrier and shall be considered to
act at bumper height. For case 2(a) bumper height may be taken as 375
mm above floor level.
(3) Barriers to access ramps of car parks shall be designed for horizontal
forces equal to 50% of those given in 2(a) and 2(b) applied at a level of
610 mm above the ramp. Barriers to straight exit ramps exceeding 20 m in
length shall be designed for horizontal forces equal to twice the values
given in 2(a) and 2(b).

Table 6.2.6: Minimum Live Loads on Supports and Connections of Equipment due
to Impact(1)
Equipment or Machinery Additional load due to impact as percentage
of static load including self-weight
Vertical Horizontal
1. Lifts, hoists and related 100% Not applicable
operating machinery
2. Light machinery (shaft or 20% Not applicable
motor driven)
3. Reciprocating machinery, or 50% Not applicable
power driven units.
4. Hangers supporting floors and 33% Not applicable
balconies
5. Cranes : (i) Transverse to the rail :
(a) Electric overhead 25% of 20% of the weight of trolley
cranes maximum and lifted load only, applied
wheel load one-half at the top of each rail
(ii) Along the rail :
10% of maximum wheel load
applied at the top of each rail
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3123

Equipment or Machinery Additional load due to impact as percentage

of static load including self-weight
Vertical Horizontal
(b) Manually operated 50% of the 50% of the values in (a) above
cranes values in (a)
above
(c) Cab-operated travelling 25% Not applicable
cranes
(1)
All these loads shall be increased if so recommended by the manufacturer. For
machinery and equipment not listed, impact loads shall be those recommended by the
manufacturers, or determined by dynamic analysis.

2.3.13 Reduction of Live Loads

Except for roof uniform live loads, all other minimum uniformly distributed live
loads, Lo in Table 6.2.3, may be reduced according to the following provisions.
2.3.13.1 General
Subject to the limitations of Sections 2.3.13.2 to 2.3.13.5, members for which a value
of KLLAT is 37.16 m2 or more are permitted to be designed for a reduced live load in
accordance with the following formula:

(6.2.1)
L  Lo n0.25 + tu w y
q.rs
vv x

Where, L = reduced design live load per m2 of area supported by the member; L0=
unreduced design live load per m2 of area supported by the member (Table 6.2.3);
KLL= live load element factor (Table 6.2.7); AT = tributary area in m2, L shall not be
less than 0.50L0 for members supporting one floor and L shall not be less than 0.40L0
for members supporting two or more floors.

Table 6.2.7: Live Load Element Factor, }~~

Element }~~ *
Interior columns 4
Exterior columns without cantilever slabs 4
Edge columns with cantilever slabs 3
Corner columns with cantilever slabs 2
Edge beams without cantilever slabs 2
Interior beams 2
3124 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

All other members not identified including: 1

 Edge beams with cantilever slabs
 Cantilever beams
 One-way slabs
 Two-way slabs
 Members without provisions for continuous shear transfer
normal to their span
* In lieu of the preceding values, 0 is permitted to be calculated.
BB

2.3.13.2 Heavy live loads

Live loads that exceed 4.80 kN/m2 shall not be reduced.
Exception: Live loads for members supporting two or more floors may be
reduced by 20 percent.
2.3.13.3 Passenger car garages
The live loads shall not be reduced in passenger car garages.
Exception: Live loads for members supporting two or more floors may be reduced by
20 percent.
2.3.13.4 Special occupancies
(a) Live loads of 4.80 kN/m2 or less shall not be reduced in public assembly
occupancies.
(b) There shall be no reduction of live loads for cyclone shelters.
2.3.13.5 Limitations on one-way slabs
The tributary area, AT, for one-way slabs shall not exceed an area defined by the slab
span times a width normal to the span of 1.5 times the slab span.

2.3.14 Reduction in Roof Live Loads

The minimum uniformly distributed roof live loads, Lo in Table 6.2.3, are permitted
to be reduced according to the following provisions.
2.3.14.1 Flat, pitched, and curved roofs.
Ordinary flat, pitched, and curved roofs are permitted to be designed for a reduced
roof live load, as specified in Eq. 6.2.2 or other controlling combinations of loads, as
discussed later in this Chapter, whichever produces the greater load. In structures
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3125

such as greenhouses, where special scaffolding is used as a work surface for

workmen and materials during maintenance and repair operations, a lower roof load
than specified in Eq. 6.2.2 shall not be used unless approved by the authority having
jurisdiction. On such structures, the minimum roof live load shall be 0.60 kN/m2.
67 5 6 @1 @ (0.60 ≤ 67 ≤ 1.00) (6.2.2)

67 5 reduced roof live load per m2 of horizontal projection in kN/m2

Where,

The reduction factors @1 and @ shall be determined as follows:

@1 5 1 for " ≤ 18.58 m2
5 1.2 − 0.011 " for 18.58 m2 < " < 55.74 m2
5 0.6 for "≥ 55.74 m2
" 5 tributary area in m2 supported by any structural member and
@ 5 1 for & ≤ 4
5 1.2 − 0.05F for 4 < & < 12
5 0.6 for & ≥ 12
For a pitched roof, & 5 0.12 × slope, with slope expressed in percentage points
and, for an arch or dome, & 5 rise-to-span ratio multiplied by 32.

2.3.14.2 Special purpose roofs.

Roofs that have an occupancy function, such as roof gardens, assembly purposes, or
other special purposes are permitted to have their uniformly distributed live load
reduced in accordance with the requirements of Sec 2.3.13.

2.4 Wind Loads

2.4.1 General
Scope: Buildings and other structures, including the Main Wind-Force Resisting
System (MWFRS) and all components and cladding thereof, shall be designed and
constructed to resist wind loads as specified herein.
Allowed Procedures: The design wind loads for buildings and other structures,
including the MWFRS and component and cladding elements thereof, shall be
determined using one of the following procedures:
Method 1: Simplified Procedure as specified in Sec 2.4.2 for buildings and
structures meeting the requirements specified therein;
Method 2: Analytical Procedure as specified in Sec 2.4.3 for buildings and
structures meeting the requirements specified therein;
Method 3: Wind Tunnel Procedure as specified in Sec 2.4.16.
3126 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Wind Pressures Acting on opposite faces of each building surface. In the calculation
of design wind loads for the MWFRS and for components and cladding for buildings,
the algebraic sum of the pressures acting on opposite faces of each building surface
shall be taken into account.
Minimum Design Wind Loading
The design wind load, determined by any one of the procedures specified in Sec
2.4.1, shall be not less than specified in this Section.
Main Wind-Force Resisting System: The wind load to be used in the design of the
MWFRS for an enclosed or partially enclosed building or other structure shall not be
less than 0.5 kN/m2 multiplied by the area of the building or structure projected onto
a vertical plane normal to the assumed wind direction. The design wind force for
open buildings and other structures shall be not less than 0.5 kN/m2 multiplied by the
area .
Components and Cladding: The design wind pressure for components and cladding
of buildings shall not be less than a net pressure of 0.5 kN/m2 acting in either
direction normal to the surface.
2.4.2 Method 1: Simplified Procedure
2.4.2.1 Scope
A building whose design wind loads are determined in accordance with this Section
shall meet all the conditions of Sec 2.4.2.2 or Sec 2.4.2.3. If a building qualifies only
under Sec 2.4.2.3 for design of its components and cladding, then its MWFRS shall
be designed by Method 2 or Method 3.
Limitations on Wind Speeds: Variation of basic wind speeds with direction shall not
be permitted unless substantiated by any established analytical method or wind
tunnel testing.
2.4.2.2 Main wind-force resisting systems
For the design of MWFRSs the building must meet all of the following conditions:
(1) The building is a simple diaphragm building as defined in Sec 2.1.3.
(2) The building is a low-rise building as defined in Sec 2.1.3.
(3) The building is enclosed as defined in Sec 2.1.3 and conforms to the wind-
borne debris provisions of Sec 2.4.9.3.
(4) The building is a regular-shaped building or structure as defined in Sec 2.1.3.
(5) The building is not classified as a flexible building as defined in Sec 2.1.3.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3107

= Total design base shear calculated by equivalent static analysis. (as

used in Sec 2.5)
= Unpartitioned internal volume m3
F/̅ = mean hourly wind speed at height 4̅, m/s.
1 = Total applied lateral force at the first increment of lateral load in
nonlinear static analysis.
H = Effective yield strength determined from a bilinear curve fitted to the
capacity curve
7 = Total design base shear calculated by response spectrum analysis
"3 = Total design base shear calculated by time history analysis
= Shear wave velocity of soil layer
= Design storey shear in storey
I = Width of building in Figures 6.2.12, 6.2.14(a) and 6.2.14(b), and
width of span in Figures 6.2.13 and 6.2.15 in m.
I = Total seismic weight of building. (as used in Sec 2.5)
I = Wind load, or related internal moments and forces. (as used in Sec
2.7)
J = Distance to center of pressure from windward edge in Figure 6.2.18,
in m.
K = Seismic zone coefficient.
L = Width of pressure coefficient zone, in m.
M = Mean hourly wind speed factor in Eq. 6.2.16 from Table 6.2.10
MN = 3-s gust speed factor from Table 6.2.10
O = Turbulence intensity factor in Eq. 6.2.7 from Table 6.2.10
P' = Accidental eccentricity of floor mass at level-
Q = Acceleration due to gravity.
QR = Peak factor for background response in Equations 6.2.6 and 6.2.10
QS = Peak factor for resonant response in Eq. 6.2.10
QT = Peak factor for wind response in Equations 6.2.6 and 6.2.10
3128 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.4.2.4.1 Main wind-force resisting system: Simplified design wind pressures,

W , for the MWFRSs of low-rise simple diaphragm buildings represent the net
pressures (sum of internal and external) to be applied to the horizontal and
vertical projections of building surfaces as shown in Figure 6.2.2. For the
horizontal pressures (zones A, B, C, D), W is the combination of the windward
and leeward net pressures. W shall be determined by the following equation:
W 5 h0/" .W 2= (6.2.3)
Where,
h 5 adjustment factor for building height and exposure from Figure
6.2.2
0/" 5 topographic factor as defined in Sec 2.4.7 evaluated at mean roof
height, ℎ
. 5 importance factor as defined in Sec 2.4.5
W 2= 5 simplified design wind pressure for Exposure , at ℎ 5 9.1 m,
and for . 5 1.0, refer to Figure 6-2 of ASCE 7-05.
Minimum Pressures: The load effects of the design wind pressures from this
Section shall not be less than the minimum load case from Sec 2.4.2.1 assuming
the pressures, W , for zones A, B, C, and D all equal to + 0.5 kN/m2, while
assuming zones E, F, G, and H all equal to zero kN/m2.
2.4.2.4.2 Components and cladding: Net design wind pressures, W)<" , for the
components and cladding of buildings designed using Method 1 represent the
net pressures (sum of internal and external) to be applied normal to each
building surface as shown in Figure 6.2.3. W)<" shall be determined by the
following equation:
W)<" 5 h0/" .W)<"2= (6.2.4)
Where,
h 5 adjustment factor for building height and exposure from Figure
6.2.3
0/" 5 topographic factor as defined in Sec 2.4.7 evaluated at mean roof
height, h
. 5 importance factor as defined in Sec 2.4.5
W)<"2= 5 net design wind pressure for Exposure , at ℎ 5 9.1 m, and for
. 5 1.0, refer to Figure 6-3 of ASCE 7-05.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3129

Minimum Pressures: The positive design wind pressures, W*P± , from this Section
shall not be less than +0.5 kN/m2, and the negative design wind pressures, W)<" ,
from this Section shall not be less than −0.5 kN/m2.
2.4.2.4.3 Air permeable cladding
Design wind loads determined from Figure 6.2.3 shall be used for all air
permeable cladding unless approved test data or the recognized literature
demonstrate lower loads for the type of air permeable cladding being
considered.
2.4.3 Method 2: Analytical Procedure
2.4.3.1 Scopes and limitations
A building or other structure whose design wind loads are determined in
accordance with this Section shall meet all of the following conditions:
(1) The building or other structure is a regular-shaped building or structure
as defined in Sec 2.1.3.
(2) The building or other structure does not have response characteristics
making it subject to across-wind loading, vortex shedding, instability due
to galloping or flutter; or does not have a site location for which
channeling effects or buffeting in the wake of upwind obstructions
warrant special consideration.
The provisions of this Section take into consideration of the load magnification
effect caused by gusts in resonance with along-wind vibrations of flexible
buildings or other structures. Buildings or other structures not meeting the
requirements of Sec 2.4.2, or having unusual shapes or response characteristics
shall be designed using recognized literature documenting such wind load
effects or shall use the wind tunnel procedure specified in Sec 2.4.16.
2.4.3.2 Shielding
There shall be no reductions in velocity pressure due to apparent shielding
afforded by buildings and other structures or terrain features.
2.4.3.3 Air permeable cladding
Design wind loads determined from Sec 2.4.3 shall be used for air permeable
cladding unless approved test data or recognized literature demonstrate lower
loads for the type of air permeable cladding being considered.
3130 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021
2.4.3.4 Design procedure
(1) The basic wind speed and wind directionality factor 0 shall be
determined in accordance with Sec 2.4.4.
(2) An importance factor . shall be determined in accordance with Sec 2.4.5.
(3) An exposure category or exposure categories and velocity pressure
exposure coefficient 0/ or 03 , as applicable, shall be determined for each
wind direction in accordance with Sec 2.4.6.
(4) A topographic factor 0/" shall be determined in accordance with Sec 2.4.7.
(5) A gust effect factor , or , , as applicable, shall be determined in
accordance with Sec 2.4.8.
(6) An enclosure classification shall be determined in accordance with Sec
2.4.9.
(7) Internal pressure coefficient , ! shall be determined in accordance with
Sec 2.4.10.1.
(8) External pressure coefficients ! or , ! , or force coefficients , as
applicable, shall be determined in accordance with Sections 2.4.10.2 or
2.4.10.3, respectively.
(9) Velocity pressure X/ or X3 , as applicable, shall be determined in accordance
with Sec 2.4.9.5.
(10) Design wind load ; or & shall be determined in accordance with Sec
2.4.11.

2.4.4 Basic Wind Speed

The basic wind speed, used in the determination of design wind loads on
buildings and other structures shall be as given in Figure 6.2.1 except as
provided in Sec 2.4.4.1. The wind shall be assumed to come from any horizontal
direction.
2.4.4.1 Special wind regions
The basic wind speed shall be increased where records or experience indicate
that the wind speeds are higher than those reflected in Figure 6.2.1.
Mountainous terrain, gorges, and special regions shall be examined for unusual
wind conditions. The authority having jurisdiction shall, if necessary, adjust the
values given in Figure 6.2.1 to account for higher local wind speeds. Such
adjustment shall be based on adequate meteorological information and other
necessary data.
2.4.4.2 Limitation
Tornadoes have not been considered in developing the basic wind-speed
distributions.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3131
2.4.4.3 Wind directionality factor
The wind directionality factor, 0 shall be determined from Table 6.2.12. This
factor shall only be applied when used in conjunction with load combinations
specified in this Chapter.

Figure 6.2.1 Basic wind speed (V, m/s) map of Bangladesh

 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3111

Material Unit Weight Material Unit Weight

3
(kN/m ) (kN/m3)

Concrete -stone aggregate 22.8* Sandstone 22.6

(unreinforced)

-brick aggregate 20.4* Slate 28.3

(unreinforced)
Copper 86.4 Steel 77.0
Cork, normal 1.7 Stainless Steel 78.75

Cork, compressed 3.7 Timber 5.9-11.0

Glass, window (soda-lime) 25.5 Zinc 70.0

* for reinforced concrete, add 0.63 kN/m3 for each 1% by volume of main reinforcement

Table 6.2.2: Weight of Construction Materials.

Material/Component/Member Weight per Material/Component/Member Weight per

Unit Area Unit Area
2
(kN/m ) (kN/m2)

Floor Walls and Partitions

Asphalt, 25 mm thick 0.526 Acrylic resin sheet, flat, per 0.012
Clay tiling, 13 mm thick 0.268 mm thickness

Concrete slab (stone aggregate)*: Asbestos cement sheeting:

solid, 100 mm thick 2.360 4.5 mm thick 0.072

solid, 150 mm thick 3.540 6.0 mm thick 0.106

Galvanized steel floor deck (excl. 0.147- Brick masonry work, excl.
topping) 0.383 plaster:

Magnesium oxychloride: burnt clay, per 100 mm 1.910

normal (sawdust filler), 25 mm 0.345 thickness

thick sand-lime, per 100 mm 1.980

heavy duty (mineral filler), thickness

0.527
25 mm thick Concrete (stone aggregate)*:

Terrazzo paving 16 mm thick 0.431 100 mm thick 2.360

 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3133

Exposure B: Exposure B shall apply for all cases where Exposures A or C do not
apply.

Exposure C: Exposure C shall apply where the ground surface roughness, as

defined by Surface Roughness C, prevails in the upwind direction for a distance
greater than 1,524 m or 20 times the building height, whichever is greater.
Exposure C shall extend into downwind areas of Surface Roughness A or B for a
distance of 200 m or 20 times the height of the building, whichever is greater.

For a site located in the transition zone between exposure categories, the
category resulting in the largest wind forces shall be used.

Exception: An intermediate exposure between the preceding categories is

permitted in a transition zone provided that it is determined by a rational
analysis method defined in the recognized literature.

2.4.6.4 Exposure category for main wind-force resisting system

Buildings and Other Structures: For each wind direction considered, wind loads
for the design of the MWFRS determined from Figure 6.2.6 shall be based on the
exposure categories defined in Sec 2.4.6.3.

Low-Rise Buildings: Wind loads for the design of the MWFRSs for low-rise
buildings shall be determined using a velocity pressure X3 based on the
exposure resulting in the highest wind loads for any wind direction at the site
where external pressure coefficients , ! given in Figure 6.2.10 are used.

2.4.6.5 Exposure category for components and cladding

Components and cladding design pressures for all buildings and other
structures shall be based on the exposure resulting in the highest wind loads for
any direction at the site.

2.4.6.6 Velocity pressure exposure coefficient

Based on the exposure category determined in Sec 2.4.6.3, a velocity pressure

exposure coefficient 0/ or 03 , as applicable, shall be determined from Table
6.2.11. For a site located in a transition zone between exposure categories that is near
to a change in ground surface roughness, intermediate values of 0/ or 03 between
those shown in Table 6.2.11, are permitted, provided that they are determined by a
rational analysis method defined in the recognized literature.
3134 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.4.7 Topographic Effects

2.4.7.1 Wind speed-up over hills, ridges and escarpments
Wind speed-up effects at isolated hills, ridges, and escarpments constituting
abrupt changes in the general topography located in any exposure category
shall be included in the design when buildings and other site conditions and
locations of structures meet all of the following conditions:
(i) The hill, ridge, or escarpment is isolated and unobstructed upwind by
other similar topographic features of comparable height for 100 times
the height of the topographic feature (100 H) or 3.22 km, whichever is
less. This distance shall be measured horizontally from the point at
which the height H of the hill, ridge, or escarpment is determined.
(ii) The hill, ridge, or escarpment protrudes above the height of upwind
terrain features within a 3.22 km radius in any quadrant by a factor of
two or more.
(iii) The structure is located as shown in Figure 6.2.4 in the upper one-half of
a hill or ridge or near the crest of an escarpment.
(iv) -/63 ≥ 0.2
(v) - is greater than or equal to 4.5 m for Exposures B and C and 18.3 m for
Exposure A.
2.4.7.2 Topographic factor
The wind speed-up effect shall be included in the calculation of design wind
loads by using the factor 0/" :
0/" 5 (1 + 01 0 02 ) (6.2.5)
Where, 01, 0 , and 02 are given in Figure 6.2.4. If site conditions and locations of
structures do not meet all the conditions specified in Sec 2.4.7.1 then 0/" 5 1.0.
2.4.8 Gust Effect Factor
2.4.8.1 Rigid structures
For rigid structures as defined in Sec 2.1.3, the gust-effect factor shall be taken
as 0.85 or calculated by the formula:
1³1.s ´ µ¶
FR
, 5 0.925 (6.2.6)
1³1.s · µ¶
F
1»
º
./̅ 5 O ¸ /̅ ¹ (6.2.7)
1=
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3135
Where, ./̅ 5 the intensity of turbulence at height 4̅ where 4̅ 5 the equivalent
height of the structure defined as 0.6h, but not less than 4\ ) for all building
heights ℎ. 4\ ) and c are listed for each exposure in Table 6.2.10; QR and the
value of Q¼ shall be taken as 3.4. The background response Q is given by

?5¾
1
Â.ÃÄ (6.2.8)
¿ÀÁ
1³=.º2n y
v¶F

Where, B, h are defined in Sec 2.1.4; and 6/̅ 5 the integral length scale of
turbulence at the equivalent height given by
ÅF
6/̅ 5 V ¸ ¹ (6.2.9)
/̅
1=
In which l and ∈
_ are constants listed in Table 6.2.10.
2.4.8.2 Flexible or dynamically sensitive structures
For flexible or dynamically sensitive structures as defined in Sec 2.1.3 (natural
period greater than 1.0 second), the gust-effect factor shall be calculated by
1³1.sµ¶F Ç È́ RÈ ³ È S È

, 5 0.925 Æ Ê (6.2.10)
É

1³1.s · µ¶
F

The value of both QR and QT shall be taken as 3.4 and QS is given by

QS 5 t2 ln(3600*1 ) + (6.2.11)
=.rss
t ËÌ(2º==)Í )
@, the resonant response factor, is given by
@ 5 ÇÎ @) @3 @A (0.53 + 0.47@B ) (6.2.12)
1

@) 5 (6.2.13)
s.qs Í
Ï»
(1³1=.2 Í ) Ä

:1 5 TÍ_ ¶F (6.2.14)
) B
F
¶

@Ð 5 Ñ − ÑÈ (1 − P Ò Ñ ) for f > 0 (6.2.15a)

1 1

@Ð 5 1 for f 5 0 (6.2.15b)
Where, the subscript V in Eq. 6.2.15 shall be taken as ℎ, , and 6, respectively,
where ℎ, , and 6 are defined in
Sec 2.1.4.
*1 5 building natural frequency
@Ð 5 @3 setting f 5 4.6*1 ℎ/ F/̅
@Ð 5 @A setting f 5 4.6*1 / F/̅
@Ð 5 @B setting f 5 15.4*1 6/ F/̅
c 5 damping ratio, percent of critical
F/̅ 5 mean hourly wind speed at height 4̅ determined from Eq. 6.2.16.
_
∝
F/̅ 5 MF ¸ /̅ ¹ (6.2.16)
1=
3136 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Where, MF and ∝
_ are constants listed in Table 6.2.10.
2.4.8.3 Rational analysis
In lieu of the procedure defined in Sections 2.4.8.1 and 2.4.8.2, determination of
the gust-effect factor by any rational analysis defined in the recognized
literature is permitted.
2.4.8.4 Limitations
Where combined gust-effect factors and pressure coefficients Ô, ! , , ! , , ! Õ
are given in figures and tables, the gust-effect factor shall not be determined
separately.
2.4.9 Enclosure Classifications
2.4.9.1 General
For the purpose of determining internal pressure coefficients, all buildings shall
be classified as enclosed, partially enclosed, or open as defined in Sec 2.1.3.
2.4.9.2 Openings
A determination shall be made of the amount of openings in the building
envelope to determine the enclosure classification as defined in Sec 2.4.9.3.
2.4.9.3 Wind-borne debris
Glazing in buildings located in wind-borne debris regions shall be protected
with an impact-resistant covering or be impact-resistant glazing according to
the requirements specified in ASTM E1886 and ASTM E1996 or other approved
test methods and performance criteria. The levels of impact resistance shall be a
function of Missile Levels and Wind Zones specified in ASTM E1886 and ASTM
E1996.
Exceptions:
(i) Glazing in Category II, III, or IV buildings located over 18.3 m above the
ground and over 9.2 m above aggregate surface roofs located within 458
m of the building shall be permitted to be unprotected.
(ii) Glazing in Category I buildings shall be permitted to be unprotected.
2.4.9.4 Multiple classifications
If a building by definition complies with both the “open” and “partially enclosed”
definitions, it shall be classified as an “open” building. A building that does not
comply with either the “open” or “partially enclosed” definitions shall be
classified as an “enclosed” building.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3137

2.4.9.5 Velocity pressure

Velocity pressure, X/ evaluated at height z shall be calculated by the following
equation:
X/ 5 0.0006130/ 0/" 0 . ; (kN/m2), V in m/s (6.2.17)
Where 0 is the wind directionality factor, 0/ is the velocity pressure exposure
coefficient defined in Sec 2.4.6.6, 0/" is the topographic factor defined in Sec
2.4.7.2, and X/ is the velocity pressure calculated using Eq. 6.2.17 at mean roof
height ℎ. The numerical coefficient 0.000613 shall be used except where
sufficient climatic data are available to justify the selection of a different value of
this factor for a design application.
2.4.10 Pressure And Force Coefficients
2.4.10.1 Internal pressure coefficients
Internal Pressure Coefficient. Internal pressure coefficients, , ! shall be
determined from Figure 6.2.5 based on building enclosure classifications
determined from Sec 2.4.9.
Reduction Factor for Large Volume Buildings, @ : For a partially enclosed
building containing a single, unpartitioned large volume, the internal pressure
coefficient, , ! shall be multiplied by the following reduction factor, @ :

@ 5 1.0 or, @ 5 0.5 Æ1 + Ê ≤ 1.0 (6.2.18)

1
Ù
Ç1³ÃÛÏÍÜ
Ú
ÝÞ

Where, 5 total area of openings in the building envelope (walls and roof, in
m2)
5 unpartitioned internal volume, in m3
2.4.10.2 External pressure coefficients
Main Wind-Force Resisting Systems: External pressure coefficients for MWFRSs
! are given in Figures 6.2.6 to 6.2.8. Combined gust effect factor and external
pressure coefficients, , ! are given in Figure 6.2.10 for low-rise buildings. The
pressure coefficient values and gust effect factor in Figure 6.2.10 shall not be
separated.
Components and Cladding: Combined gust effect factor and external pressure
coefficients for components and cladding , ! are given in Figures 6.2.11 to
6.2.17. The pressure coefficient values and gust-effect factor shall not be
separated.
3116 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Occupancy or Use Uniform Concentrated

kN/m2 kN
Hotels See Residential
Libraries
Reading rooms 2.90 4.50
Stack rooms 7.20 d 4.50
Corridors above first floor 3.80 4.50
Manufacturing*
Light 4.00 6.00
Medium 6.00 9.00
Heavy 12.00 13.40
Garments manufacturing floor except stacking or storage 4.00e --
area
Stacking or storage area of garments manufacturing 6.00 f 10.00 f
industry
Marquees 3.60 --
Office Buildings
File and computer rooms shall be designed for
heavier loads based on anticipated occupancy
Lobbies and first-floor corridors 4.80 9.00
Offices 2.40 9.00
Corridors above first floor 3.80 9.00
Penal Institutions
Cell blocks 2.00 --
Corridors 4.80 --
Residential
Dwellings (one- and two-family)
Uninhabitable attics without storage 0.50 --
Uninhabitable attics with storage 1.00 --
Habitable attics and sleeping areas 1.50 --
All other areas except stairs and balconies 2.00 --
Hotels and multifamily houses
Private rooms and corridors serving them 2.00 --
Public rooms and corridors serving them 4.80 --
Reviewing stands, grandstands, and bleachers 4.80 g --
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3139

X 5 X/ for positive internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed

buildings where height 4 is defined as the level of the highest opening in
the building that could affect the positive internal pressure. For
buildings sited in wind-borne debris regions, glazing that is not impact
resistant or protected with an impact resistant covering, shall be treated
as an opening in accordance with Sec 2.4.9.3. For positive internal
pressure evaluation, X may conservatively be evaluated at height ℎ 5
(X 5 X3 )
, 5 gust effect factor from Sec 2.4.8

! 5 external pressure coefficient from Figures 6.2.6 or 6.2.8

, ! 5 internal pressure coefficient from Figure 6.2.5
X and X shall be evaluated using exposure defined in Sec 2.4.6.3. Pressure shall
be applied simultaneously on windward and leeward walls and on roof surfaces
as defined in Figures 6.2.6 and 6.2.8.
Low-Rise Building: Alternatively, design wind pressures for the MWFRS of low-
rise buildings shall be determined by the following equation:
W 5 X3 àÔ, ! Õ − Ô, ! Õá (kN⁄m ) (6.2.20)
Where,
X3 5 velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height h using exposure
defined in Sec 2.4.6.3
, ! 5 external pressure coefficient from Figure 6.2.10
, ! 5 internal pressure coefficient from Figure 6.2.5
Flexible Buildings: Design wind pressures for the MWFRS of flexible buildings
shall be determined from the following equation:
W 5 X, ! − X Ô, ! Õ (k N⁄m ) (6.2.21)

Where, X, X , ! , and , ! are as defined in Sec 2.4.11.2 and , 5 gust effect

factor is defined as in Sec 2.4.8.
Parapets: The design wind pressure for the effect of parapets on MWFRSs of
rigid, low-rise, or flexible buildings with flat, gable, or hip roofs shall be
determined by the following equation:
W! 5 X! , !) (kN⁄m ) (6.2.22)
3140 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Where,

W! 5 Combined net pressure on the parapet due to the combination of

the net pressures from the front and back parapet surfaces. Plus
(and minus) signs signify net pressure acting toward (and away
from) the front (exterior) side of the parapet
X! 5 Velocity pressure evaluated at the top of the parapet
, !) 5 Combined net pressure coefficient
5 +1.5 for windward parapet
5 −1.0 for leeward parapet

2.4.11.3 Design wind load cases

The MWFRS of buildings of all heights, whose wind loads have been determined
under the provisions of Sec 2.4.11.2, shall be designed for the wind load cases as
defined in Figure 6.2.9. The eccentricity e for rigid structures shall be measured
from the geometric center of the building face and shall be considered for each
principal axis ÔP , PH Õ. The eccentricity P for flexible structures shall be
determined from the following equation and shall be considered for each
principal axis ÔP , Pâ Õ:
È
<´ ³1.sµ¶F ÇÔ ´ R<´ Õ ³( É S<É )È
P5 (6.2.23)
È
1³1.sµ¶F ÇÔ ´ RÕ ³( É S)È
Where,

PR 5 Eccentricity e as determined for rigid structures in Figure 6.2.9

PS 5 Distance between the elastic shear center and center of mass of
each floor

./̅ , QR , ? , QS , @ shall be as defined in Sec 2.1.4

The sign of the eccentricity P shall be plus or minus, whichever causes the more
severe load effect.

Exception: One-story buildings with h less than or equal to 9.1 m, buildings two
stories or less framed with light-frame construction, and buildings two stories
or less designed with flexible diaphragms need only be designed for Load Case 1
and Load Case 3 in Figure 6.2.9.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3141

2.4.11.4 Components and cladding.

Low-Rise Buildings and Buildings with ℎ ≤ 18.3 m: Design wind pressures on
component and cladding elements of low-rise buildings and buildings with ℎ ≤
18.3 m shall be determined from the following equation:
W 5 X3 àÔ, !Õ − Ô, ! Õá (k N⁄m ) (6.2.24)
Where,
X3 5 Velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height ℎ using exposure
defined in Sec 2.4.6.5
, ! 5 External pressure coefficients given in Figures 6.2.11 to 6.2.16
, ! 5 Internal pressure coefficient given in Figure 6.2.5
Buildings with ℎ > 18.3 m: Design wind pressures on components and cladding
for all buildings with ℎ > 18.3 m shall be determined from the following
equation:
W 5 XÔ, !Õ − X Ô, ! Õ (kN/m ) (6.2.25)
Where,
X 5 X/ for windward walls calculated at height 4 above the ground
X 5 X3 for leeward walls, side walls, and roofs, evaluated at height ℎ
X 5 X3 for windward walls, side walls, leeward walls, and roofs of
enclosed buildings and for negative internal pressure evaluation in
partially enclosed buildings
X 5 X/ for positive internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed
buildings where height 4 is defined as the level of the highest opening in
the building that could affect the positive internal pressure. For
buildings sited in wind-borne debris regions, glazing that is not impact
resistant or protected with an impact-resistant covering, shall be
treated as an opening in accordance with Sec 2.4.9.3. For positive
internal pressure evaluation, qi may conservatively be evaluated at
height ℎ (X 5 X3 )
Ô, !Õ 5 external pressure coefficient from Figure 6.2.17.
Ô, ! Õ 5 internal pressure coefficient given in Figure 6.2.5. X and X
shall be evaluated using exposure defined in Sec 2.4.6.3.
3142 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

buildings with 18.3 m < ℎ < 27.4 m.

2.4.11.5 Alternative design wind pressures for components and cladding in

Alternative to the requirements of Sec 2.4.11.2, the design of components and

cladding for buildings with a mean roof height greater than 18.3 m and less than
27.4 m values from Figures 6.2.11 to 6.2.17 shall be used only if the height to
width ratio is one or less (except as permitted by Notes of Figure 6.2.17) and Eq.
6.2.24 is used.
Parapets: The design wind pressure on the components and cladding elements
of parapets shall be designed by the following equation:
W 5 X! Ô, ! −, ! Õ (6.2.26)
Where,
X! 5 Velocity pressure evaluated at the top of the parapet
, ! 5 External pressure coefficient from Figures 6.2.11 to 6.2.17
, ! 5 Internal pressure coefficient from Figure 6.2.5, based on the
porosity of the parapet envelope.
Two load cases shall be considered. Load Case A shall consist of applying the
applicable positive wall pressure from Figures 6.2.11 or 6.2.17 to the front
surface of the parapet while applying the applicable negative edge or corner
zone roof pressure from Figures 6.2.11 to 6.2.17 to the back surface. Load Case
B shall consist of applying the applicable positive wall pressure from Figures
6.2.11 or 6.2.17 to the back of the parapet surface, and applying the applicable
negative wall pressure from Figures 6.2.11 or 6.2.17 to the front surface. Edge
and corner zones shall be arranged as shown in Figures 6.2.11 to 6.2.17. , !
shall be determined for appropriate roof angle and effective wind area from
Figures 6.2.11 to 6.2.17. If internal pressure is present, both load cases should
be evaluated under positive and negative internal pressure.
2.4.12 Design Wind Loads on Open Buildings with Monoslope, Pitched, or
Troughed Roofs

2.4.12.1 General

Sign Convention: Plus and minus signs signify pressure acting toward and away
from the top surface of the roof, respectively.
Critical Load Condition: Net pressure coefficients CN include contributions from
top and bottom surfaces. All load cases shown for each roof angle shall be
investigated.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3143

2.4.12.2 Main wind-force resisting systems

The net design pressure for the MWFRSs of monoslope, pitched, or troughed
roofs shall be determined by the following equation:
W 5 X3 , (6.2.27)
Where,
X3 5 Velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height h using the
exposure as defined in Sec 2.4.6.3 that results in the highest wind
loads for any wind direction at the site
, 5 Gust effect factor from Sec 2.4.8
5 Net pressure coefficient determined from Figures 6.2.18(a) to
6.2.18(d).
For free roofs with an angle of plane of roof from horizontal g less than or equal
to 5o and containing fascia panels, the fascia panel shall be considered an
inverted parapet. The contribution of loads on the fascia to the MWFRS loads
shall be determined using Sec 2.4.11.5 with X! equal to X3 .
2.4.12.3 Component and cladding elements
The net design wind pressure for component and cladding elements of
monoslope, pitched, and troughed roofs shall be determined by the following
equation:
W 5 X3 , (6.2.28)
Where,
X3 5 Velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height ℎ using the
exposure as defined in Sec 2.4.6.3 that results in the highest wind
loads for any wind direction at the site
, 5 Gust-effect factor from Sec 2.4.8
5 Net pressure coefficient determined from Figures 6.2.19(a) to
6.2.19(c).
2.4.13 Design Wind Loads on Solid Free Standing Walls and Solid Signs
The design wind force for solid freestanding walls and solid signs shall be
determined by the following formula:
& 5 X3 , (kN) (6.2.29)
3144 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Where,

X3 5 Velocity pressure evaluated at height ℎ (Figure 6.2.20) using

exposure defined in Sec2.4.6.3

, 5 Gust-effect factor from Sec 2.4.8

5 Net force coefficient from Figure 6.2.20

5 Gross area of the solid freestanding wall or solid sign, in m2

2.4.14 Design Wind Loads on Other Structures

The design wind force for other structures shall be determined by the following
equation:

& 5 X/ , (kN) (6.2.30)

Where,

X/ 5 Velocity pressure evaluated at height 4 of the centroid of area

using exposure as in Sec 2.4.6.3

, 5 Gust-effect factor from Sec 2.4.8

5 Force coefficients from Figures 6.2.21 to 6.2.23.

5 Projected area normal to the wind except where is specified for

the actual surface area, m2

2.4.15 Rooftop Structures and Equipment for Buildings with ã ≤ äå. æ ç

The force on rooftop structures and equipment with less than (0.1 ℎ)
located on buildings with ℎ ≤ 18.3 m shall be determined from Eq. 6.2.30,
increased by a factor of 1.9. The factor shall be permitted to be reduced linearly
from 1.9 to 1.0 as the value of is increased from (0.1 ℎ) to ( ℎ).

2.4.16 Method 3 - Wind Tunnel Procedure

2.4.16.1 Scope

Wind tunnel tests shall be used where required by Sec 2.4.3.1. Wind tunnel
testing shall be permitted in lieu of Methods 1 and 2 for any building or
structure.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3121
2.3.10 Partial Loading and Other Loading Arrangements
The full intensity of the appropriately reduced live load applied only to a portion of
the length or area of a structure or member shall be considered, if it produces a more
unfavourable effect than the same intensity applied over the full length or area of the
structure or member.
Where uniformly distributed live loads are used in the design of continuous members
and their supports, consideration shall be given to full dead load on all spans in
combination with full live loads on adjacent spans and on alternate spans whichever
produces a more unfavourable effect.
2.3.11 Other Live Loads
Live loads on miscellaneous structures and components, such as handrails and
supporting members, parapets and balustrades, ceilings, skylights and supports, and
the like, shall be determined from the analysis of the actual loads on them, but shall
not be less than those given in Table 6.2.5.
2.3.12 Impact and Dynamic Loads
The live loads specified in Sec 2.3.3 shall be assumed to include allowances for
impacts arising from normal uses only. However, forces imposed by unusual
vibrations and impacts resulting from the operation of installed machinery and
equipment shall be determined separately and treated as additional live loads. Live
loads due to vibration or impact shall be determined by dynamic analysis of the
supporting member or structure including foundations, or from the recommended
values supplied by the manufacture of the particular equipment or machinery. In
absence of definite information, values listed in Table 6.2.6 for some common
equipment, shall be used for design purposes.
Table 6.2.5: Miscellaneous Live Loads

Structural Member or Component Live Load(1)

(kN/m)
A. Handrails, parapets and supports:
(a) Light access stairs, gangways etc.
(i) width ≤ 0.6 m 0.25
(ii) width > 0.6 m 0.35
(b) Staircases other than in (a) above, ramps, balconies:
(i) Single dwelling and private 0.35
(ii) Staircases in residential buildings 0.35
(iii) Balconies or portion thereof, stands etc. having fixed seats 1.5
within 0.55 m of the barrier
(iv) Public assembly buildings including theatres, cinemas, 3.0
assembly halls, stadiums, mosques, churches, schools etc.
(v) Buildings and occupancies other than (i) to (iv) above 0.75
3146 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021
Enclosed Buildings: Walls & Roofs

Notes:
1. Pressures shown are applied to the horizontal and vertical projections, for exposure
A, at h=9.1m, I=1.0, and Kzt = 1.0. Adjust to other conditions using Equation 6.2.3.
2. The load patterns shown shall be applied to each corner of the building in turn as the reference
corner. (See Figure 6.2.10)
3. For the design of the longitudinal MWFRS use θ = 0°, and locate the zone E/F, G/H boundary at
the mid-length of the building.
4. Load cases 1 and 2 must be checked for 25° < θ ≤ 45°. Load case 2 at 25° is provided only for
interpolation between 25° to 30°.
5. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the projected surfaces,
respectively.
6. For roof slopes other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
7. The total horizontal load shall not be less than that determined by assuming ps = 0 in zones B & D.
8. The zone pressures represent the following:
Horizontal pressure zones – Sum of the windward and leeward net (sum of internal and external)
pressures on vertical projection of:
A - End zone of wall C - Interior zone of wall
B - End zone of roof D - Interior zone of roof
Vertical pressure zones – Net (sum of internal and external) pressures on horizontal projection of:
E - End zone of windward roof G - Interior zone of windward roof
F - End zone of leeward roof H - Interior zone of leeward roof
9. Where zone E or G falls on a roof overhang on the windward side of the building, use EOH and
GOH for the pressure on the horizontal projection of the overhang. Overhangs on the leeward
and side edges shall have the basic zone pressure applied.
10. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than
either 4% of least horizontal dimension or 0.9 m.
h: Mean roof height, in feet (meters), except that eave height shall be used for roof angles <10°.
θ: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3147
Adjustment Factor for Building Height and Exposure, 
Mean roof height (m) Exposure
A B C
4.6 1.00 1.21 1.47
6.0 1.00 1.29 1.55
7.6 1.00 1.35 1.61
9.1 1.00 1.40 1.66
10.7 1.05 1.45 1.70
12.2 1.09 1.49 1.74
13.7 1.12 1.53 1.78
15.2 1.16 1.56 1.81
16.8 1.19 1.59 1.84
18.3 1.22 1.62 1.87

Figure 6.2.2 Design wind pressure for main wind force resisting system- Method 1
(h ≤ 18.3 m)
Enclosed Buildings: Walls & Roofs

Notes:
1. Pressures shown are applied normal to the surface, for exposure A, at h = 9.1m, I = 1.0, and Kzt =
1.0. Adjust to other conditions using Equation 6.2.4.
2. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
3. For hip roofs with θ ≤ 25°, Zone 3 shall be treated as Zone 2.
4. For effective wind areas between those given, value may be interpolated, otherwise use the value
associated with the lower effective wind area.
5. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4%
of least horizontal dimension or 0.9 m.
h: Mean roof height, in feet (meters), except that eave height shall be used for roof angles <10°.
θ: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
3148 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Roof Overhang Net Design Wind Pressure, Pnet30 (kN/m2)

(Exposure A at h = 9.1 m with l= 1.0)

Roof Zone Effective Basic Wind Speed V (m/s)

Wind area (m2) 40.23 44.7 49.17 53.64 58.11 62.58 67.05 75.99
Pitch

2 0.930 -1.005 -1.239 -1.502 -1.785 -2.096 -2.431 -2.790 -3.584

2 1.860 -0.986 -1.220 -1.473 -1.756 -2.058 -2.388 -2.742 -3.522

Roof 0 to 7 degrees

2 4.648 -0.962 -1.191 -1.440 -1.713 -2.010 -2.330 -2.675 -3.436

2 9.296 -0.947 -1.168 -1.412 -1.680 -1.971 -2.287 -2.627 -3.373

3 0.930 -1.656 -2.043 -2.470 -2.943 -3.450 -4.005 -4.594 -5.905

3 1.860 -1.297 -1.603 -1.938 -2.311 -2.708 -3.144 -3.609 -4.632

3 4.648 -0.828 -1.024 -1.240 -1.474 -1.727 -2.005 -2.302 -2.957

3 9.296 -0.479 -0.584 -0.708 -0.842 -0.986 -1.144 -1.311 -1.684

Figure 6.2.3 Design wind pressure for components and cladding - Method 1 (h ≤ 18.3 m)

Roof Overhang Net Design Wind Pressure, Pnet30 (kN/m2)

(Exposure A at h = 9.1 m with l= 1.0)
Roof Zone Effective Basic Wind Speed V (m/s)
Pitch Wind area 40.23 44.7 49.17 53.64 58.11 62.58 67.05 75.99
(m2)

2 0.930 -1.302 -1.603 -1.943 -2.311 -2.713 -3.144 -3.613 -4.637

2 1.860 -1.302 -1.603 -1.943 -2.311 -2.713 -3.144 -3.613 -4.637

Roof > 7 to 27 degrees

2 4.648 -1.302 -1.603 -1.943 -2.311 -2.713 -3.144 -3.613 -4.637

2 9.296 -1.302 -1.603 -1.943 -2.311 -2.713 -3.144 -3.613 -4.637

3 0.930 -2.187 -2.699 -3.268 -3.885 -4.560 -5.292 -6.072 -7.800

3 1.860 -1.971 -2.436 -2.948 -3.507 -4.115 -4.775 -5.479 -7.039

3 4.648 -1.689 -2.086 -2.526 -3.005 -3.526 -4.091 -4.694 -6.034

3 9.296 -1.479 -1.823 -2.206 -2.627 -3.082 -3.574 -4.106 -5.268

 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3149

2 0.930 -1.182 -1.460 -1.766 -2.101 -2.464 -2.861 -3.282 -4.216

2 1.860 -1.148 -1.416 -1.713 -2.038 -2.393 -2.775 -3.182 -4.091

Roof >27 to 45 degrees 2 4.648 -1.101 -1.359 -1.641 -1.952 -2.292 -2.660 -3.052 -3.924

2 9.296 -1.062 -1.311 -1.587 -1.890 -2.220 -2.574 -2.952 -3.795

3 0.930 -1.182 -1.460 -1.766 -2.101 -2.464 -2.861 -3.283 -4.216

3 1.860 -1.148 -1.416 -1.713 -2.038 -2.393 -2.775 -3.182 -4.091

3 4.648 -1.101 -1.359 -1.641 -1.952 -2.292 -2.660 -3.053 -3.923

3 9.296 -1.062 -1.311 -1.589 -1.890 -2.220 -2.574 -2.952 -3.795

Adjustment Factor for Building Height and Exposure, 

Mean roof height (m) Exposure

A B C

4.6 1.00 1.21 1.47

6.1 1.00 1.29 1.55

7.6 1.00 1.35 1.61

9.15 1.00 1.40 1.66

10.7 1.05 1.45 1.70

12.2 1.09 1.49 1.74

13.7 1.12 1.53 1.78

15.2 1.16 1.56 1.81

16.8 1.19 1.59 1.84

18.3 1.22 1.62 1.87

Unit Conversion – 1.0 ft =0.3048 m; 1.0 ft2 = 0.0929 m2; 1.0 psf = 0.0479 kN/m2

Figure 6.2.3 (Contd.) Design wind pressure for components and cladding-Method 1
(h ≤ 18.3 m)
3150 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Topographic Multipliers for Exposure B

H/Lh K1 Multiplier x/Lh K2 Multiplier z/Lh K3 Multiplier
2-D 2-D 3-D 2-D All 2-D 2-D 3-D
Ridge Escarp. Axisym. Escarp. Other Ridge Escarp. Axisym.
Hill Cases Hill
0.20 0.29 0.17 0.21 0.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
0.25 0.36 0.21 0.26 0.50 0.88 0.67 0.10 0.74 0.78 0.67
0.30 0.43 0.26 0.32 1.00 0.75 0.33 0.20 0.55 0.61 0.45
0.35 0.51 0.30 0.37 1.50 0.63 0.00 0.30 0.41 0.47 0.30
0.40 0.58 0.34 0.42 2.00 0.50 0.00 0.40 0.30 0.37 0.20
0.45 0.65 0.38 0.47 2.50 0.38 0.00 0.50 0.22 0.29 0.14
0.50 0.72 0.43 0.53 3.00 0.25 0.00 0.60 0.17 0.22 0.09
3.50 0.13 0.00 0.70 0.12 0.17 0.06
4.00 0.00 0.00 0.80 0.09 0.14 0.04
0.90 0.07 0.11 0.03
1.00 0.05 0.08 0.02
1.50 0.01 0.02 0.00
2.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Notes:
1. For values of H/Lh, x/Lh and z/Lh other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
2. For H/Lh > 0.5, assume H/Lh = 0.5 for evaluating K1 and substitute 2H for Lh for evaluating K2 and
K3 .
3. Multipliers are based on the assumption that wind approaches the hill or escarpment along the
direction of maximum slope.
4. Notation:
H: Height of hill or escarpment relative to the upwind terrain, in meters.
Lh: Distance upwind of crest to where the difference in ground elevation is half the height of hill
or escarpment, in meters.
K1: Factor to account for shape of topographic feature and maximum speed-up effect.
K2: Factor to account for reduction in speed-up with distance upwind or downwind of crest.
K3: Factor to account for reduction in speed-up with height above local terrain.
x: Distance (upwind or downwind) from the crest to the building site, in meters.
z: Height above local ground level, in meters.
W: Horizontal attenuation factor.

Equation:
γ: Height attenuation factor

0/" 5 (1 + 01 0 02 ) ; K1 determined from Table below; 0 5 ¸1 −

| |
¹ ; 02 5
P Òë//B Á êBÁ
3128 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.4.2.4.1 Main wind-force resisting system: Simplified design wind pressures,

W , for the MWFRSs of low-rise simple diaphragm buildings represent the net
pressures (sum of internal and external) to be applied to the horizontal and
vertical projections of building surfaces as shown in Figure 6.2.2. For the
horizontal pressures (zones A, B, C, D), W is the combination of the windward
and leeward net pressures. W shall be determined by the following equation:
W 5 h0/" .W 2= (6.2.3)
Where,
h 5 adjustment factor for building height and exposure from Figure
6.2.2
0/" 5 topographic factor as defined in Sec 2.4.7 evaluated at mean roof
height, ℎ
. 5 importance factor as defined in Sec 2.4.5
W 2= 5 simplified design wind pressure for Exposure , at ℎ 5 9.1 m,
and for . 5 1.0, refer to Figure 6-2 of ASCE 7-05.
Minimum Pressures: The load effects of the design wind pressures from this
Section shall not be less than the minimum load case from Sec 2.4.2.1 assuming
the pressures, W , for zones A, B, C, and D all equal to + 0.5 kN/m2, while
assuming zones E, F, G, and H all equal to zero kN/m2.
2.4.2.4.2 Components and cladding: Net design wind pressures, W)<" , for the
components and cladding of buildings designed using Method 1 represent the
net pressures (sum of internal and external) to be applied normal to each
building surface as shown in Figure 6.2.3. W)<" shall be determined by the
following equation:
W)<" 5 h0/" .W)<"2= (6.2.4)
Where,
h 5 adjustment factor for building height and exposure from Figure
6.2.3
0/" 5 topographic factor as defined in Sec 2.4.7 evaluated at mean roof
height, h
. 5 importance factor as defined in Sec 2.4.5
W)<"2= 5 net design wind pressure for Exposure , at ℎ 5 9.1 m, and for
. 5 1.0, refer to Figure 6-3 of ASCE 7-05.
3152 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings: Walls & Roofs

Wall Pressure Coefficients, Cp

Surface L/B Cp Use With
Windward Wall All values 0.8 qz
Leeward Wall 0-1 -0.5 qh
2 -0.3
>4 -0.2
Side Wall All values -0.7 qh

Figure 6.2.6 External Pressure Coefficients, Cp main wind force resisting system -
Method 2 (All Heights)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3153

Roof Pressure Coefficients, Cp, for use with qh

Wind Windward Leeward
Direction
Angle, θ (degrees) Angle, θ (degrees)
h/L 10 15 20 25 30 35 45 >60# 10 15 >20
Normal -0.7 -0.5 -0.3 -0.2 -0.2 0.0*
-0.3 -0.5 -0.6
To ridge for <0.25 -0.18 0.0* 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.01θ
θ >100
-0.9 -0.7 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.2 0.0*
-0.5 -0.5 -0.6
0.5 -0.18 -0.18 0.0* 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.01θ
-1.3** -1.0 -0.7 -0.5 -0.3 -0.2 0.0* 0.01θ
-0.7 -0.6 -0.6
>1.0 -0.18 -0.18 -0.18 0.0* 0.2 0.2 0.3
Normal Horizontal distance Cp * Value is provided for interpolation
To ridge for from Windward edge purposes
θ <10o and 0 to h/2 -0.9, -0.18 ** Value can be reduced linearly with area
Parallel to < 0.5 over which it is applicable as follows
ridge for all h/2 to h -0.9, -0.18
θ h to 2 h -0.5, -0.18
> 2h -0.3, -0.18
Area (m2) Reduction Factor
0 to h/2 -1.3**,-0.18
> 1.0 < 9.3 1.0
23.2 0.9
> h/2 -0.7, -0.18
> 92.9 0.8

Notes:
1. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
2. Linear interpolation is permitted for values of L/B, h/L and θ other than shown. Interpolation shall only be carried
out between values of the same sign. Where no value of the same sign is given, assume 0.0 for interpolation
purposes.
3. Where two values of Cp are listed, this indicates that the windward roof slope is subjected to either positive or
negative pressures and the roof structure shall be designed for both conditions. Interpolation for intermediate
ratios of h/L in this case shall only be carried out between Cp values of like sign.
4. For monoslope roofs, entire roof surface is either a windward or leeward surface.
5. For flexible buildings use appropriate Gf as determined by Sec 2.4.8.
6. Refer to Figure 6.2.7 for domes and Figure 6.2.8 for arched roofs.
7. Notation:
B: Horizontal dimension of building, in meter, measured normal to wind direction.
L: Horizontal dimension of building, in meter, measured parallel to wind direction.
h: Mean roof height in meters, except that eave height shall be used for e 10 degrees.
z: Height above ground, in meters.
G: Gust effect factor.
qz,qh: Velocity pressure, in N/m2, evaluated at respective height.
θ: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
8. For mansard roofs, the top horizontal surface and leeward inclined surface shall be treated as leeward surfaces
from the table
9. Except for MWFRS's at the roof consisting of moment resisting frames, the total horizontal shear shall not be less
than that determined by neglecting wind forces on roof surfaces.
#For roof slopes greater than 80°, use C = 0.8
p

Figure 6.2.6 (Contd.) External pressure coefficients, Cp main wind force resisting system -
Method 2 (All Heights)
3154 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings and Structures: Domed Roofs

Notes:
1. Two load cases shall be considered:
Case A. Cp values between A and B and between B and C shall be determined by linear
interpolation along arcs on the dome parallel to the wind direction;
Case B. Cp shall be the constant value of A for θ ≤ 25 degrees, and shall be determined by
linear interpolation from 25 degrees to B and from B to C.
2. Values denote Cp to be used with X3í³ where (hD + f) is the height at the top of the dome.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces,
respectively.
4. Cp is constant on the dome surface for arcs of circles perpendicular to the wind direction;
for example, the arc passing through B-B-B and all arcs parallel to B-B-B.
5. For values of hD/D between those listed on the graph curves, linear interpolation shall be
permitted.
6. 50 degrees on dome springline, θ590 degrees at dome center top point. f is measured
from springline to top.
7. The total horizontal shear shall not be less than that determined by neglecting wind forces
roof surfaces.
8. For f/D values less than 0.05, use Figure 6.2.6.

Figure 6.2.7 External pressure coefficients, Cp main wind force resisting system - Method 2
(All Heights)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3155
Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings and Structures: Arched Roofs

Condition Rise-to-span Cp
ratio, r Windward Center Leeward
quarter half quarter
0 < r < 0.2 -0.9 -0.7 - r -0.5
Roof on elevated
0.2 ≤ r < 0.3* l.5 r - 0.3 -0.7 - r -0.5
structure
0.3 ≤ r ≤ 0.6 2.75 r - 0.7 -0.7 - r -0.5
Roof springing from
0 < r ≤ 0.6 1.4 r -0.7 - r -0.5
ground level

Notes:
* When the rise-to-span ratio is 0.2 ≤ r ≤ 0.3, alternate coefficients given by
(6r- 2.1) shall also be used for the windward quarter.
1. Values listed are for the determination of average load on main wind force
resisting systems.
2. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces,
respectively.
3. For wind directed parallel to the axis of the arch, use pressure coefficients from
Figure 6.2.6 with wind directed parallel to ridge.
4. For components and cladding: (1) At roof perimeter, use the external pressure
coefficients in Figure 6.2.11 with e based on spring-line slope and (2) for
remaining roof areas, use external pressure coefficients of this Table multiplied by
0.87.

Figure 6.2.8 External pressure coefficients, Cp main wind force resisting system component
and cladding - Method 2 (All Heights)
3156 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Case 1. Full design wind pressure acting on the projected area perpendicular to
each principal axis of the structure, considered separately along each
principal axis.
Case 2. Three quarters of the design wind pressure acting on the projected area
perpendicular to each principal axis of the structure in conjunction with a
torsional moment as shown, considered separately for each principal axis.
Case 3. Wind loading as defined in Case 1, but considered to act simultaneously at
75% of the specified value.

Case 4. Wind loading as defined in Case 2, but considered to act simultaneously at

75% of the specified value.

Notes:

1. Design wind pressures for windward and leeward faces shall be determined in
accordance with the provisions of Sec 2.4.11 as applicable for building of all heights.

2. Diagrams show plan views of building.

3. Notation:
Pwx, PwY: Windward face design pressure acting in the x, y principal axis,
respectively.

PLX, PLY: Leeward face design pressure acting in the x, y principal axis,
respectively.

e(ex, ey): Eccentricity for the x, y principal axis of the structure, respectively.

MT: Torsional moment per unit height acting about a vertical axis of the
building.

Figure 6.2.9 Design wind load cases for main wind force resisting system-Method 2
(All Heights)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3157

Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings: Low-rise Walls & Roofs

Figure 6.2.10 External pressure coefficients, GCpf for main wind force resisting
system- Method 2 (h ≤ 18.3 m)
3158 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings: Low-rise Walls & Roofs

Roof Building Surface

Angle θ
(degrees) 1 2 3 4 5 6 1E 2E 3E 4E
0-5 0.40 -0.69 -0.37 -0.29 -0.45 -0.45 0.61 -1.07 -0.53 -0.43
20 0.53 -0.69 -0.48 -0.43 -0.45 -0.45 0.80 -1.07 -0.69 -0.64
30-45 0.56 0.21 -0.43 -0.37 -0.45 -0.45 0.69 0.27 -0.53 -0.48

90 0.56 0.56 -0.37 -0.37 -0.45 -0.45 0.69 0.69 -0.48 -0.48

Notes:
1. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
2. For values of θ other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
3. The building must be designed for all wind directions using the 8 loading patterns shown. The load
patterns are applied to each building corner in turn as the Reference Corner.
4. Combinations of external and internal pressures (see Figure 6.2.5) shall be evaluated as required
to obtain the most severe loadings.
5. For the torsional load cases shown below, the pressures in zones designated with a “T” (1T, 2T, 3T,
4T) shall be 25% of the full design wind pressures (zones 1, 2, 3, 4).
Exception: One story buildings with h less than or equal to 9.1m, buildings two stories or less
framed with light frame construction, and buildings two stories or less designed with flexible
diaphragms need not be designed for the torsional load cases.
Torsional loading shall apply to all eight basic load patterns using the figures below applied at each
reference corner.
6. Except for moment-resisting frames, the total horizontal shear shall not be less than that
determined by neglecting wind forces on roof surfaces.
7. For the design of the MWFRS providing lateral resistance in a direction parallel to a ridge line or for flat
roofs, use θ 5 0° and locate the zone 2/3 boundary at the mid-length of the building.
8. The roof pressure coefficient GCpf, when negative in Zone 2 or 2E, shall be applied in Zone 2/2E for
a distance from the edge of roof equal to 0.5 times the horizontal dimension of the building parallel
to the direction of the MWFRS being designed or 2.5 times the eave height, he, at the windward
wall, whichever is less; the remainder of Zone 2/2E extending to the ridge line shall use the
pressure coefficient GCpf for Zone 3/3E.
9. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either
4% of least horizontal dimension or 0.9 m.
h: Mean roof height, in meters, except that eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 10°.
: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.

Figure 6.2.10 (Contd.) External pressure coefficients, GCpf for main wind force
resisting system - Method 2 (h ≤ 18.3 m)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3159
Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings: Walls

Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCP to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area, in square meters.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the
surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative
pressures.
5. Values of GCP for walls shall be reduced by 10% when θ ≤ 100.
6. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller,

h: Mean roof height, in meters, except that eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 100.
but not less than either 4% of least horizontal dimension or 0.9m.

θ: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.

Figure 6.2.11(a) External pressure coefficients, GCp for components and cladding–Method
2 (h ≤ 18.3 m)
3160 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings: Gable Roofs θ ≤ 70

Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCP to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area, in square meters.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the
surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative
pressures.
5. If a parapet equal to or higher than 0.9 m is provided around the perimeter of
the roof with θ ≤ 70, the negative values of GCp in Zone 3 shall be equal to
those for Zone 2 and positive values of GCP in Zones 2 and 4 shall be set
equal to those for wall Zones 4 and 5 respectively in Figure 6.2.11(a).
6. Values of GCP for roof overhangs include pressure contributions from both
upper and lower surfaces.
7. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but
not less than either 4% of least horizontal dimension or 0.9 m.
h: Eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 100.
θ: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.

Figure 6.2.11(b) External pressure coefficients, GCp for components and cladding–
Method 2 (h ≤ 18.3 m)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3161

Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings: Gable/Hip Roofs 70 < θ ≤ 270

Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCP to be used with q h .
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area, in square feet (square
meters).
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the
surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative
pressures.
5. Values of GCP for roof overhangs include pressure contributions from
both upper and lower surfaces.
6. For hip roofs with 70 < θ ≤ 270, edge/ridge strips and pressure
coefficients for ridges of gabled roofs shall apply on each hip.
7. For hip roofs with 70 < θ ≤ 250, Zone 3 shall be treated as Zone 2.
8. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller,
but not less than either 4% of least horizontal dimension or 0.9 m.
h: Mean roof height, in meters, except that eave height shall be used for θ
≤ 100.
θ: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.

Figure 6.2.11(c) External pressure coefficients, GCp for components and cladding–Method 2
(h ≤ 18.3 m)
3162 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings: Gable Roofs 270 < θ ≤ 450

Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCP to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area, in square feet (square
meters).
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the
surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative
pressures.
5. Values of GCP for roof overhangs include pressure contributions from
both upper and lower surfaces.
6. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller,
but not less than either 4% of least horizontal dimension or 0.9m.
h: Mean roof height, in meters.
θ: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
Figure 6.2.11(d) External pressure coefficients, GCp for components and cladding–Method 2
(h ≤ 18.3 m)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3163

Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings: Stepped Roofs

Notes:
On the lower level of flat, stepped roofs shown in Figure 6.2.12, the zone
designations and pressure coefficients shown in Figure 6.2.11(b) shall apply,
except that at the roof-upper wall intersection(s), Zone 3 shall be treated as
Zone 2 and Zone 2 shall be treated as Zone 1. Positive values of GCp equal to
those for walls in Figure 6.2.11(a) shall apply on the cross-hatched areas shown
in Figure 6.2.12.
Notation:
b: 1.5h1 in Figure 6.2.12, but not greater than 30.5 m.
h: Mean roof height, in meters.
hi: h1 or h2 in Figure 6.2.12; h 5 h1 + h2; h1≥ 3.1 m; hi/h 5 0.3 to 0.7.
W: Building width in Figure 6.2.12.
Wi: W1 or W2 or W3 in Figure 6.2.12. W5 W1 + W2 or W1 + W2 + W3; Wi/W5
0.25 to 0.75.
e: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
Figure 6.2.12 External pressure coefficients, GCp for components and cladding–Method 2
(h ≤ 18.3 m)
3164 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings: Multispan Gable Roofs

Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCP to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area, in square meters.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the
surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative
pressures.
5. For θ ≤ 100 Values of GCP from Figure 6.2.11 shall be used.
6. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but
not less than either 4% of least horizontal dimension or 0.9 m.
h: Mean roof height, in feet (meters), except that eave height shall be used for
θ ≤ 100.
W: Building module width, in meters.
θ: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
Figure 6.2.13 External pressure coefficients, GCp for components and cladding–Method 2
(h ≤ 18.3 m)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3165

Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings: Monoslope Roofs 30 < θ ≤ 100z

-3.0

Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCP to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area A, in square meters.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the
surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative
pressures.
5. For θ ≤ 30 Values of GCP from Figure 6.2.11(b) shall be used.
6. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller,
but not less than either 4% of least horizontal dimension or 0.9 m.
h: Eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 100.
W: Building width, in meters.
θ: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.

Figure 6.2.14(a) External pressure coefficients, GCp for components and cladding–
Method 2 (h ≤ 18.3 m)
3166 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings: Monoslope Roofs 100 < θ ≤ 300

-3.0

Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCP to be used with qh
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area A, in square feet (square
meters).
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the
surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative
pressures.
5. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller,
but not less than either 4% of least horizontal dimension or 0.9 m.
h: Mean roof height in meters.
W: Building width, in meters.
θ: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.

Figure 6.2.14(b) External pressure coefficients, GCp for components and cladding–
Method 2 (h ≤ 18.3 m)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3167

Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings: Sawtooth Roofs

Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCP to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area A, in square feet (square meters).
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the
surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
5. For ≤100 Values of GCP from Figure 6.2.11 shall be used.
6. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but
not less than either 4% of least horizontal dimension or 0.9 m.
h: Mean roof height in meters except that eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 100.
W: Building width, in meters.
θ: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
Figure 6.2.15 External pressure coefficients, GCp for components and cladding–
Method 2 (h ≤ 18.3 m)
3168 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings: Domed Roofs

External Pressure Coefficients for Domes with a circular Base

Negative Pressures Positive Pressures Positive Pressures
θ, degrees
0 – 90 0 – 60 61 – 90
GCp -0.9 +0.9 +0.5

Notes:

1. Values denote Cp to be used with q(hD+f) where hD+f is the height at the
top of the dome.
2. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the
surfaces, respectively.

3. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative

pressures.

4. Values apply to θ ≤ hDD ≤ 0.5, 0.2≤ f/D ≤0.5.

θ 50o on dome springline, θ 5 90o at dome center top point. f is

measured from springline to top.
5.

Figure 6.2.16 External pressure coefficients, GCp for components and cladding – Method 2
(All heights)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3169

Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings: Walls & Roofs

Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCp to be used with appropriate qz or qh.
2.Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area A, in square feet (square meters).
3.Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces,
respectively.
4. Use qz with positive values of GCp and qh with negative values of GCp
5.Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
6.Coefficients are for roofs with angle ≤10°. For other roof angles and geometry, use
GCp values from Figure 6.2.11 and attendant qh based on exposure defined in Sec
2.4.6.
7.If a parapet equal to or higher than 0.9 m is provided around the perimeter of the
roof with  ≤10° Zone 3 shall be treated as Zone 2.
8.Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension, but not less than 0.9 m.
h: Mean roof height, in meters, except that eave height shall be used for ≤10o.
z: height above ground, in (meters).
: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.

Figure 6.2.17 External pressure coefficients, GCp for components and cladding – Method 2
(h ≤ 18.3 m)
3170 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Open Buildings: Monoslope free roofs (q < 45,  = 0, 180)

Roof Load Wind Direction,  = 0 Wind Direction,  = 180

Angle Case Clear Wind Obstructed Clear Wind Obstructed Wind
 Flow Wind Flow Flow Flow
CNW CNL CNW CNL CNW CNL CNW CNL
A 1.2 0.3 -0.5 -1.2 1.2 0.3 -0.5 -1.2
0
B -1.1 -0.1 -1.1 -0.6 -1.1 -0.1 -1.1 -0.6
A -0.6 -1 -1 -1.5 0.9 1.5 -0.2 -1.2
7.5
B -1.4 0 -1.7 -0.8 1.6 0.3 0.8 -0.3
A -0.3 -1.3 -1.1 -1.5 1.3 1.6 0.4 -1.1
15
B -1.9 0 -2.1 -0.6 1.8 0.6 1.2 -0.3
A -1.5 -1.6 -1.5 -1.7 1.7 1.8 0.5 -1
22.5
B -2.4 -0.3 -2.3 -0.9 2.2 0.7 1.3 0
A -1.8 -1.8 -1.5 -1.8 2.1 2.1 0.6 -1
30
B -2.5 -0.6 -2.3 -1.1 2.6 1 1.6 0.1
A -1.8 -1.8 -1.5 -1.8 2.1 2.2 0.7 -0.9
37.5
B -2.4 -0.6 -2.2 -1.1 2.7 1.1 1.9 0.3
A -1.6 -1.8 -1.3 -1.8 2.2 2.5 0.8 -0.9
45
B -2.3 -0.7 -1.9 -1.2 2.6 1.4 2.1 0.4
Notes:
1. CNW and CNL denote net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces) for
windward and leeward half of roof surfaces, respectively.
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or equal
to 50%. Obstructed wind flow denotes objects below roof inhibiting wind flow (>50%
blockage).
3. For values of e between 7.5° and 45°, linear interpolation is permitted. For values of e less
than 7.5°, use Monoslope roof load coefficients.
4. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting towards and away from the top roof surface,
respectively.
5. All load cases shown for each roof angle shall be investigated.
6. Notation:
L : horizontal dimension of roof, measured in the along wind direction, m
h : mean roof height, m
 : direction of wind, degrees
 : angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees
Figure 6.2.18(a) Net pressure coefficient, CN for main wind force resisting system
(0.25< h/L < 1.0)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3171

Open Buildings: Pitched Free Roofs ( ≤ 45o, γ = 0o, 180o)

Roof Load Wind Direction, ð 5 0o , 180o

Angle,  Case Clear Wind Flow Obstructed Wind Flow
CNW CNL CNW CNL
A 1.1 -0.3 -1.6 -1
7.5o
B 0.2 -1.2 -0.9 -1.7
A 1.1 -0.4 -1.2 -1
15o
B 0.1 -1.1 -0.6 -1.6
A 1.1 0.1 -1.2 -1.2
22.5o
B -0.1 -0.8 -0.8 -1.7
A 1.3 0.3 -0.7 -0.7
30o
B -0.1 -0.9 -0.2 -1.1
A 1.3 0.6 -0.6 -0.6
37.5o
B -0.2 -0.6 -0.3 -0.9
A 1.1 0.9 -0.5 -0.5
45o
B -0.3 -0.5 -0.3 -0.7
Notes:
1. CNW and CNL denote net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces) for
windward and leeward half of roof surfaces, respectively.
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or
equal to 50%. Obstructed wind flow denotes objects below roof inhibiting wind flow
(>50% blockage).
3. For values of  between 7.5° and 45°, linear interpolation is permitted. For values of 
less than 7.5°, use monoslope roof load coefficients.
4. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting towards and away from the top roof
surface, respectively.
5. All load cases shown for each roof angle shall be investigated.
6. Notation:
L : horizontal dimension of roof, measured in the along wind direction, m
h : mean roof height, m
γ : direction of wind, degrees
 : angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees
Figure 6.2.18(b) Net pressure coefficient, CN for main wind force resisting system (0.25<
h/L < 1.0)
3172 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Open Buildings: Troughed Free Roofs ( ≤ 45o, γ = 0o, 180o)

Roof Load Wind Direction, γ=0o, 180o

Angle,  Case Clear Wind Flow Obstructed Wind Flow
CNW CNL CNW CNL
A -1.1 0.3 -1.6 -0.5
7.5o
B -0.2 1.2 -0.9 -0.8
A -1.1 0.4 -1.2 -0.5
15o
B 0.1 1.1 -0.6 -0.8
A -1.1 -0.1 -1.2 -0.6
22.5o
B -0.1 0.8 -0.8 -0.8
A -1.3 -0.3 -1.4 -0.4
30o
B -0.1 0.9 -0.2 -0.5
A -1.3 -0.6 -1.4 -0.3
37.5o
B 0.2 0.6 -0.3 -0.4
A -1.1 -0.9 -1.2 -0.3
45o
B 0.3 0.5 -0.3 -0.4
Notes:
1. CNW and CNL denote net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces) for
windward and leeward half of roof surfaces, respectively.
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or
equal to 50%. Obstructed wind flow denotes objects below roof inhibiting wind flow
(>50% blockage).
3. For values of  between 7.5° and 45°, linear interpolation is permitted. For values of 
less than 7.5°, use monoslope roof load coefficients.
4. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting towards and away from the top roof
surface, respectively.
5. All load cases shown for each roof angle shall be investigated.
6. Notation:
L : horizontal dimension of roof, measured in the along wind direction, m
h : mean roof height, m
γ : direction of wind, degrees
 : angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees
Figure 6.2.18(c) Net pressure coefficient, CN for main wind force resisting system (0.25< h/L < 1.0)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3173

Open Buildings: Troughed Free Roofs ( ≤ 45o,  = 0o, 180o)

Horizontal Roof Load Case Clear Obstructed

Distance from Angle  Wind Flow Wind Flow
Windward Edge CN CN
All Shapes A -0.8 -1.2
≤h
≤ 45o B 0.8 0.5
All Shapes A -0.6 -0.9
> h, ≤ 2h
 ≤ 45o B 0.5 0.5
All Shapes A -0.3 -0.6
> 2h
 ≤ 45o B 0.3 0.3
Notes:
1. CN denotes net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces).
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or
equal to 50%. Obstructed wind flow denotes objects below roof inhibiting wind flow
(>50% blockage).
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting towards and away from the top roof
surface, respectively.
4. All load cases shown for each roof angle shall be investigated.
5. For monoslope roofs with theta less than 5 degrees, CN values shown apply also for
cases where gamma 5 0 degrees and 0.05 less than or equal to h/L less than or equal
to 0.25. See Figure 6.2.18(a) for other h/L values.
6. Notation:
L : horizontal dimension of roof, measured in the along wind direction, m
h : mean roof height, m
y : direction of wind, degrees
 : angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees

Figure 6.2.18(d) Net pressure coefficient, CN for main wind force resisting system
(0.25< h/L < 1.0)
3174 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Open Buildings: Monoslope Free Roofs ( < 45)

Roof Effective CN
Angle Wind Area
Clear Wind Flow Obstructed Wind Flow

Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone 1 Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone 1
< a2 2.4 -3.3 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 1 -3.6 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
0
>a2, <4.0a2 1.8 -1.7 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 0.8 -1.8 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
>4.0a2 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2
< a2 3.2 -4.2 2.4 -2.1 1.6 -1.4 1.6 -5.1 0.5 -2.6 0.8 -1.7
7.5 >a2, <4.0a2 2.4 -2.1 2.4 -2.1 1.6 -1.4 1.2 -2.6 1.2 -2.6 0.8 -1.7
>4.0a2 1.6 -1.4 1.6 -1.4 1.6 -1.4 0.8 -1.7 0.8 -1.7 0.8 -1.7
< a2 3.6 -3.8 2.7 -2.9 1.8 -1.9 2.4 -4.2 1.8 -3.2 1.2 -2.1
15 >a2, <4.0a2 2.7 -2.9 2.7 -2.9 1.8 -1.9 1.8 -3.2 1.8 -3.2 1.2 -2.1
>4.0a2 1.8 -1.9 1.8 -1.9 1.8 -1.9 1.2 -2.1 1.2 -2.1 1.2 -2.3
< a2 5.2 -5 3.9 -3.8 2.6 -2.5 3.2 -4.6 2.4 -3.5 1.6 -2.3
30 >a2, <4.0a2 3.9 -3.8 3.9 -3.8 2.6 -2.5 2.4 -3.5 2.4 -3.5 1.6 -2.3
>4.0a2 2.6 -2.5 2.6 -2.5 2.6 -2.5 1.6 -2.3 1.6 -2.3 1.6 -2.3
< a2 5.2 -4.6 3.9 -3.5 2.6 -2.3 4.2 -3.8 3.2 -2.9 2.1 -1.9
45 >a2, <4.0a2 3.9 -3.5 3.9 -3.5 2.6 -2.3 3.2 -2.9 3.2 -2.9 2.1 -1.9
>4.0a2 2.6 -2.3 2.6 -2.3 2.6 -2.3 2.1 -1.9 2.1 -1.9 2.1 -1.9
Notes:
1. CN denotes net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces).
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or
equal to 50% wind flow denotes objects below roof inhibiting wind flow (>50%
blockage).
3. For values of e other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
4. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting towards and away from the top roof
surface, respectively.
5. Components and cladding elements shall be designed for positive and negative
pressure coefficients shown.
6. Notation:
 : 10% of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller but not less than
4% of least horizontal dimension or 0.9 m
h : mean roof height, m
L : horizontal dimension of building, measured in along wind direction, m
 : angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees

Figure 6.2.19(a) Net pressure coefficient, CN for components and cladding (0.25< h/L < 1.0)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3175

Open Buildings: Monoslope Free Roofs ( ≤ 45o)

Roof Effective CN
Angle Wind Area Clear Wind Flow Obstructed Wind Flow
 Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone 1 Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone 1
≤a2 2.4 -3.3 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 1 -3.6 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
0o >a2, ≤4.0a2 1.8 -1.7 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 08 -1.8 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
>4.0a2 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2
≤a2 2.2 -3.6 1.7 -1.8 1.1 -1.2 1 -5.1 0.8 -26 0.5 -1.7
7.5o >a2, ≤4.0a2 1.7 -1.8 1.7 -1.8 1.1 -1.2 0.8 -2.6 0.8 ·26 0.5 -1.7
>4.0a2 1.1 -1.2 1.1 -1.2 1.1 -1.2 0.5 -1.7 0.5 -1.7 as -1.7
≤a2 2.2 -2.2 1.7 -1.7 1.1 -1.1 1 -3.2 0.8 -2.4 0.5 -1.6
15o >a2, ≤4.0a2 1.7 -1.7 1.7 -1.7 1.1 -1.1 0.8 -2.4 0.8 -2.4 0.5 -1.6
>4.0a2 1.1 -1.1 1.1 -1.1 1.1 -1.1 0.5 -1.6 0.5 -1.6 0.5 -1.6
≤a2 2.6 -1.8 2 -1.4 1.3 -0.9 1 -2.4 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
30o >a2, ≤4.0a2 2 -1.4 2 -1.4 1.3 -0.9 0.8 -1.8 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
>4.0a2 1.3 -0.9 1.3 -0.9 1.3 -0.9 0.5 -1.2 0.5 .1.2 0.5 -1.2
≤a2 2.2 -1.6 1.7 -1.2 1.1 -0.8 1 -2.4 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
45o >a2, ≤4.0a2 1.7 -1.2 1.7 -1.2 1.1 -0.8 0.8 -1.8 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
>4.0a2 1.1 -0.8 1.1 -0.8 1.1 -0.8 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2
Notes:
1. CN denotes net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces).
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or
equal to 50%. Obstructed wind flow denotes objects below roof inhibiting wind flow
(>50% blockage).
3. For values of  other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
4. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting towards and away from the top roof
surface, respectively.
5. Components and cladding elements shall be designed for positive and negative
pressure coefficients shown.
6. Notation:
 : 10% of least horizontal dimension or 0.411, whichever is smaller but not less than
4% of least horizontal dimension or 0.9 m
h : mean roof height, m
L : horizontal dimension of building, measured in along wind direction, m
 : angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees

Figure 6.2.19(b) Net pressure coefficient, CN for components and cladding (0.25< h/L < 1.0)
3176 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Open Buildings: Troughed Free Roofs ( ≤ 45o)

Roof Effective Wind CN

Angle Area Clear Wind Flow Obstructed Wind Flow

Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone 1 Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone 1
≤a2 2.4 -3.3 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 1 -3.6 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
0o >a2, ≤4.0a2 1.8 -1.7 1.8 -1.7 1.1 -1.1 0.8 -1.8 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
>4.0a2 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2
≤a2 2.4 -3.3 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 1 -4.8 0.8 -2.4 0.5 -1.6
7.5o >a2, ≤4.0a2 1.8 -1.7 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 0.8 -2.4 0.8 -2.4 0.5 -1.6
>4.0a2 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 0.5 -1.6 0.5 -1.6 0.5 -1.6
≤a2 2.2 -2.2 1.7 -1.7 1.1 -1.1 1 -2.4 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
15o >a2, ≤4.0a2 1.7 -1.7 1.7 -1.7 1.1 -1.1 0.8 -1.8 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
>4.0a2 1.1 -1.1 1.1 -1.1 1.1 -1.1 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -12 0.5 -1.2
≤a2 1.8 -2.6 1.4 -2 0.9 -1.3 1 -2.8 0.8 -2.1 0.5 -1.4
30o >a2, ≤4.0a2 1.4 -2 1.4 -2 0.9 -1.3 0.8 -2.1 0.8 -2.1 0.5 -1.4
>4.0a2 0.9 -1.3 1.9 -1.3 0.9 -1.3 0.5 -1.4 0.5 -1.4 0.5 -1.4
≤a2 1.6 -2.2 1.2 -1.7 0.8 -1.1 1 -2.4 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
45o >a2, ≤4.0a2 1.2 -1.7 1.2 -1.7 0.8 -1.1 0.8 -1.8 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
>4.0a2 0.8 -1.1 1.8 -1.1 0.8 -1.1 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2
Notes:
1. CN denotes net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces).
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or
equal to 50%. Obstructed wind flow denotes objects below roof inhibiting wind flow
(>50% blockage).
3. For values of  other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
4. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting towards and away from the top roof
surface, respectively.
5. Components and cladding elements shall be designed for positive and negative
pressure coefficients shown.
6. Notation:
 : 10% of least horizontal dimension or 0.411, whichever is smaller but not less than
4% of least horizontal dimension or 0.9 m
h : mean roof height, m
L : horizontal dimension of building, measured in along wind direction, m
 : angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees
Figure 6.2.19(c) Net pressure coefficient, CN for components and cladding (0.25< h/L < 1.0)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3177

Solid Freestanding Walls & Solid Signs

Cf , CASE A & CASE B

Clearance Aspect Ratio, B/s
Ratio, s/h ≤0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 4 5 10 20 30 ≥45
1 1.80 1.70 1.65 1.55 1.45 1.40 1.35 1.35 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30
0.9 1.85 1.75 1.70 1.60 1.55 1.50 1.45 1.45 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.40
0.7 1.90 1.85 1.75 1.70 1.65 1.60 1.60 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55
0.5 1.95 1.85 1.80 1.75 1.75 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.75
0.3 1.95 1.90 1.85 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.85 1.85 1.85
0.2 1.95 1.90 1.85 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.85 1.90 1.90 1.95
≤0.16 1.95 1.90 1.85 1.85 1.80 1.80 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.90 1.90 1.95
Cf, CASE C
Region Aspect Ratio, B/s Region Aspect
(horizontal (horizontal Ratio, B/s
distance from distance from
windward windward
edge) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 edge) 13 ≥45

0 to s 2.25 2.60 2.90 3.10* 3.30* 3.40* 3.55* 3.65* 3.75* 0 to s 4.00* 4.30*
s to 2s 1.50 1.70 1.90 2.00 2.15 2.25 2.30 2.35 2.45 s to 2s 2.60 2.55
2s to 3s 1.15 1.30 1.45 1.55 1.65 1.70 1.75 1.85 2s to 3s 2.00 1.95
3s to 10s 1.10 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.00 0.95 3s to 4s 1.50 1.85
*Values shall be Reduction 4s to 5s 1.35 1.85
Lr/s
multiplied by the Factor
following reduction 5s to 10s 0.90 1.10
0.3 0.9
factor when a return
corner is present: 1.0 0.75
>10s 0.55 0.55
≥2 0.60
3178 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Notes:
1. The term "signs" in notes below also applies to "freestanding walls".
2. Signs with openings comprising less than 30% of the gross area
are classified as solid signs. Force coefficients for solid signs with
openings shall be permitted to be multiplied by the reduction factor
(1 - (1 - )1.5).
3. To allow for both normal and oblique wind directions, the following
cases shall be considered:
For s/h < 1:
CASE A: resultant force acts normal to the face of the sign through the
geometric center.
CASE B: resultant force acts normal to the face of the sign at a distance
from the geometric center toward the windward edge equal to
0.2 times the average width of the sign.
For B/s ≥ 2, CASE C must also be considered:
CASE C: resultant forces act normal to the face of the sign through the
geometric centers of each region.
For s/h 5 1:
The same cases as above except that the vertical locations of the
resultant forces occur at a distance above the geometric center equal
to 0.05 times the average height of the sign.
4. For CASE C where s/h > 0.8, force coefficients shall be multiplied by
the reduction factor (1.8 - s/h).
5. Linear interpolation is permitted for values of s/h, B/s and Lr/s other
than shown.
6. Notation: B: horizontal dimension of sign, in meters;
h : height of the sign, in meters;
s: vertical dimension of the sign, in meters;
: ratio of solid area to gross area;
Lr: horizontal dimension of return corner, in meters
Figure 6.2.20 Force Coefficient, Cf for other structures - Method 2 (All heights)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3179

Chimneys, Tanks, Rooftop Equipment, & Similar Structures

Cross-Section Type of Surface h/D

1 7 25

Square (wind normal to face) All 1.3 1.4 2.0

Square (wind along diagomal) All 1.0 1.1 1.5

Hexagonal or octagonal All 1.0 1.2 1.4

Round Moderately smooth 0.5 0.6 0.7

#tX/ > 5.3, # in m, Rough (D’/D50.02) 0.7 0.8 0.9
X/ in N⁄m
Very rough
0.8 1.0 0.2
(D’/D50.08)

Round All 0.7 0.8 1.2

#tX/ ≤ 5.3, # in m,
X/ in N⁄m

Notes:

1. The design wind force shall be calculated based on the area of the structure
projected on a plane normal to the wind direction. The force shall be assumed
to act parallel to the wind direction.

2. Linear interpolation is permitted for h/D values other than shown.

3. Notation:

D : diameter of circular cross-section and least horizontal dimension of

square, hexagonal or octagonal cross-section at elevation under
consideration, in meters;
D’: depth of protruding element such as ribs and spoilers, in meters;
H: height of structure, meters and
qz: velocity pressure evaluated at height z above ground, in N/m2

Figure 6.2.21 Force coefficient, Cf for other structures - Method 2 (All heights)
3180 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Open Signs & Lattice Frameworks

 Flat-Sided Members Rounded Members

Ôôtõö ≤ ÷. æ, Õ Ôôtõö > ÷. æ, Õ
<0.1 2.0 1.2 0.8
0.1 to 0.29 1.8 1.3 0.9
0.3 to 0.7 1.6 1.5 1.1

Notes:

1. Signs with openings comprising 30% or more of the gross area are classified as
open signs.

2. The calculation of the design wind forces shall be based on the area of all
exposed members and elements projected on a plane normal to the wind
direction. Forces shall be assumed to act parallel to the wind.

3. The area Af consistent with these force coefficients is the solid area projected
normal the wind direction.
4. Notation:

 : ratio of solid area to gross area;

D: diameter of a typical round number, in meters
qz: velocity pressure evaluated at height z above ground in N/m2.

Figure 6.2.22 Force coefficient, Cf for other structures - Method 2 (All heights)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3181
Table 6.2.8: Basic Wind Speeds, V, for Selected Locations in Bangladesh
Location Basic Wind Location Basic Wind
Speed (m/s) Speed (m/s)
Angarpota 47.8 Lalmonirhat 63.7
Bagerhat 77.5 Madaripur 68.1
Bandarban 62.5 Magura 65.0
Barguna 80.0 Manikganj 58.2
Barisal 78.7 Meherpur 58.2
Bhola 69.5 Maheshkhali 80.0
Bogra 61.9 Moulvibazar 53.0
Brahmanbaria 56.7 Munshiganj 57.1
Chandpur 50.6 Mymensingh 67.4
Chapai Nawabganj 41.4 Naogaon 55.2
Chittagong 80.0 Narail 68.6
Chuadanga 61.9 Narayanganj 61.1
Comilla 61.4 Narsinghdi 59.7
Cox’s Bazar 80.0 Natore 61.9
Dahagram 47.8 Netrokona 65.6
Dhaka 65.7 Nilphamari 44.7
Dinajpur 41.4 Noakhali 57.1
Faridpur 63.1 Pabna 63.1
Feni 64.1 Panchagarh 41.4
Gaibandha 65.6 Patuakhali 80.0
Gazipur 66.5 Pirojpur 80.0
Gopalganj 74.5 Rajbari 59.1
Habiganj 54.2 Rajshahi 49.2
Hatiya 80.0 Rangamati 56.7
Ishurdi 69.5 Rangpur 65.3
Joypurhat 56.7 Satkhira 57.6
Jamalpur 56.7 Shariatpur 61.9
Jessore 64.1 Sherpur 62.5
Jhalakati 80.0 Sirajganj 50.6
Jhenaidah 65.0 Srimangal 50.6
Khagrachhari 56.7 St. Martin’s Island 80.0
Khulna 73.3 Sunamganj 61.1
Kutubdia 80.0 Sylhet 61.1
Kishoreganj 64.7 Sandwip 80.0
Kurigram 65.6 Tangail 50.6
Kushtia 66.9 Teknaf 80.0
Lakshmipur 51.2 Thakurgaon 41.4
3182 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Open Structures: Trussed Tower

Tower Cross Section Cf

Square 4.0 2 - 5.9  + 4.0
Triangle 3.4 2 - 4.7  + 3.4

Notes:
1. For all wind directions considered, the area Af consistent with the specified
force coefficients shall be the solid area of a tower face projected on the plane
of that face for the tower segment under consideration.
2. The specified force coefficients are for towers with structural angles or
similar flat-sided members.
3. For towers containing rounded members, it is acceptable to multiply the
specified force coefficients by the following factor when determining wind
forces on such members: 0.51 2 + 0.57  1.0
4. Wind forces shall be applied in the directions resulting in maximum member
forces and reactions. For towers with square cross-sections, wind forces shall
be multiplied by the following factor when the wind is directed along a tower
diagonal:
1 + 0.75   1.2
5. Wind forces on tower appurtenances such as ladders, conduits, lights,
elevators, etc., shall be calculated using appropriate force coefficients for
these elements.
6. Notation:
 : ratio of solid area to gross area of one tower face for the segment under
consideration.
Figure 6.2.23 Force coefficient, Cf for other structures - Method 2 (All heights)

Table 6.2.9: Importance Factor, I (Wind Loads)

Occupancy Category1 Non-Cyclone Prone Cyclone Prone Regions with
or Regions and Cyclone Prone V > 44 m/s
Importance Class Regions with
V 5 38-44 m/s
I 0.87 0.77
II 1.0 1.00
III 1.15 1.15
IV 1.15 1.15
1 The building and structure classification categories are listed in Table 6.1.1
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3183
Table 6.2.10: Terrain Exposure Constants
Exposure ø öù (m) û
ú ý
ü _
þ _
ü c (m) _
 ö (m)*
A 7.0 365.76 1/7 0.84 1/4.0 0.45 0.30 97.54 1/3.0 9.14
B 9.5 274.32 1/9.5 1.00 1/6.5 0.65 0.20 152.4 1/5.0 4.57
C 11.5 213.36 1/11.5 1.07 1/9.0 0.80 0.15 198.12 1/8.0 2.13
*4\ ) 5 Minimum height used to ensure that the equivalent height z is greater of
0.6h or 4\ ) .
For buildings with h ≤4\ ) , 4̅ shall be taken as 4\ ) .

Table 6.2.11: Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficients, }ã and }ö

Height above Exposure (Note 1)
ground level, z A B C
(m) Case 1 Case 2 Case 1 & 2 Case 1 & 2
0-4.6 0.70 0.57 0.85 1.03
6.1 0.70 0.62 0.90 1.08
7.6 0.70 0.66 0.94 1.12
9.1 0.70 0.70 0.98 1.16
12.2 0.76 0.76 1.04 1.22
15.2 0.81 0.81 1.09 1.27
18 0.85 0.85 1.13 1.31
21.3 0.89 0.89 1.17 1.34
24.4 0.93 0.93 1.21 1.38
27.41 0.96 0.96 1.24 1.40
30.5 0.99 0.99 1.26 1.43
36.6 1.04 1.04 1.31 1.48
42.7 1.09 1.09 1.36 1.52
48.8 1.13 1.13 1.39 1.55
54.9 1.17 1.17 1.43 1.58
61.0 1.20 1.20 1.46 1.61
76.2 1.28 1.28 1.53 1.68
91.4 1.35 1.35 1.59 1.73
106.7 1.41 1.41 1.64 1.78
121.9 1.47 1.47 1.69 1.82
137.2 1.52 1.52 1.73 1.86
152.4 1.56 1.56 1.77 1.89
3184 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Notes:
1. Case 1:
(a) All components and cladding.
(b) Main wind force resisting system in low-rise buildings designed using
Figure 6.2.10.
Case 2:
(a) All main wind force resisting systems in buildings except those in low-
rise buildings designed using Figure 6.2.10.
(b) All main wind force resisting systems in other structures.
2. The velocity pressure exposure coefficient Kz may be determined from the
following formula:
For 4.57 m ≤ z ≤ zg: Kz 5 2.01 (z/zg)2/α
For z < 4.57 m: Kz 5 2.01 (4.57/zg)2/α
Note: z shall not be taken less than 9.1 m for Case 1 in exposure A.
3. α and zg are tabulated in Table 6.2.10.
4. Linear interpolation for intermediate values of height z is acceptable.
5. Exposure categories are defined in Sec 2.4.6.3.

Table 6.2.12: Wind Directionality Factor, }

Structure Type Directionality Structure Type Directionality

Factor Factor
0 * 0 *
Buildings Solid Signs 0.85
Main Wind Force Open Signs and Lattice 0.85
Resisting System 0.85 Framework
Components and 0.85 Trussed Towers
Cladding
Triangular, square, 0.85
Arched Roofs 0.85 rectangular
Chimneys, Tanks, and
All other cross section 0.95
Similar Structures
Square 0.90
Hexagonal 0.95
Round 0.95
* Directionality Factor 0 has been calibrated with combinations of loads
specified in Sec 2.7. This factor shall only be applied when used in conjunction
with load combinations specified in Sections 2.7.2 and 2.7.3.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3185

2.5 Earthquake Loads

2.5.1 General
Minimum design earthquake forces for buildings, structures or components
thereof shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of Sec 2.5. Some
definitions and symbols relevant for earthquake resistant design for buildings
are provided in Sections 2.1.3 and 2.1.4. Section 2.5.2 presents basic earthquake
resistant design concepts. Section 2.5.3 describes procedures for soil
investigations, while Sec 2.5.4 describes procedures for determining earthquake
ground motion for design. Section 2.5.5 describes different types of buildings
and structural systems which possess different earthquake resistant
characteristics. Static analysis procedures for design are described in Sections
2.5.6, 2.5.7 and 2.5.12. Dynamic analysis procedures are dealt with in Sections
2.5.8 to 2.5.11. Section 2.5.13 presents how seismic effects are accounted in the
design and combination of earthquake loading effects in different directions and
with other loading effects. Section 2.5.14 deals with allowable drift and
deformation limits. Section 2.5.15 addresses design of non-structural
components in buildings. Section 2.5.16 presents design considerations for
buildings with seismic isolation systems. Design for soft storey condition in
buildings is addressed in Sec 2.5.17.
2.5.2 Earthquake Resistant Design – Basic Concepts
2.5.2.1 General principles
The purpose of earthquake resistant design provisions in this Code is to provide
guidelines for the design and construction of new structures subject to
earthquake ground motions in order to minimize the risk to life for all
structures, to increase the expected performance of higher occupancy structures
as compared to ordinary structures, and to improve the capability of essential
structures to function after an earthquake. It is not economically feasible to
design and construct buildings without any damage for a major earthquake
event. The intent is therefore to allow inelastic deformation and structural
damage at preferred locations in the structure without endangering structural
integrity and to prevent structural collapse during a major earthquake.
The seismic zoning map (Fig. 6.2.24) divides the country into four seismic zones
with different expected levels of intensity of ground motion. Each seismic zone
has a zone coefficient which provides expected peak ground acceleration values
on rock/firm soil corresponding to the maximum considered earthquake (MCE).
The design basis earthquake is taken as 2/3 of the maximum considered
earthquake.
3186 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

The effects of the earthquake ground motion on the structure is expressed in

terms of an idealized elastic design acceleration response spectrum, which
depends on (a) seismic zone coefficient and local soil conditions defining
ground motion and (b) importance factor and response reduction factor
representing building considerations. The earthquake forces acting on the
structure is reduced using the response modification/reduction factor R in
order to take advantage of the inelastic energy dissipation due to inherent
ductility and redundancy in the structure as well as material over-strength. The
importance factor I increases design forces for important structures. The
provisions of this Code for ductility and detailing need to be satisfied even for
structures and members for which load combinations that do not contain the
earthquake effect indicate larger demands than combinations including
earthquake. The elastic deformations calculated under these reduced design
forces are multiplied by the deflection amplification factor, to estimate the
deformations likely to result from the design earthquake.
The seismic design guidelines presented in this Section are based on the
assumption that the soil supporting the structure will not liquefy, settle or slide
due to loss of strength during the earthquake. Reinforced and prestressed
concrete members shall be suitably designed to ensure that premature failure
due to shear or bond does not occur. Ductile detailing of reinforced concrete
members is of prime importance. In steel structures, members and their
connections should be so proportioned that high ductility is obtained, avoiding
premature failure due to elastic or inelastic buckling of any type.
The building structure shall include complete lateral and vertical force-resisting
systems capable of providing adequate strength, stiffness, and energy
dissipation capacity to withstand the design ground motions within the
prescribed limits of deformation and strength demand. The design ground
motions shall be assumed to occur along any horizontal direction of a building
structure. The adequacy of the structural systems shall be demonstrated
through the construction of a mathematical model and evaluation of this model
for the effects of design ground motions.
2.5.2.2 Characteristics of Earthquake Resistant Buildings
The desirable characteristics of earthquake resistant buildings are described
below:
Structural Simplicity, Uniformity and Symmetry:
Structural simplicity, uniformity and plan symmetry is characterized by an even
distribution of mass and structural elements which allows short and direct
transmission of the inertia forces created in the distributed masses of the
building to its foundation. A building configuration with symmetrical layout of
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3187

structural elements of the lateral force resisting system, and well-distributed in-
plan, is desirable. Uniformity along the height of the building is also important,
since it tends to eliminate the occurrence of sensitive zones where
concentrations of stress or large ductility demands might cause premature
collapse.
Some basic guidelines are given below:
(i) With respect to the lateral stiffness and mass distribution, the building
structure shall be approximately symmetrical in plan with respect to
two orthogonal axes.
(ii) Both the lateral stiffness and the mass of the individual storeys shall
remain constant or reduce gradually, without abrupt changes, from the
base to the top of a particular building.
(iii) All structural elements of the lateral load resisting systems, such as
cores, structural walls, or frames shall run without interruption from
the foundations to the top of the building.
(iv) An irregular building may be subdivided into dynamically independent
regular units well separated against pounding of the individual units to
achieve uniformity.
(v) The length to breadth ratio (h 5 6\' /6\ ) ) of the building in plan shall
not be higher than 4, where 6\' and 6\ ) are respectively the larger
and smaller in plan dimension of the building, measured in orthogonal
directions.
Structural Redundancy:
A high degree of redundancy accompanied by redistribution capacity through
ductility is desirable, enabling a more widely spread energy dissipation across
the entire structure and an increased total dissipated energy. The use of evenly
distributed structural elements increases redundancy. Structural systems of
higher static indeterminacy may result in higher response reduction factor R.
Horizontal Bi-directional Resistance and Stiffness:
Horizontal earthquake motion is a bi-directional phenomenon and thus the
building structure needs to resist horizontal action in any direction. The
structural elements of lateral force resisting system should be arranged in an
orthogonal (in plan) pattern, ensuring similar resistance and stiffness
characteristics in both main directions. The stiffness characteristics of the
structure should also limit the development of excessive displacements that
might lead to either instabilities due to second order effects or excessive
damages.
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Torsional Resistance and Stiffness

Besides lateral resistance and stiffness, building structures should possess
adequate torsional resistance and stiffness in order to limit the development of
torsional motions which tend to stress the different structural elements in a
non-uniform way. In this respect, arrangements in which the main elements
resisting the seismic action are distributed close to the periphery of the building
present clear advantages.
Diaphragm Behaviour
In buildings, floors (including the roof) act as horizontal diaphragms that collect
and transmit the inertia forces to the vertical structural systems and ensure that
those systems act together in resisting the horizontal seismic action. Floor
systems and the roof should be provided with in-plane stiffness and resistance
and with effective connection to the vertical structural systems. Particular care
should be taken in cases of non-compact or very elongated in-plan shapes and in
cases of large floor openings, especially if the latter are located in the vicinity of
the main vertical structural elements, thus hindering such effective connection
between the vertical and horizontal structure. The in-plane stiffness of the
floors shall be sufficiently large in comparison with the lateral stiffness of the
vertical structural elements, so that the deformation of the floor shall have a
small effect on the distribution of the forces among the vertical structural
elements.
Foundation
The design and construction of the foundation and of its connection to the
superstructure shall ensure that the whole building is subjected to a uniform
seismic excitation. For buildings with individual foundation elements (footings
or piles), the use of a foundation slab or tie-beams between these elements in
both main directions is recommended, as described in Chapter 3.
2.5.3 Investigation and Assessment of Site Conditions
2.5.3.1 Site investigation
Appropriate site investigations should be carried out to identify the ground
conditions influencing the seismic action.
The ground conditions at the building site should normally be free from risks of
ground rupture, slope instability and permanent settlements caused by
liquefaction or densification during an earthquake. The possibility of such
phenomena should be investigated in accordance with standard procedures
described in Chapter 3 of this Part.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3189

The intent of the site investigation is to classify the Site into one of types SA, SB,
SC, SD, SE, S1 and S2 as defined in Sec 2.5.3.2. Such classification is based on site
profile and evaluated soil properties (shear wave velocity, Standard Penetration
Resistance, undrained shear strength, soil type). The site class is used to
determine the effect of local soil conditions on the earthquake ground motion.
For sites representing special soil type S1 or S2, site specific special studies for
the ground motion should be done. Soil type S1, having very low shear wave
velocity and low material damping, can produce anomalous seismic site
amplification and soil-structure interaction effects. For S2 soils, possibility of soil
failure should be studied.
For a structure belonging to Seismic Design Category C or D (Sec 2.5.5.2), site
investigation should also include determination of soil parameters for the
assessment of the following:
(a) Slope instability.
(b) Potential for Liquefaction and loss of soil strength.
(c) Differential settlement.
(d) Surface displacement due to faulting or lateral spreading.
(e) Lateral pressures on basement walls and retaining walls due to
earthquake ground motion.
Liquefaction potential and possible consequences should be evaluated for
design earthquake ground motions consistent with peak ground accelerations.
Any Settlement due to densification of loose granular soils under design
earthquake motion should be studied. The occurrence and consequences of
geologic hazards such as slope instability or surface faulting should also be
considered. The dynamic lateral earth pressure on basement walls and retaining
walls during earthquake ground shaking is to be considered as an earthquake
load for use in design load combinations
2.5.3.2 Site classification
Site will be classified as type SA, SB, SC, SD, SE, S1 and S2 based on the provisions
of this Section. Classification will be done in accordance with Table 6.2.13 based
on the soil properties of upper 30 meters of the site profile. Average soil
properties will be determined as given in the following equations:
F 5 ∑) 1 »∑) 1T
Ú
(6.2.31)
Ú
_ 5 ∑)
: 1 »∑) 1
Ú
(6.2.32)
Ú

CD̅ 5 ∑l 1 + »∑l 1
Ú
(6.2.33)
Ú
3154 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings and Structures: Domed Roofs

Notes:
1. Two load cases shall be considered:
Case A. Cp values between A and B and between B and C shall be determined by linear
interpolation along arcs on the dome parallel to the wind direction;
Case B. Cp shall be the constant value of A for θ ≤ 25 degrees, and shall be determined by
linear interpolation from 25 degrees to B and from B to C.
2. Values denote Cp to be used with X3í³ where (hD + f) is the height at the top of the dome.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces,
respectively.
4. Cp is constant on the dome surface for arcs of circles perpendicular to the wind direction;
for example, the arc passing through B-B-B and all arcs parallel to B-B-B.
5. For values of hD/D between those listed on the graph curves, linear interpolation shall be
permitted.
6. 50 degrees on dome springline, θ590 degrees at dome center top point. f is measured
from springline to top.
7. The total horizontal shear shall not be less than that determined by neglecting wind forces
roof surfaces.
8. For f/D values less than 0.05, use Figure 6.2.6.

Figure 6.2.7 External pressure coefficients, Cp main wind force resisting system - Method 2
(All Heights)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3191

Site Description of soil Average Soil Properties in top 30 meters

Class profile up to 30 Shear wave SPT Value, _ Undrained shear
meters depth
velocity, _ (m/s) (blows/30cm) strength, _ (kPa)

SC Deep deposits of dense 180 – 360 15 - 50 70 - 250

or medium dense sand,
gravel or stiff clay with
thickness from several
tens to many hundreds
of metres.

SD Deposits of loose-to- < 180 < 15 < 70

medium cohesionless
soil (with or without
some soft cohesive
layers), or of
predominantly soft-to-
firm cohesive soil.

SE A soil profile consisting -- -- --

of a surface alluvium
layer with Vs values of
type SC or SD and
thickness varying
between about 5 m and
20 m, underlain by
stiffer material with Vs >
800 m/s.
S1 Deposits consisting, or < 100 -- 10 - 20
containing a layer at (indicative)
least 10 m thick, of soft
clays/silts with a high
plasticity index (PI >
40) and high water
content
S2 Deposits of liquefiable -- -- --
soils, of sensitive clays,
or any other soil profile
not included in types SA
to SE or S1
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3155
Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings and Structures: Arched Roofs

Condition Rise-to-span Cp
ratio, r Windward Center Leeward
quarter half quarter
0 < r < 0.2 -0.9 -0.7 - r -0.5
Roof on elevated
0.2 ≤ r < 0.3* l.5 r - 0.3 -0.7 - r -0.5
structure
0.3 ≤ r ≤ 0.6 2.75 r - 0.7 -0.7 - r -0.5
Roof springing from
0 < r ≤ 0.6 1.4 r -0.7 - r -0.5
ground level

Notes:
* When the rise-to-span ratio is 0.2 ≤ r ≤ 0.3, alternate coefficients given by
(6r- 2.1) shall also be used for the windward quarter.
1. Values listed are for the determination of average load on main wind force
resisting systems.
2. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces,
respectively.
3. For wind directed parallel to the axis of the arch, use pressure coefficients from
Figure 6.2.6 with wind directed parallel to ridge.
4. For components and cladding: (1) At roof perimeter, use the external pressure
coefficients in Figure 6.2.11 with e based on spring-line slope and (2) for
remaining roof areas, use external pressure coefficients of this Table multiplied by
0.87.

Figure 6.2.8 External pressure coefficients, Cp main wind force resisting system component
and cladding - Method 2 (All Heights)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3193

selected at a ground shaking level that is 2/3 of the maximum considered

earthquake (MCE) ground motion. The effect of local soil conditions on the
response spectrum is incorporated in the normalized acceleration response
spectrum Cs. The spectral acceleration for the design earthquake is given by the
following equation:

Sa 
2 ZI
Cs (6.2.34)
3 R
Where,
C' 5 Design spectral acceleration (in units of Q) which shall not be less
than 0.67cK.C
c5 Coefficient used to calculate lower bound for C' . Recommended
value for c is 0.11
K5 Seismic zone coefficient, as defined in Sec 2.5.4.2
.5 Structure importance factor, as defined in Sec 2.5.5.1
@5 Response reduction factor which depends on the type of
structural system given in Table 6.2.19. The ratio S cannot be
µ

greater than one.

5 Normalized acceleration response spectrum, which is a function
of structure (building) period and soil type (site class) as defined
by Equations 6.2.35a to 6.2.35d.

T (6.2.35a)
C s  S 1  2.5 η  1  for 0  T  TB
 

 TB 
C s  2.5 Sη for T  T  TC (6.2.35b)
B
T  (6.2.35c)
C s  2.5 S η  C  for TC  T  T D
 T 
T T
C s  2.5 S η  C D

for T D  T  4 sec
(6.2.35d)
2

 T
depends on S and values of TB, TC and TD, (Figure 6.2.25) which are all


functions of the site class. Constant Cs value between periods TB and TC

represents constant spectral acceleration.
S 5 Soil factor which depends on site class and is given in Table 6.2.16
T 5 Structure (building) period as defined in Sec 2.5.7.2
TB 5 Lower limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration
branch given in Table 6.2.16 as a function of site class.
TC 5 Upper limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration
branch given in Table 6.2.16 as a function of site class
3156 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Case 1. Full design wind pressure acting on the projected area perpendicular to
each principal axis of the structure, considered separately along each
principal axis.
Case 2. Three quarters of the design wind pressure acting on the projected area
perpendicular to each principal axis of the structure in conjunction with a
torsional moment as shown, considered separately for each principal axis.
Case 3. Wind loading as defined in Case 1, but considered to act simultaneously at
75% of the specified value.

Case 4. Wind loading as defined in Case 2, but considered to act simultaneously at

75% of the specified value.

Notes:

1. Design wind pressures for windward and leeward faces shall be determined in
accordance with the provisions of Sec 2.4.11 as applicable for building of all heights.

2. Diagrams show plan views of building.

3. Notation:
Pwx, PwY: Windward face design pressure acting in the x, y principal axis,
respectively.

PLX, PLY: Leeward face design pressure acting in the x, y principal axis,
respectively.

e(ex, ey): Eccentricity for the x, y principal axis of the structure, respectively.

MT: Torsional moment per unit height acting about a vertical axis of the
building.

Figure 6.2.9 Design wind load cases for main wind force resisting system-Method 2
(All Heights)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3195

Figure 6.2.24 Seismic zoning map of Bangladesh

3196 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021
Table 6.2.14: Description of Seismic Zones
Seismic Seismic Seismic Zone
Location
Zone Intensity Coefficient, Z
1 Southwestern part including Barisal, Khulna, Low 0.12
Jessore, Rajshahi
2 Lower Central and Northwestern part including Moderate 0.20
Noakhali, Dhaka, Pabna, Dinajpur, as well as
Southwestern corner including Sundarbans
3 Upper Central and Northwestern part including Severe 0.28
Brahmanbaria, Sirajganj, Rangpur
4 Northeastern part including Sylhet, Very Severe 0.36
Mymensingh, Kurigram

Table 6.2.15: Seismic Zone Coefficient Z for Some Important Towns of Bangladesh
Town Z Town Z Town Z Town Z
Bagerhat 0.12 Gaibandha 0.28 Magura 0.12 Patuakhali 0.12
Bandarban 0.28 Gazipur 0.20 Manikganj 0.20 Pirojpur 0.12
Barguna 0.12 Gopalganj 0.12 Maulvibazar 0.36 Rajbari 0.20
Barisal 0.12 Habiganj 0.36 Meherpur 0.12 Rajshahi 0.12
Bhola 0.12 Jaipurhat 0.20 Mongla 0.12 Rangamati 0.28
Bogra 0.28 Jamalpur 0.36 Munshiganj 0.20 Rangpur 0.28
Brahmanbaria 0.28 Jessore 0.12 Mymensingh 0.36 Satkhira 0.12
Chandpur 0.20 Jhalokati 0.12 Narail 0.12 Shariatpur 0.20
Chapainababganj 0.12 Jhenaidah 0.12 Narayanganj 0.20 Sherpur 0.36
Chittagong 0.28 Khagrachari 0.28 Narsingdi 0.28 Sirajganj 0.28
Chuadanga 0.12 Khulna 0.12 Natore 0.20 Srimangal 0.36
Comilla 0.20 Kishoreganj 0.36 Naogaon 0.20 Sunamganj 0.36
Cox's Bazar 0.28 Kurigram 0.36 Netrakona 0.36 Sylhet 0.36
Dhaka 0.20 Kushtia 0.20 Nilphamari 0.12 Tangail 0.28
Dinajpur 0.20 Lakshmipur 0.20 Noakhali 0.20 Thakurgaon 0.20
Faridpur 0.20 Lalmanirhat 0.28 Pabna 0.20
Feni 0.20 Madaripur 0.20 Panchagarh 0.20

Figure 6.2.25 Typical shape of the elastic response spectrum coefficient Cs

 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3197

Table 6.2.16: Site Dependent Soil Factor and Other Parameters Defining Elastic Response
Spectrum
Soil type S TB(s) TC (s) TD (s)
SA 1.0 0.15 0.40 2.0
SB 1.2 0.15 0.50 2.0
SC 1.15 0.20 0.60 2.0
SD 1.35 0.20 0.80 2.0
SE 1.4 0.15 0.50 2.0

Figure 6.2.26 Normalized design acceleration response spectrum for different site classes.

2.5.5 Building Categories

2.5.5.1 Importance factor
Buildings are classified in four occupancy categories in Chapter 1 (Table 6.1.1),
depending on the consequences of collapse for human life, on their importance
for public safety and civil protection in the immediate post-earthquake period,
and on the social and economic consequences of collapse. Depending on
occupancy category, buildings may be designed for higher seismic forces using
importance factor greater than one. Table 6.2.17 defines different occupancy
categories and corresponding importance factor.

Table 6.2.17: Importance Factors for Buildings and Structures for Earthquake design
Occupancy Category Importance factor I
I, II 1.00
III 1.25
IV 1.50
3198 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.5.5.2 Seismic design category

Buildings shall be assigned a seismic design category among B, C or D based on
seismic zone, local site conditions and importance class of building, as given in
Table 6.2.18. Seismic design category D has the most stringent seismic design
detailing, while seismic design category B has the least seismic design detailing
requirements.

Table 6.2.18: Seismic Design Category of Buildings

Site Occupancy Category I, II and III Occupancy Category IV

Class Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4
SA B C C D C D D D
SB B C D D C D D D
SC B C D D C D D D
SD C D D D D D D D
SE, S1, S2 D D D D D D D D

2.5.5.3 Building irregularity

Buildings with irregularity in plan or elevation suffer much more damage in
earthquakes than buildings with regular configuration. A building may be
considered as irregular, if at least one of the conditions given below are
applicable:
2.5.5.3.1 Plan irregularity: Following are the different types of irregularities
that may exist in the plan of a building.
(i) Torsion irregularity
To be considered for rigid floor diaphragms, when the maximum
storey drift (∆\' ) as shown in Figure 6.2.27(a), computed including
accidental torsion, at one end of the structure is more than 1.2 times
the average ¸∆'¼ 5 ¹ of the storey drifts at the two ends of
∆ ³∆ Ú

the structure. If ∆\' > 1.4∆'¼ then the irregularity is termed as

extreme torsional irregularity.
(ii) Re-entrant corners
Both projections of the structure beyond a re-entrant comer [Figure
6.2.27(b)] are greater than 15 percent of its plan dimension in the
given direction.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3199
(iii) Diaphragm Discontinuity
Diaphragms with abrupt discontinuities or variations in stiffness,
including those having cut-out [Figure 6.2.27(c)] or open areas
greater than 50 percent of the gross enclosed diaphragm area, or
changes in effective diaphragm stiffness of more than 50 percent
from one storey to the next.
(iv) Out- of-Plane Offsets
Discontinuities in a lateral force resistance path, such as out-of-plane
offsets of vertical elements, as shown in Figure 6.2.27(d).
(v) Non-parallel Systems
The vertical elements resisting the lateral force are not parallel to or
symmetric [Figure 6.2.27(e)] about the major orthogonal axes of the
lateral force resisting elements.
2.5.5.3.2 Vertical Irregularity: Following are different types of irregularities
that may exist along vertical elevations of a building.
(i) Stiffness Irregularity - Soft Storey
A soft storey is one in which the lateral stiffness is less than 70% of that
in the storey above or less than 80% of the average lateral stiffness of
the three storeys above irregularity [Figure 6.2.28(a)]. An extreme soft
storey is defined where its lateral stiffness is less than 60% of that in the
storey above or less than 70% of the average lateral stiffness of the
three storeys above.
(ii) Mass Irregularity
The seismic weight of any storey is more than twice of that of its
adjacent storeys [Figure 6.2.28(b)]. This irregularity need not be
considered in case of roofs.
(iii) Vertical Geometric Irregularity
This irregularity exists for buildings with setbacks with dimensions
given in Figure [6.2.28(c)].
(iv) Vertical In-Plane Discontinuity in Vertical Elements Resisting Lateral
Force
An in-plane offset of the lateral force resisting elements greater than the
length of those elements [Figure 6.2.28(d)].
(v) Discontinuity in Capacity - Weak Storey
A weak storey is one in which the storey lateral strength is less than
80% of that in the storey above. The storey lateral strength is the total
strength of all seismic force resisting elements sharing the storey shear
in the considered direction [Figure 6.2.28(e)]. An extreme weak storey
is one where the storey lateral strength is less than 65% of that in the
storey above.
3200 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021
2.5.5.4 Type of structural systems
The basic lateral and vertical seismic force–resisting system shall conform to
one of the types A to G indicated in Table 6.2.19. Each type is again subdivided
by the types of vertical elements used to resist lateral seismic forces.
A combination of systems may also be permitted as stated in Sec 2.5.5.5.
The structural system to be used shall be in accordance with the seismic design
category indicated in Table 6.2.18. Structural systems that are not permitted for
a certain seismic design category are indicated by “NP”. Structural systems that
do not have any height restriction are indicated by “NL”. Where there is height
limit, the maximum height in meters is given.
The response reduction factor, R, and the deflection amplification factor,
indicated in Table 6.2.19 shall be used in determining the design base shear and
design story drift. The selected seismic force-resisting system shall be designed
and detailed in accordance with the specific requirements for the system.
Seismic force resisting systems that are not given in Table 6.2.19 may be
permitted if substantial analytical and test data are submitted that establish the
dynamic characteristics and demonstrate the lateral force resistance and energy
dissipation capacity to be equivalent to the structural systems listed in Table
6.2.19 for equivalent response modification coefficient, R, and deflection
amplification factor, values.

(a) Torsional Irregularity (b) Re-entrant corners (A/L>0.15)

(c) Diaphragm discontinuity

 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3201

(d) Out- of-plane offsets of shear wall (e) Non-parallel systems of shear wall
Figure 6.2.27 Different types of plan irregularities of buildings

(a) Soft storey

(b) Mass irregularity (c) Vertical geometric irregularity (setback structures)

3202 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

(d) Vertical In-Plane Discontinuity in Vertical (e) Weak storey

Elements Resisting Lateral Force

Figure 6.2.28 Different types of vertical irregularities of buildings

Table 6.2.19: Response Reduction Factor, Deflection Amplification Factor and Height
Limitations for Different Structural Systems

Response System Deflection Seismic Seismic Seismic

Reduction Overstrength Amplification Design Design Design
Seismic Force–Resisting System Factor, R Factor, Ω Factor, " Category Category Category
B C D

Height limit (m)

A. BEARING WALL SYSTEMS
(no frame)
1. Special reinforced 5 2.5 5 NL NL 50
concrete shear walls
2. Ordinary reinforced 4 2.5 4 NL NL NP
concrete shear walls
3. Ordinary reinforced 2 2.5 1.75 NL 50 NP
masonry shear walls
4. Ordinary plain masonry 1.5 2.5 1.25 18 NP NP
shear walls
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3203

Response System Deflection Seismic Seismic Seismic

Reduction Overstrength Amplification Design Design Design
Seismic Force–Resisting System Factor, R Factor, Ω Factor, " Category Category Category
B C D

Height limit (m)

B. BUILDING FRAME SYSTEMS

(with bracing or shear wall)

1. Steel eccentrically braced 8 2 4 NL NL 50

frames, moment resisting
connections at columns
away from links

2. Steel eccentrically braced 7 2 4 NL NL 50

frames, non-moment-
resisting, connections at
columns away from links

3. Special steel concentrically 6 2 5 NL NL 50

braced frames

4. Ordinary steel 3.25 2 3.25 NL NL 11

concentrically braced
frames

5. Special reinforced concrete 6 2.5 5 NL NL 50

shear walls

6. Ordinary reinforced 5 2.5 4.25 NL NL NP

concrete shear walls

7. Ordinary reinforced 2 2.5 2 NL 50 NP

masonry shear walls

8. Ordinary plain masonry 1.5 2.5 1.25 18 NP NP

shear walls

C. MOMENT RESISTING
FRAME SYSTEMS (no
shear wall)

1. Special steel moment 8 3 5.5 NL NL NL

frames

2. Intermediate steel moment 4.5 3 4 NL NL 35

frames

3. Ordinary steel moment 3.5 3 3 NL NL NP

frames
3204 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Response System Deflection Seismic Seismic Seismic

Reduction Overstrength Amplification Design Design Design
Seismic Force–Resisting System Factor, R Factor, Ω Factor, " Category Category Category
B C D

Height limit (m)

4. Special reinforced concrete 8 3 5.5 NL NL NL
moment frames

5. Intermediate reinforced 5 3 4.5 NL NL NP

concrete moment frames

5. Ordinary reinforced 3 3 2.5 NL NP NP

concrete moment frames

D. DUAL SYSTEMS: SPECIAL

MOMENT FRAMES
CAPABLE OF RESISTING AT
LEAST 25% OF
PRESCRIBED SEISMIC
FORCES
(with bracing or shear wall)

1. Steel eccentrically braced 8 2.5 4 NL NL NL

frames

2. Special steel concentrically 7 2.5 5.5 NL NL NL

braced frames

3. Special reinforced concrete 7 2.5 5.5 NL NL NL

shear walls

4. Ordinary reinforced 6 2.5 5 NL NL NP

concrete shear walls

E. DUAL SYSTEMS:
INTERMEDIATE MOMENT
FRAMES CAPABLE OF
RESISTING AT LEAST 25%
OF PRESCRIBED SEISMIC
FORCES
(with bracing or shear wall)
1. Special steel concentrically 6 2.5 5 NL NL 11
braced frames
2. Special reinforced concrete 6.5 2.5 5 NL NL 50
shear walls
3. Ordinary reinforced 3 3 3 NL 50 NP
masonry shear walls
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3205

Response System Deflection Seismic Seismic Seismic

Reduction Overstrength Amplification Design Design Design
Seismic Force–Resisting System Factor, R Factor, Ω Factor, " Category Category Category
B C D

Height limit (m)

4. Ordinary reinforced 5.5 2.5 4.5 NL NL NP

concrete shear walls

F. DUAL SHEAR WALL- 4.5 2.5 4 NL NP NP

FRAME SYSTEM:
ORDINARY REINFORCED
CONCRETE MOMENT
FRAMES AND ORDINARY
REINFORCED CONCRETE
SHEAR WALLS

G. STEEL SYSTEMS NOT 3 3 3 NL NL NP

SPECIFICALLY
DETAILED FOR SEISMIC
RESISTANCE

Notes:
1. Seismic design category, NL 5 No height restriction, NP 5 Not permitted.
Number represents maximum allowable height (m).
2. Dual Systems include buildings which consist of both moment resisting frame
and shear walls (or braced frame) where both systems resist the total design
forces in proportion to their lateral stiffness.
3. See Sec. 10.20 of Chapter 10 of this Part for additional values of R and " and
height limits for some other types of steel structures not covered in this Table.
4. Where data specific to a structure type is not available in this Table, reference
may be made to Table 12.2-1 of ASCE 7-05.

2.5.5.5 Combination of structural systems

2.5.5.5.1 Combinations of Structural Systems in Different Directions: Different
seismic force–resisting systems are permitted to be used to resist seismic forces
along each of the two orthogonal axes of the structure. Where different systems
are used, the respective R and coefficients shall apply to each system,
including the limitations on system use contained in Table 6.2.19.
3206 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.5.5.5.2 Combinations of Structural Systems in the Same Direction: Where

different seismic force–resisting systems are used in combination to resist
seismic forces in the same direction of structural response, other than those
combinations considered as dual systems, the more stringent system limitation
contained in Table 6.2.19 shall apply. The value of R used for design in that
direction shall not be greater than the least value of R for any of the systems
utilized in that direction. The deflection amplification factor, in the direction
under consideration at any story shall not be less than the largest value of this
factor for the R factor used in the same direction being considered.
2.5.5.6 Provisions for Using System Overstrength Factor, Ω
2.5.5.6.1 Combinations of Elements Supporting Discontinuous Walls or
Frames.
Columns, beams, trusses, or slabs supporting discontinuous walls or frames of
structures having horizontal irregularity Type IV of Table 6.1.5 or vertical
irregularity Type IV of Table 6.1.4 shall have the design strength to resist the
maximum axial force that can develop in accordance with the load
combinations with overstrength factor of Section 2.5.13.4. The connections of
such discontinuous elements to the supporting members shall be adequate to
transmit the forces for which the discontinuous elements were required to be
designed.
2.5.5.6.2 Increase in Forces Due to Irregularities for Seismic Design Category D.
For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D and having a horizontal
structural irregularity of Type I.a, I.b, II, III, or IV in Table 6.1.5 or a vertical
structural irregularity of Type IV in Table 6.1.4, the design forces determined
from Section 2.5.7 shall be increased 25 percent for connections of diaphragms
to vertical elements and to collectors and for connections of collectors to the
vertical elements. Collectors and their connections also shall be designed for
these increased forces unless they are designed for the load combinations with
overstrength factor of Section 2.5.5.4, in accordance with Section 2.5.13.4.
2.5.5.6.3 Collector Elements Requiring Load Combinations with Overstrength
Factor for Seismic Design Categories C through D.
In structures assigned to Seismic Design Category C or D, collector elements,
splices, and their connections to resisting elements shall resist the load
combinations with overstrength of Section 2.5.13.4.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3169

Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings: Walls & Roofs

Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCp to be used with appropriate qz or qh.
2.Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area A, in square feet (square meters).
3.Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces,
respectively.
4. Use qz with positive values of GCp and qh with negative values of GCp
5.Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
6.Coefficients are for roofs with angle ≤10°. For other roof angles and geometry, use
GCp values from Figure 6.2.11 and attendant qh based on exposure defined in Sec
2.4.6.
7.If a parapet equal to or higher than 0.9 m is provided around the perimeter of the
roof with  ≤10° Zone 3 shall be treated as Zone 2.
8.Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension, but not less than 0.9 m.
h: Mean roof height, in meters, except that eave height shall be used for ≤10o.
z: height above ground, in (meters).
: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.

Figure 6.2.17 External pressure coefficients, GCp for components and cladding – Method 2
(h ≤ 18.3 m)
3208 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Alternatively, for buildings with natural period less than or equal to 2.0 sec., the
seismic design base shear can be calculated using ASCE 7-02 with seismic design
parameters as given in Appendix C. However, the minimum value of C' should
not be less than 0.044 SDSI. The values of SDS are provided in Table 6.C.4 of
Appendix C.
2.5.7.2 Building period
The fundamental period T of the building in the horizontal direction under
consideration shall be determined using the following guidelines:
(a) Structural dynamics procedures (such as Rayleigh method or modal
eigenvalue analysis), using structural properties and deformation
characteristics of resisting elements, may be used to determine the
fundamental period T of the building in the direction under
consideration. This period shall not exceed the approximate
fundamental period determined by Eq. 6.2.38 by more than 40 percent.
(b) The building period T (in sec) may be approximated by the following
formula:
E5 " (ℎ) ) (6.2.38)
\

Where,
ℎ) 5 Height of building in metres from foundation or from top of
rigid basement. This excludes the basement storeys, where
basement walls are connected with the ground floor deck or
fitted between the building columns. But it includes the
basement storeys, when they are not so connected. " and m
are obtained from Table 6.2.20
(c) For masonry or concrete shear wall structures, the approximate
fundamental period, T (in sec) may be determined as follows:

(6.2.39)
0.0062
T hn
Cw

(6.2.40)
2
100 x  hn  Ai
Cw    
AB i 1 hi     
2
1  0.83  hi  
 D  
  i 
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3209

Where,

AB = area of base of structure hi = height of shear wall “i”

Ai = web area of shear wall “i” x = number of shear walls in the building
effective in resisting lateral forces in the
Di = length of shear wall “i”
direction under consideration.

Table 6.2.20: Values for Coefficients to Estimate Approximate Period

Structure type Ct m

Concrete moment-resisting frames 0.0466 0.9 Note: Consider moment

resisting frames as frames
Steel moment-resisting frames 0.0724 0.8 which resist 100% of
seismic force and are not
enclosed or adjoined by
Eccentrically braced steel frame 0.0731 0.75
components that are more
rigid and will prevent the
All other structural systems 0.0488 0.75
frames from deflecting
under seismic forces.

2.5.7.3 Seismic weight

Seismic weight, W, is the total dead load of a building or a structure,
including partition walls, and applicable portions of other imposed loads listed
below:

(a) For live load up to and including 3 kN/m2, a minimum of 25 percent

of the live load shall be applicable.

(b) For live load above 3 kN/m2, a minimum of 50 percent of the live load
shall be applicable.

(c) Total weight (100 percent) of permanent heavy equipment or

retained liquid or any imposed load sustained in nature shall be
included.

Where the probable imposed loads (mass) at the time of earthquake are more
correctly assessed, the designer may go for higher percentage of live load.
3210 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.5.7.4 Vertical distribution of lateral forces

In the absence of a more rigorous procedure, the total seismic lateral force at
the base level, in other words the base shear V, shall be considered as the sum of
lateral forces & induced at different floor levels, these forces may be calculated
as:
(6.2.41)
w x hx k
Fx  V
n
k
 w i hi
i 1

Where,

& 5 Part of base shear force induced at level x

[ and [ 5 Part of the total effective seismic weight of the structure

(W) assigned to level i or x

ℎ and ℎ 5 the height from the base to level i or x

m 5 1 For structure period  0.5s
5 2 for structure period ≥ 2.5s
5 linear interpolation between 1 and 2 for other periods.
n 5 number of stories
2.5.7.5 Storey shear and its horizontal distribution
The design storey shear , at any storey is the sum of the forces & in that
storey and all other stories above it, given by Eq. 6.2.42:

(6.2.42)
n
Vx   Fi
ix

Where, & 5 Portion of base shear induced at level i, as determined by Eq. 6.2.41.
If the floor diaphragms can be considered to be infinitely rigid in the horizontal
plane, the shear shall be distributed to the various elements of the lateral
force resisting system in proportion to their relative lateral stiffness. For flexible
diaphragms, the distribution of forces to the vertical elements shall account for
the position and distribution of the masses supported.
Allowance shall also be made for the increased shear arising due to horizontal
torsional moment as specified in Sec 2.5.7.6
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3211

2.5.7.6 Horizontal torsional moments

Design shall accommodate increase in storey shear forces resulting from
probable horizontal torsional moments on rigid floor diaphragms. Computation
of such moments shall be as follows:
2.5.7.6.1 In-built torsional effects: When there is in-built eccentricity between
centre of mass and centre of rigidity (lateral resistance) at floor levels, rigid
diaphragms at each level will be subject to torsional moment 9" .
2.5.7.6.2 Accidental torsional effects: In order to account for uncertainties in
the location of masses and in the spatial variation of the seismic motion,
accidental torsional effects need to be always considered. The accidental
moment 9"' is determined assuming the storey mass to be displaced from the
calculated centre of mass a distance equal to 5 percent of the building
dimension at that level perpendicular to the direction of the force under
consideration. The accidental torsional moment 9"' at level is given as:

Mtai  eai Fi (6.2.43)

Where,
eai  accidental eccentricity of floor mass at level i applied in the same
direction at all floors 5 ±0.056
6 5 floor dimension perpendicular to the direction of seismic force
considered.

Where torsional irregularity exists (Sec 2.5.5.3.1) for Seismic Design Category
C or D, the irregularity effects shall be accounted for by increasing the
accidental torsion 9"' at each level by a torsional amplification factor, as
illustrated in Figure 6.2.29 determined from the following equation:

5 %1. ' ≤ 3.0 (6.2.44)

&
& ·Þ

Where,

\' 5 Maximum displacement at level-x computed assuming 5 1.

'¼ 5 Average displacements at extreme points of the building at level-x

computed assuming 5 1.
3212 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

The accidental torsional moment need not be amplified for structures of light-
frame construction. Also the torsional amplification factor ( ) should not
exceed 3.0.
2.5.7.6.3 Design for torsional effects: The torsional design moment at a given
storey shall be equal to the accidental torsional moment 9"' plus the inbuilt
torsional moment 9" (if any). Where earthquake forces are applied
concurrently in two orthogonal directions, the required 5 percent displacement
of the center of mass (for accidental torsion) need not be applied in both of the
orthogonal directions at the same time, but shall be applied in only one
direction that produces the greater effect.

Figure 6.2.29 Torsional amplification factor Ax for plan irregularity.

2.5.7.7 Deflection and storey drift

The deflections ( ) of level at the center of the mass shall be determined in
accordance with the following equation:

(6.2.45)
C d  xe
x 
I

Where,
Cd  Deflection amplification factor given in Table 6.2.19
 xe  Deflection determined by an elastic analysis
I  Importance factor defined in Table 6.2.17
The design storey drift at storey shall be computed as the difference of the
deflections at the centers of mass at the top and bottom of the story under
consideration:
 x   x   x 1 (6.2.46)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3213

2.5.7.8 Overturning effects

The structure shall be designed to resist overturning effects caused by the
seismic forces determined in Sec 2.5.7.4. At any story, the increment of
overturning moment in the story under consideration shall be distributed to the
various vertical force resisting elements in the same proportion as the
distribution of the horizontal shears to those elements. The overturning
moments at level , 9 shall be determined as follows:

(6.2.47)
n
Mx   Fi hi  hx 
ix

Where,
& 5 Portion of the seismic base shear, induced at level
ℎ , ℎ 5 Height from the base to level or .
The foundations of structures, except inverted pendulum-type structures, shall
be permitted to be designed for three-fourths of the foundation overturning
design moment, 9 determined using above equation.

2.5.7.9 P-delta effects

The P-delta effects on story shears and moments, the resulting member forces
and moments, and the story drifts induced by these effects are not required to
be considered if the stability coefficient (θ) determined by the following
equation is not more than 0.10:

(6.2.48)
Px 

Vx hsxCd
Where,
; 5 Total vertical design load at and above level ; where
computing ; , no individual load factor need exceed 1.0
∆ 5 Design story drift occurring simultaneously with
5 Storey shear force acting between levels and −1
ℎ 5 Storey height below level
5 Deflection amplification factor given in Table 6.2.19
The stability coefficient g shall not exceed g\' determined as follows:

(6.2.49)
0.5
max   0.25
 Cd
3214 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Where, c is the ratio of shear demand to shear capacity for the story between
levels and − 1. This ratio is permitted to be conservatively taken as 1.0.
Where, the stability coefficient g is greater than 0.10 but less than or equal
to g\' , the incremental factor related to P-delta effects on displacements and
member forces shall be determined by rational analysis. Alternatively, it is
permitted to multiply displacements and member forces by ( ).
1
1−g
Where, g is greater than g\' , the structure is potentially unstable and shall be
redesigned.
Where, the P-delta effect is included in an automated analysis, Eq. 6.2.49 shall
still be satisfied, however, the value of g computed from Eq. 6.2.48 using the
results of the P-delta analysis is permitted to be divided by (1 + g) before
checking Eq. 6.2.49.

2.5.8 Dynamic Analysis Methods

Dynamic analysis method involves applying principles of structural dynamics to
compute the response of the structure to applied dynamic (earthquake) loads.
2.5.8.1 Requirement for dynamic analysis
Dynamic analysis should be performed to obtain the design seismic force, and
its distribution to different levels along the height of the building and to the
various lateral load resisting elements, for the following buildings:
(a) Regular buildings with height greater than 40 m in Zones 2, 3, 4 and
greater than 90 m in Zone 1.
(b) Irregular buildings (as defined in Sec 2.5.5.3) with height greater than
12 m in Zones 2, 3, 4 and greater than 40 m in Zone 1.
For irregular buildings, smaller than 40 m in height in Zone 1, dynamic analysis,
even though not mandatory, is recommended.
2.5.8.2 Methods of analysis
Dynamic analysis may be carried out through the following two methods:
(i) Response Spectrum Analysis method is a linear elastic analysis method
using modal analysis procedures, where the structure is subjected to
spectral accelerations corresponding to a design acceleration response
spectrum. The design earthquake ground motion in this case is
represented by its response spectrum.
(ii) Time History Analysis method is a numerical integration procedure
where design ground motion time histories (acceleration record) are
applied at the base of the structure. Time history analysis procedures
can be two types: linear and non-linear.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3215

2.5.9 Response Spectrum Analysis (RSA)

A response spectrum analysis shall consist of the analysis of a linear
mathematical model of the structure to determine the maximum accelerations,
forces, and displacements resulting from the dynamic response to ground
shaking represented by the design acceleration response spectrum (presented
in Sec 2.5.4.3). Response spectrum analysis is also called a modal analysis
procedure because it considers different modes of vibration of the structure and
combines effects of different modes.
2.5.9.1 Modeling (RSA)
A mathematical model of the structure shall be constructed that represents the
spatial distribution of mass and stiffness throughout the structure. For regular
structures with independent orthogonal seismic-force-resisting systems,
independent two-dimensional models are permitted to be constructed to
represent each system. For irregular structures or structures without
independent orthogonal systems, a three-dimensional model incorporating a
minimum of three dynamic degrees of freedom consisting of translation in two
orthogonal plan directions and torsional rotation about the vertical axis shall be
included at each level of the structure. Where the diaphragms are not rigid
compared to the vertical elements of the lateral-force-resisting system, the
model should include representation of the diaphragm’s flexibility and such
additional dynamic degrees of freedom as are required to account for the
participation of the diaphragm in the structure’s dynamic response. The
structure shall be considered to be fixed at the base or, alternatively, it shall be
permitted to use realistic assumptions with regard to the stiffness of
foundations. In addition, the model shall comply with the following:
(a) Stiffness properties of concrete and masonry elements shall consider the
effects of cracked sections
(b) The contribution of panel zone deformations to overall story drift shall be
included for steel moment frame resisting systems.
2.5.9.2 Number of modes (RSA)
An analysis shall be conducted using the masses and elastic stiffnesses of the
seismic-force-resisting system to determine the natural modes of vibration for
the structure including the period of each mode, the modal shape vector k, the
modal participation factor P and modal mass M. The analysis shall include a
sufficient number of modes to obtain a combined modal mass participation of at
least 90 percent of the actual mass in each of two orthogonal directions.
3216 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.5.9.3 Modal story shears and moments (RSA)

For each mode, the story shears, story overturning moments, and the shear
forces and overturning moments in vertical elements of the structural system at
each level due to the seismic forces shall be computed. The peak lateral force
& l induced at level in mode m is given by:

&l 5 l k l ;l I (6.2.50)

Where,

l 5 Design horizontal spectral acceleration corresponding to period of

vibration El of mode m obtained from design response spectrum
(Sec 2.5.4.3)
k l 5 Modal shape coefficient at level in mode m
;l 5 Modal participation factor of mode m
I 5 Weight of floor .

2.5.9.4 Structure response (RSA)

In the response spectrum analysis method, the base shear 7 ; each of the story
shear, moment, and drift quantities; and the deflection at each level shall be
determined by combining their modal values. The combination shall be carried
out by taking the square root of the sum of the squares (SRSS) of each of the
modal values or by the complete quadratic combination (CQC) technique. The
complete quadratic combination shall be used where closely spaced periods in
the translational and torsional modes result in cross-correlation of the modes.
The distribution of horizontal shear shall be in accordance with the
requirements of Sec 2.5.7.5. It should be noted that amplification of accidental
torsion as per Sec 2.5.7.6 is not required where accidental torsional effects are
included in the dynamic analysis model by offsetting the centre of mass in each
story by the required amount.
A base shear, shall also be calculated using the equivalent static force
procedure in Sec 2.5.7. Where the base shear, 7 is less than 85 percent of , all
the forces but not the drifts obtained by response spectrum analysis shall be
multiplied by the ratio T .
=.(rT

The displacements and drifts obtained by response spectrum analysis shall be

)

multiplied by /. to obtain design displacements and drifts, as done in

equivalent static analysis procedure (Sec 2.5.7.7). The P-delta effects shall be
determined in accordance with Sec 2.5.7.9.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3217

2.5.10 Linear Time History Analysis (LTHA)

A linear time history analysis (LTHA) shall consist of an analysis of a linear

mathematical model of the structure to determine its response, through direct
numerical integration of the differential equations of motion, to a number of
ground motion acceleration time histories compatible with the design response
spectrum for the site. The analysis shall be performed in accordance with the
provisions of this Section. For the purposes of analysis, the structure shall be
permitted to be considered to be fixed at the base or, alternatively, it shall be
permitted to use realistic assumptions with regard to the stiffness of
foundations. The acceleration time history (ground motion) is applied at the
base of the structure. The advantage of this procedure is that the time
dependent behavior of the structural response is obtained.

2.5.10.1 Modeling (LTHA)

Mathematical models shall conform to the requirements of modeling described
in Sec 2.5.9.1.

2.5.10.2 Ground motion (LTHA)

At least three appropriate ground motions (acceleration time history) shall be
used in the analysis. Ground motion shall conform to the requirements of this
Section.
Two-dimensional analysis: Where two-dimensional analyses are performed,
each ground motion shall consist of a horizontal acceleration time history
selected from an actual recorded event. Appropriate acceleration histories shall
be obtained from records of events having magnitudes, fault distance, and
source mechanisms that are consistent with those that control the maximum
considered earthquake. Where the required number of appropriate ground
motion records are not available, appropriate simulated ground motion time
histories shall be used to make up the total number required. The ground
motions shall be scaled such that for each period between 0.2T and 1.5T (where
T is the natural period of the structure in the fundamental mode for the
direction considered) the average of the five-percent-damped response spectra
for the each acceleration time history is not less than the corresponding
ordinate of the design acceleration response spectrum, determined in
accordance with Sec 2.5.4.3.
3218 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Three-dimensional analysis: Where three-dimensional analysis is performed,

ground motions shall consist of pairs of appropriate horizontal ground motion
acceleration time histories (in two orthogonal horizontal directions) that shall
be selected and scaled from individual recorded events. Appropriate ground
motions shall be selected from events having magnitudes, fault distance, and
source mechanisms that are consistent with those that control the maximum
considered earthquake. Where the required number of recorded ground motion
pairs are not available, appropriate simulated ground motion pairs shall be used
to make up the total number required. For each pair of horizontal ground
motion components, an SRSS spectrum shall be constructed by taking the
square root of the sum of the squares of the five-percent-damped response
spectra for the components (where an identical scale factor is applied to both
components of a pair). Each pair of motions shall be scaled such that for each
period between 0.2T and 1.5T (where T is the natural period of the fundamental
mode of the structure) the average of the SRSS spectra from all horizontal
component pairs is not less than 1.3 times the corresponding ordinate of the
design response spectrum, determined in accordance with Sec 2.5.4.3.
2.5.10.3 Structure response (LTHA)

For each scaled acceleration time history, the maximum values of base shear
and other structure response quantities shall be obtained from the time history
analysis. For three dimensional analysis, orthogonal pair of scaled motions are
applied simultaneously. A base shear, V, shall also be calculated using the
equivalent static force procedure described in Sec 2.5.7.1. Where the maximum
base shear, "3 computed by linear time history analysis, is less than V, all
response quantities (storey shear, moments, drifts, floor deflections, member
forces etc) obtained by time history analysis shall be increased by multiplying
with the ratio, . If number of earthquake records (or pairs) used in the
T
T*Á
analysis is less than seven, the maximum structural response obtained
corresponding to different earthquake records shall be considered as the design
value. If the number is at least seven, then the average of maximum structural
responses for different earthquake records shall be considered as the design
value.

The displacements and drifts obtained as mentioned above shall be multiplied

by to obtain design displacements and drifts, as done in equivalent static
+,
µ
analysis procedure (Sec 2.5.7.7).
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3219

2.5.11 Non-Linear Time History Analysis (NTHA)

Nonlinear time history analysis (NTHA) shall consist of analysis of a
mathematical model of the structure which incorporates the nonlinear
hysteretic behavior of the structure’s components to determine its response,
through methods of numerical integration, to ground acceleration time histories
compatible with the design response spectrum for the site. The analysis shall be
performed in accordance with the requirements of this Section. For the
purposes of analysis, the structure shall be permitted to be considered to be
fixed at the base or, alternatively, it shall be permitted to use realistic
assumptions with regard to the stiffness of foundations. The acceleration time
history (ground motion) is applied at the base of the structure. The advantage of
this procedure is that actual time dependent behavior of the structural response
considering inelastic deformations in the structure can be obtained.
2.5.11.1 Modeling (NTHA)
A mathematical model of the structure shall be constructed that represents the
spatial distribution of mass throughout the structure. The hysteretic behavior of
elements shall be modeled consistent with suitable laboratory test data and
shall account for all significant yielding, strength degradation, stiffness
degradation, and hysteretic pinching indicated by such test data. Strength of
elements shall be based on expected values considering material over-strength,
strain hardening, and hysteretic strength degradation. As a minimum, a bilinear
force deformation relationship should be used at the element level. In
reinforced concrete and masonry buildings, the elastic stiffness should
correspond to that of cracked sections. Linear properties, consistent with the
provisions of Chapter 5 shall be permitted to be used for those elements
demonstrated by the analysis to remain within their linear range of response.
The structure shall be assumed to have a fixed base or, alternatively, it shall be
permitted to use realistic assumptions with regard to the stiffness and load
carrying characteristics of the foundations consistent with site-specific soils
data and rational principles of engineering mechanics.
For regular structures with independent orthogonal seismic-force-resisting
systems, independent two dimensional models shall be permitted to be
constructed to represent each system. For structures having plan irregularity or
structures without independent orthogonal systems, a three-dimensional model
incorporating a minimum of three dynamic degrees of freedom consisting of
3220 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

translation in two orthogonal plan directions and torsional rotation about the
vertical axis at each level of the structure shall be used. Where the diaphragms
are not rigid compared to the vertical elements of the lateral-force-resisting
system, the model shall include representation of the diaphragm’s flexibility and
such additional dynamic degrees of freedom as are required to account for the
participation of the diaphragm in the structure’s dynamic response.
2.5.11.2 Ground motion (NTHA)
The actual time-dependent inelastic deformation of the structure is modeled.
For inelastic analysis method, the real design acceleration response spectrum
(Sec 2.5.4.3) is obtained using Eq. 6.2.34 with R51 and I51. The real design
acceleration response spectrum is the true representation of the expected
ground motion (design basis earthquake) including local soil effects and
corresponds to a peak ground acceleration (PGA) value of 2 KC.
At least three appropriate acceleration time histories shall be used in the
analysis. Ground motion shall conform to the requirements of this Section.
Two-dimensional analysis
Where two-dimensional analyses are performed, each ground motion shall
consist of a horizontal acceleration time history selected from an actual
recorded event. Appropriate acceleration histories shall be obtained from
records of events having magnitudes, fault distance, and source mechanisms
that are consistent with those that control the maximum considered earthquake.
Where the required number of appropriate ground motion records are not
available, appropriate simulated ground motion time histories shall be used to
make up the total number required. The ground motions shall be scaled such
that for each period between 0.2T and 1.5T (where T is the natural period of the
structure in the fundamental mode for the direction considered) the average of
the five-percent-damped response spectra for each acceleration time history is
not less than the corresponding ordinate of the real design acceleration
response spectrum, as defined here.
Three-dimensional analysis
Where three-dimensional analysis is performed, ground motions shall consist of
pairs of appropriate horizontal ground motion acceleration time histories (in
two orthogonal horizontal directions) that shall be selected and scaled from
individual recorded events. Appropriate ground motions shall be selected from
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3221

events having magnitudes, fault distance, and source mechanisms that are
consistent with those that control the maximum considered earthquake. Where
the required number of recorded ground motion pairs are not available,
appropriate simulated ground motion pairs shall be used to make up the total
number required. For each pair of horizontal ground motion components, an
SRSS spectrum shall be constructed by taking the square root of the sum of the
squares of the five-percent-damped response spectra for the components
(where an identical scale factor is applied to both components of a pair). Each
pair of motions shall be scaled such that for each period between 0.2T and 1.5T
(where T is the natural period of the fundamental mode of the structure) the
average of the SRSS spectra from all horizontal component pairs is not less than
1.3 times the corresponding ordinate of the real design acceleration response
spectrum.

2.5.11.3 Structure response (NTHA)

For each scaled acceleration time history, the maximum values of base shear
and other structure response quantities shall be obtained from the nonlinear
time history analysis. For three dimensional analysis, orthogonal pair of scaled
motions are applied simultaneously. If number of earthquake records (or pairs)
used in the analysis is less than seven, the maximum structural response
obtained corresponding to different earthquake records shall be considered as
the design value. If the number is at least seven, then the average of maximum
structural responses for different earthquake records shall be considered as the
design value. Since real expected earthquake motion input and model
incorporating real nonlinear behavior of the structure is used, the results as
obtained are directly used (no scaling as in LTHA or RSA is required) for
interpretation and design.
2.5.11.4 Structure member design (NTHA)
The adequacy of individual members and their connections to withstand the
design deformations predicted by the analyses shall be evaluated based on
laboratory test data for similar components. The effects of gravity and other
loads on member deformation capacity shall be considered in these evaluations.
Member deformation shall not exceed two thirds of the smaller of: the value that
results in loss of ability to carry gravity loads or the value at which member
strength has deteriorated to less than 67 percent of peak strength.
3222 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.5.11.5 Design review (NTHA)

Special care and expertise is needed in the use of nonlinear dynamic analysis
based design. Checking of the design by competent third party is recommended.
A review of the design of the seismic-force-resisting system and the supporting
structural analyses shall be performed by an independent team consisting of
design professionals with experience in seismic analysis methods and the
theory and application of nonlinear seismic analysis and structural behavior
under extreme cyclic loads. The design review shall include the following: (i)
Review of development of ground motion time histories (ii) Review of
acceptance criteria (including laboratory test data) used to demonstrate the
adequacy of structural elements and systems to withstand the calculated force
and deformation demands (iii) Review of structural design.
2.5.12 Non-Linear Static Analysis (NSA)
Nonlinear static analysis (NSA), also popularly known as pushover analysis, is a
simplified method of directly evaluating nonlinear response of structures to
strong earthquake ground shaking. It is an alternative to the more complex
nonlinear time history analysis (NTHA). The building is subjected to
monotonically increasing static horizontal loads under constant gravity load.
2.5.12.1 Modeling (NSA)
A mathematical model of the structure shall be constructed to represent the
spatial distribution of mass and stiffness of the structural system considering
the effects of element nonlinearity for deformation levels that exceed the
proportional limit. P-Delta effects shall also be included in the analysis.
For regular structures with independent orthogonal seismic-force-resisting
systems, independent two-dimensional models may be used to represent each
system. For structures having plan irregularities or structures without
independent orthogonal systems, a three-dimensional model incorporating a
minimum of three degrees of freedom for each level of the structure, consisting
of translation in two orthogonal plan directions and torsional rotation about the
vertical axis, shall be used. Where the diaphragms are not rigid compared to the
vertical elements of the seismic-force-resisting system, the model should
include representation of the diaphragm flexibility.
Unless analysis indicates that an element remains elastic, a nonlinear force
deformation model shall be used to represent the stiffness of the element before
onset of yield, the yield strength, and the stiffness properties of the element
after yield at various levels of deformation. Strengths of elements shall not
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3223

exceed expected values considering material over-strength and strain

hardening. The properties of elements and components after yielding shall
account for strength and stiffness degradation due to softening, buckling, or
fracture as indicated by principles of mechanics or test data.
A control point shall be selected for the model. For normal buildings, the control
point shall be at the center of mass of the highest level (roof) of the structure.
2.5.12.2 Analysis procedure (NSA)
The lateral forces shall be applied at the center of mass of each level and shall be
proportional to the distribution obtained from a modal analysis for the
fundamental mode of response in the direction under consideration. The lateral
loads shall be increased incrementally in a monotonic manner.
At the d"3 increment of lateral loading, the total lateral force applied to the
model shall be characterized by the term . The incremental increases in
applied lateral force should be in steps that are sufficiently small to permit
significant changes in individual element behavior (such as yielding, buckling or
failure) to be detected. The first increment in lateral loading shall result in linear
elastic behavior. At each loading step, the total applied lateral force, the
lateral displacement of the control point, and the forces and deformations in
each element shall be recorded. The analysis shall be continued until the
displacement of the control point is at least 150 percent of the target
displacement determined in accordance with Sec.2.5.12.3. The structure shall be
designed so that the total applied lateral force does not decrease in any load
increment for control point displacements less than or equal to 125 percent of
the target displacement.
2.5.12.3 Effective period and target displacement (NSA)
A bilinear curve shall be fitted to the capacity curve, such that the first segment
of the bilinear curve coincides with the capacity curve at 60 percent of the
effective yield strength, the second segment coincides with the capacity curve at
the target displacement, and the area under the bilinear curve equals the area
under the capacity curve, between the origin and the target displacement. The
effective yield strength, H corresponds to the total applied lateral force at the
intersection of the two line segments. The effective yield displacement, H
corresponds to the control point displacement at the intersection of the two line
segments. The effective fundamental period, E< of the structure in the direction
under consideration shall be determined using Eq. 6.2.51 as follows:

Te  T1
V1 1 (6.2.51)
Vy  y
3224 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Where, 1 , 1 , and E1 are determined for the first increment of lateral load. The
target displacement of the control point, e shall be determined as follows:

(6.2.52)
2
 Te 
T  C0C1Sa   g
 2 

Where, the spectral acceleration, Sa, is determined at the effective fundamental

period, Te, using Eq. 6.2.34, g is the acceleration due to gravity. The coefficient Co
shall be calculated as :

n
 wii
Co  i 1
n
 wii2 (6.2.53)
i 1

Where,
[ = the portion of the seismic weight, W, at level i, and
k = the amplitude of the shape vector at level i.

Where the effective fundamental period, Te, is greater than TC (defined in Sec.
2.5.4.3), the coefficient C1 shall be taken as 1.0. Otherwise, the value of the
coefficient C1 shall be calculated as follows:

(6.2.54)
1  Rd  1Ts 
C1  1  
Rd  Te 
 

Where, Rd is given as follows:

Sa
Rd  (6.2.55)
Vy W

2.5.12.4 Structure member design (NSA)

For each nonlinear static analysis the design response parameters, including the
individual member forces and member deformations shall be taken as the values
obtained from the analysis at the step at which the target displacement is reached.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3225

The adequacy of individual members and their connections to withstand the

member forces and member deformations shall be evaluated based on
laboratory test data for similar components. The effects of gravity and other
loads on member deformation capacity shall be considered in these evaluations.
The deformation of a member supporting gravity loads shall not exceed (i) two-
thirds of the deformation that results in loss of ability to support gravity loads,
and (ii) two-thirds of the deformation at which the member strength has
deteriorated to less than 70 percent of the peak strength of the component
model. The deformation of a member not required for gravity load support shall
not exceed two-thirds of the value at which member strength has deteriorated
to less than 70 percent of the peak strength of the component model.
2.5.12.5 Design review (NSA)
Checking of the design by competent third party is recommended. An
independent team composed of at least two members with experience in
seismic analysis methods and the theory and application of nonlinear seismic
analysis and structural behavior under earthquake loading, shall perform a
review of the design of the seismic force resisting system and the supporting
structural analyses. The design review shall include (i) review of any site-
specific seismic criteria (if developed) employed in the analysis (ii) review of
the determination of the target displacement and effective yield strength of the
structure (iii) review of adequacy of structural elements and systems to
withstand the calculated force and deformation demands, together with
laboratory and other data (iv) review of structural design.
2.5.13 Earthquake Load Effects and Load Combinations
The seismic load effect, E, shall be determined in accordance with the following:
1. For use in load combination 5 in Section 2.7.3 or load combination 5 and 6
in Section 2.7.2, E shall be determined in accordance with the following
equation,
E 5 Eh + Ev
2. For use in load combination 7 in Section 2.7.3 or load combination 8 in
Section 2.7.2, E shall be determined in accordance with following equation,
E 5 Eh − Ev
Where,
E 5 total seismic load effect
Eh 5 effect of horizontal seismic forces as defined in Sections 2.5.7 or 2.5.9
Ev 5 effect of vertical seismic forces as defined in Section 2.5.13.2
3226 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.5.13.1 Horizontal earthquake loading, Eh

The horizontal seismic load effect, Eh, shall be taken as the horizontal load
effects of seismic base shear V (Sec 2.5.7 or 2.5.9) or component forces Fc (Sec
2.5.15).
The directions of application of horizontal seismic forces for design shall be
those which will produce the most critical load effects. Earthquake forces act in
both principal directions of the building simultaneously. In order to account for
that,
(a) For structures of Seismic Design Category B, the design horizontal
seismic forces are permitted to be applied independently in each of
two orthogonal directions and orthogonal interaction effects are
permitted to be neglected
(b) Structures of Seismic Design Category C and D shall, as a minimum,
conform to the requirements of (a) for Seismic Design Category B and
in addition the requirements of this Section. The structure of Seismic
Design Category C with plan irregularity type V and Seismic Design
Category D shall be designed for 100% of the horizontal seismic
forces in one principal direction combined with 30% of the
horizontal seismic forces in the orthogonal direction. Possible
combinations are:
“100% in x-direction 30% in y-direction” or

“30% in x-direction 100% in y-direction”

The combination which produces most unfavourable effect for the
particular action effect shall be considered. This approach may be
applied to equivalent static analysis, response spectrum analysis and
linear time history analysis procedure.
(c) Where three-dimensional analysis of a spatial structure model is
performed as in 3D time history analysis, simultaneous application of
accelerations in two directions shall be considered where the ground
motions shall satisfy the conditions stated in Sections 2.5.10.2 or
2.5.11.2.
2.5.13.2 Vertical earthquake loading, Ev
The maximum vertical ground acceleration shall be taken as 50 percent of the
expected horizontal peak ground acceleration (PGA). The vertical seismic load
effect %¼ may be determined as:
%¼ 5 0.50(L3 )# (6.2.56)
3182 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Open Structures: Trussed Tower

Tower Cross Section Cf

Square 4.0 2 - 5.9  + 4.0
Triangle 3.4 2 - 4.7  + 3.4

Notes:
1. For all wind directions considered, the area Af consistent with the specified
force coefficients shall be the solid area of a tower face projected on the plane
of that face for the tower segment under consideration.
2. The specified force coefficients are for towers with structural angles or
similar flat-sided members.
3. For towers containing rounded members, it is acceptable to multiply the
specified force coefficients by the following factor when determining wind
forces on such members: 0.51 2 + 0.57  1.0
4. Wind forces shall be applied in the directions resulting in maximum member
forces and reactions. For towers with square cross-sections, wind forces shall
be multiplied by the following factor when the wind is directed along a tower
diagonal:
1 + 0.75   1.2
5. Wind forces on tower appurtenances such as ladders, conduits, lights,
elevators, etc., shall be calculated using appropriate force coefficients for
these elements.
6. Notation:
 : ratio of solid area to gross area of one tower face for the segment under
consideration.
Figure 6.2.23 Force coefficient, Cf for other structures - Method 2 (All heights)

Table 6.2.9: Importance Factor, I (Wind Loads)

Occupancy Category1 Non-Cyclone Prone Cyclone Prone Regions with
or Regions and Cyclone Prone V > 44 m/s
Importance Class Regions with
V 5 38-44 m/s
I 0.87 0.77
II 1.0 1.00
III 1.15 1.15
IV 1.15 1.15
1 The building and structure classification categories are listed in Table 6.1.1
3228 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.5.13.5 Allowable Stress Increase for Load Combinations with Overstrength

Where allowable stress design methodologies are used with the seismic load
effect defined in Section 2.5.13.4 applied in load combinations 5, 6, or 8 of
Section 2.7.2, allowable stresses are permitted to be determined using an
allowable stress increase of 1.2. This increase shall not be combined with
increases in allowable stresses or load combination reductions otherwise
permitted elsewhere by this standard.
2.5.13.6 Minimum Upward Force for Horizontal Cantilevers for Seismic
Design Category D
In structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D, horizontal cantilever
structural components shall be designed for a minimum net upward force of
0.2 times the dead load in addition to the applicable load combinations of
Section 2.7.

2.5.14 Drift and Deformation

2.5.14.1 Storey drift limit
The design storey drift () of each storey, as determined in Sections 2.5.7, 2.5.9
or 2.5.10 shall not exceed the allowable storey drift (a) as obtained from Table
6.2.21 for any story.
For structures with significant torsional deflections, the maximum drift shall
include torsional effects. For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category C or
D having torsional irregularity, the design storey drift, shall be computed as the
largest difference of the deflections along any of the edges of the structure at the
top and bottom of the storey under consideration. For seismic force–resisting
systems comprised solely of moment frames in Seismic Design Categories D, the
allowable storey drift for such linear elastic analysis procedures shall not exceed
Δ' /. where . is termed as a structural redundancy factor. The value of
redundancy factor . may be considered as 1.0 with exception of structures of
very low level of redundancy where . may be considered as 1.3.
For nonlinear time history analysis (NTHA), the storey drift obtained (Sec
2.5.11) shall not exceed 1.25 times the storey drift limit specified above for linear
elastic analysis procedures.
2.5.14.2 Diaphragm deflection
The deflection in the plane of the diaphragm, as determined by engineering
analysis, shall not exceed the permissible deflection of the attached elements.
Permissible deflection shall be that deflection that will permit the attached
element to maintain its structural integrity under the individual loading and
continue to support the prescribed loads.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3229

Table 6.2.21: Allowable Storey Drift Limit (/ú )

Structure Occupancy Category

I and II III IV

Structures, other than masonry shear

wall structures, 4 stories or less with
interior walls, partitions, ceilings and
0.025ℎ 0.020ℎ 0.015ℎ
exterior wall systems that have been
designed to accommodate the story
drifts.

Masonry cantilever shear wall structures 0.010ℎ 0.010ℎ 0.010ℎ

Other masonry shear wall structures 0.007ℎ 0.007ℎ 0.007ℎ

All other structures 0.020ℎ 0.015ℎ 0.010ℎ

Notes:

1. ℎ is the story height below Level .

2. There shall be no drift limit for single-story structures with interior walls,
partitions, ceilings, and exterior wall systems that have been designed to
accommodate the storey drifts.

3. Structures in which the basic structural system consists of masonry shear walls
designed as vertical elements cantilevered from their base or foundation
support which are so constructed that moment transfer between shear walls
(coupling) is negligible.

4. Occupancy categories are defined in Table 6.1.1

2.5.14.3 Separation between adjacent structures

Buildings shall be protected from earthquake-induced pounding from adjacent
structures or between structurally independent units of the same building
maintaining safe distance between such structures as follows:
(i) for buildings, or structurally independent units, that do not belong to
the same property, the distance from the property line to the
potential points of impact shall not be less than the computed
maximum horizontal displacement (Sec 2.5.7.7) of the building at the
corresponding level.
3230 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

(ii) for buildings, or structurally independent units, belonging to the

same property, if the distance between them is not less than the
square root of the sum of the squares (SRSS) of the computed
maximum horizontal displacements (Sec 2.5.7.7) of the two buildings
or units at the corresponding level.
(iii) if the floor elevations of the building or independent unit under
design are the same as those of the adjacent building or unit, the
above referred minimum distance may be reduced by a factor of 0.7
2.5.14.4 Special deformation requirement for seismic design category D
For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D, every structural
component not included in the seismic force–resisting system in the direction
under consideration shall be designed to be adequate for the gravity load effects
and the seismic forces resulting from displacement to the design story drift ()
as determined in accordance with Sec 2.5.7.7. Even where elements of the
structure are not intended to resist seismic forces, their protection may be
important. Where determining the moments and shears induced in components
that are not included in the seismic force–resisting system in the direction
under consideration, the stiffening effects of adjoining rigid structural and
nonstructural elements shall be considered and a rational value of member and
restraint stiffness shall be used.
2.5.15 Seismic Design For Nonstructural Components
This Section establishes minimum design criteria for nonstructural components
that are permanently attached to structures and for their supports and
attachments. The following components are exempt from the requirements of
this Section.
(1) Architectural components in Seismic Design Category B, other than
parapets supported by bearing walls or shear walls, where the
component importance factor, .+ is equal to 1.0.
(2) Mechanical and electrical components in Seismic Design Category B.
(3) Mechanical and electrical components in Seismic Design Category C
where the importance factor, .+ is equal to 1.0.
(4) Mechanical and electrical components in Seismic Design Category D
where the component importance factor, .+ is equal to 1.0 and either
(a) flexible connections between the components and associated
ductwork, piping, and conduit are provided, or (b) components are
mounted at 1.2 m or less above a floor level and weigh 1780 N or less.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3231

(5) Mechanical and electrical components in Seismic Design Category C

or D where the component importance factor, .+ is equal to 1.0 and
(a) flexible connections between the components and associated
ductwork, piping, and conduit are provided, and (b) the components
weigh 89 N or less or, for distribution systems, which weigh 73 N/m
or less.
Where the individual weight of supported components and non-building
structures with periods greater than 0.06 seconds exceeds 25 percent of the
total seismic weight W, the structure shall be designed considering interaction
effects between the structure and the supported components.
Testing shall be permitted to be used in lieu of analysis methods outlined in this
Chapter to determine the seismic capacity of components and their supports
and attachments.
2.5.15.1 Component importance factor
All components shall be assigned a component importance factor. The
component importance factor, .+ shall be taken as 1.5 if any of the following
conditions apply:
(1) The component is required to function after an earthquake,
(2) The component contains hazardous materials, or
(3) The component is in or attached to a occupancy category IV building
and it is needed for continued operation of the facility.
All other components shall be assigned a component importance factor, .+ equal
to 1.0.
2.5.15.2 Component force transfer
Components shall be attached such that the component forces are transferred to
the structure. Component attachments that are intended to resist seismic forces
shall be bolted, welded, or otherwise positively fastened without consideration
of frictional resistance produced by the effects of gravity. A continuous load path
of sufficient strength and stiffness between the component and the supporting
structure shall be verified. Local elements of the supporting structure shall be
designed for the component forces where such forces control the design of the
elements or their connections. In this instance, the component forces shall be
those determined in Sec 2.5.15.3, except that modifications to &! and @! due to
anchorage conditions need not be considered. The design documents shall
include sufficient information concerning the attachments to verify compliance
with the requirements of these Provisions.
3232 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.5.15.3 Seismic design force

The seismic design force, Fc, applied in the horizontal direction shall be centered
at the component’s center of gravity and distributed relative to the component's
mass distribution and shall be determined as follows:

(6.2.57)
 c a hW c I c  z
Fc  1  2 
Rc  h
Where,
0.75L3 I+ .+ ≤ &+ ≤ 1.5L3 I+ .+
a+ 5 component amplification factor which varies from 1.0 to 2.5 (Table
6.2.22 or Table 6.2.23).
L3 5 expected horizontal peak ground acceleration (in g) for design 5
0.67ZS
I+ 5 weight of component
@+ 5 component response reduction factor which varies from 1.0 to
12.0 (Table 6.2.22 or Table 6.2.23)
4 5 height above the base of the point of attachment of the component,
but z shall not be taken less than 0 and the value of 4/ℎ need not
exceed 1.0
h 5 roof height of structure above the base

The force &+ shall be independently applied in at least two orthogonal horizontal
directions in combination with service loads associated with the component. In
addition, the component shall also be designed for a concurrent vertical force of
± 0.5ahWc.
Where non-seismic loads on nonstructural components exceed &+ such loads
shall govern the strength design, but the seismic detailing requirements and
limitations shall apply.
2.5.15.4 Seismic relative displacements
The relative seismic displacement, #+ for two connection points on the same
structure A, one at a height ℎ and other at height ℎH , for use in component
design shall be determined as follows:
Dc   xA   yA (6.2.58)
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3233

#+ shall not exceed #+ \' given by:

hx  hy aA
Dc max  (6.2.59)
hsx

Where,
w 5 Deflection at level x of structure A

Hw 5 Deflection at level y of structure A

∆'w 5 Allowable story drift for structure A
hx = Height (above base) of level x to which upper connection point is
attached.
hy = Height (above base) of level y to which lower connection point is
attached.
hsx = Story height used in the definition of the allowable drift a
For two connection points on separate structures, A and B, or separate structural
systems, one at level x and the other at level y, Dc shall be determined as follows:

Dc   xA   yB (6.2.60)

Dc shall not exceed Dc max given by:

(6.2.61)
h  h y  aB
Dc max  x aA 
hsx hsx

Where,
HA = Deflection at level y of structure B
∆'A = Allowable story drift for structure B
The effects of relative seismic relative displacements shall be considered in
combination with displacements caused by other loads as appropriate.
2.5.16 Design For Seismically Isolated Buildings
Buildings that use special seismic isolation systems for protection against
earthquakes shall be called seismically isolated or base isolated buildings.
Seismically isolated structure and every portion thereof shall be designed and
constructed in accordance with the requirements of provisions presented in this
Section.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3187

structural elements of the lateral force resisting system, and well-distributed in-
plan, is desirable. Uniformity along the height of the building is also important,
since it tends to eliminate the occurrence of sensitive zones where
concentrations of stress or large ductility demands might cause premature
collapse.
Some basic guidelines are given below:
(i) With respect to the lateral stiffness and mass distribution, the building
structure shall be approximately symmetrical in plan with respect to
two orthogonal axes.
(ii) Both the lateral stiffness and the mass of the individual storeys shall
remain constant or reduce gradually, without abrupt changes, from the
base to the top of a particular building.
(iii) All structural elements of the lateral load resisting systems, such as
cores, structural walls, or frames shall run without interruption from
the foundations to the top of the building.
(iv) An irregular building may be subdivided into dynamically independent
regular units well separated against pounding of the individual units to
achieve uniformity.
(v) The length to breadth ratio (h 5 6\' /6\ ) ) of the building in plan shall
not be higher than 4, where 6\' and 6\ ) are respectively the larger
and smaller in plan dimension of the building, measured in orthogonal
directions.
Structural Redundancy:
A high degree of redundancy accompanied by redistribution capacity through
ductility is desirable, enabling a more widely spread energy dissipation across
the entire structure and an increased total dissipated energy. The use of evenly
distributed structural elements increases redundancy. Structural systems of
higher static indeterminacy may result in higher response reduction factor R.
Horizontal Bi-directional Resistance and Stiffness:
Horizontal earthquake motion is a bi-directional phenomenon and thus the
building structure needs to resist horizontal action in any direction. The
structural elements of lateral force resisting system should be arranged in an
orthogonal (in plan) pattern, ensuring similar resistance and stiffness
characteristics in both main directions. The stiffness characteristics of the
structure should also limit the development of excessive displacements that
might lead to either instabilities due to second order effects or excessive
damages.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3235

(9) Access for inspection and replacement of all components of the

isolation system shall be provided.
(10) The designer of the isolation system shall establish a quality control
testing program for isolator units. Each isolator unit before
installation shall be tested under specified vertical and horizontal
loads.
(11) After completion of construction, a design professional shall
complete a final series of inspections or observations of structure
separation areas and components that cross the isolation interface.
Such inspections and observations shall confirm that existing
conditions allow free and unhindered displacement of the structure
to maximum design levels and that all components that cross the
isolation interface as installed are able to accommodate the
stipulated displacements.
(12) The designer of the isolation system shall establish a periodic
monitoring, inspection, and maintenance program for such system.
(13) Remodeling, repair, or retrofitting at the isolation interface, including
that of components that cross the isolation interface, shall be
performed under the direction of a design professional experienced
in seismic isolation systems.

Table 6.2.22: Coefficients ø0 and 10 for Architectural Components

Architectural Component or Element ø0 a 10

Interior Nonstructural Walls and Partitions

Plain (unreinforced) masonry walls 1.0 1.5
All other walls and partitions 1.0 2.5

Cantilever Elements (Unbraced or braced to structural frame below its 2.5 2.5
center of mass) Parapets and cantilever interior nonstructural walls
Chimneys and stacks where laterally braced or supported by the structural
2.5 2.5
frame

Cantilever Elements (Braced to structural frame above its center of mass)

1.0 2.5
Parapets
1.0 2.5
Chimneys and Stacks
1.0 2.5
Exterior Nonstructural Walls
3236 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Architectural Component or Element ø0 a 10

Exterior Nonstructural Wall Elements and Connections

Wall Element 1.0 2.5
Body of wall panel connections 1.0 2.5
Fasteners of the connecting system 1.25 1.0

Veneer
Limited deformability elements and attachments 1.0 2.5
Low deformability elements and attachments 1.0 1.5

Penthouses (except where framed by an extension of the building frame) 2.5 3.5

Ceilings
All 1.0 2.5

Cabinets
Storage cabinets and laboratory equipment 1.0 2.5

Access Floors
Special access floors 1.0 2.5
All other 1.0 1.5

Appendages and Ornamentations 2.5 2.5

Signs and Billboards 2.5 2.5

Other Rigid Components

High deformability elements and attachments 1.0 3.5
Limited deformability elements and attachments 1.0 2.5
Low deformability materials and attachments 1.0 1.5
Other Flexible Components
High deformability elements and attachments 2.5 3.5
Limited deformability elements and attachments 2.5 2.5
Low deformability materials and attachments 2.5 1.5

a A lower value for c is permitted where justified by detailed dynamic analysis. The value for
c shall not be less than 1.0. The value of c equal to 1.0 is for rigid components and rigidly
attached components. The value of c equal to 2.5 is for flexible components and flexibly
attached components.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3237
Table 6.2.23: Coefficients ø0 and 10 for Mechanical and Electrical Components
Mechanical and Electrical Components ø0 a 10
Air-side HVAC, fans, air handlers, air conditioning units, cabinet heaters, air 2.5 6.0
distribution boxes, and other mechanical components constructed of sheet metal
framing.
Wet-side HVAC, boilers, furnaces, atmospheric tanks and bins, chillers, water 1.0 2.5
heaters, heat exchangers, evaporators, air separators, manufacturing or process
equipment, and other mechanical components constructed of high-deformability
materials.
Engines, turbines, pumps, compressors, and pressure vessels not supported on 1.0 2.5
skirts and not within the scope of Chapter 15.
Skirt-supported pressure vessels 2.5 2.5
Elevator and escalator components. 1.0 2.5
Generators, batteries, inverters, motors, transformers, and other electrical 1.0 2.5
components constructed of high deformability materials.
Motor control centers, panel boards, switch gear, instrumentation cabinets, and 2.5 6.0
other components constructed of sheet metal framing.
Communication equipment, computers, instrumentation, and controls. 1.0 2.5
Roof-mounted chimneys, stacks, cooling and electrical towers laterally braced 2.5 3.0
below their center of mass.
Roof-mounted chimneys, stacks, cooling and electrical towers laterally braced 1.0 2.5
above their center of mass.
Lighting fixtures. 1.0 1.5
Other mechanical or electrical components. 1.0 1.5
Vibration Isolated Components and Systemsb
Components and systems isolated using neoprene elements and neoprene 2.5 2.5
isolated floors with built-in or separate elastomeric snubbing devices or resilient
perimeter stops.
Spring isolated components and systems and vibration isolated floors closely 2.5 2.0
restrained using built-in or separate elastomeric snubbing devices or resilient
perimeter stops.
Internally isolated components and systems. 2.5 2.0
Suspended vibration isolated equipment including in-line duct devices and 2.5 2.5
suspended internally isolated components.
Mechanical and Electrical Components ø0 a 10
Air-side HVAC, fans, air handlers, air conditioning units, cabinet heaters, air 2.5 6.0
distribution boxes, and other mechanical components constructed of sheet metal
framing.
Wet-side HVAC, boilers, furnaces, atmospheric tanks and bins, chillers, water 1.0 2.5
heaters, heat exchangers, evaporators, air separators, manufacturing or process
equipment, and other mechanical components constructed of high-
deformability materials.
3238 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Mechanical and Electrical Components ø0 a 10

Engines, turbines, pumps, compressors, and pressure vessels not supported on 1.0 2.5
skirts and not within the scope of Chapter 15.
Skirt-supported pressure vessels 2.5 2.5
Distribution Systems
Piping in accordance with ASME B31, including in-line components with joints 2.5 12.0
made by welding or brazing.
Piping in accordance with ASME B31, including in-line components, 2.5 6.0
constructed of high or limited deformability materials, with joints made by
threading, bonding, compression couplings, or grooved couplings.
Piping and tubing not in accordance with ASME B31, including in-line 2.5 9.0
components, constructed of high-deformability materials, with joints made by
welding or brazing.
Piping and tubing not in accordance with ASME B31, including in-line 2.5 4.5
components, constructed of high- or limited-deformability materials, with joints
made by threading, bonding, compression couplings, or grooved couplings.
Piping and tubing constructed of low-deformability materials, such as cast iron, 2.5 3.0
glass, and non-ductile plastics.
Ductwork, including in-line components, constructed of high-deformability 2.5 9.0
materials, with joints made by welding or brazing.
Ductwork, including in-line components, constructed of high- or limited- 2.5 6.0
deformability materials with joints made by means other than welding or
brazing.
Ductwork, including in-line components, constructed of low-deformability 2.5 3.0
materials, such as cast iron, glass, and non-ductile plastics.
Electrical conduit, bus ducts, rigidly mounted cable trays, and plumbing. 1.0 2.5
Manufacturing or process conveyors (non-personnel). 2.5 3.0
Suspended cable trays. 2.5 6.0

a A lower value for c is permitted where justified by detailed dynamic analysis. The value for c
shall not be less than 1.0. The value of c equal to 1.0 is for rigid components and rigidly
attached components. The value of c equal to 2.5 is for flexible components and flexibly
attached components.
b
Components mounted on vibration isolators shall have a bumper restraint or snubber in each
horizontal direction. The design force shall be taken as 2Fc if the nominal clearance (air gap)
between the equipment support frame and restraint is greater than 6 mm. If the nominal
clearance specified on the construction documents is not greater than 6 mm, the design force
may be taken as Fc.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3239

2.5.16.2 Equivalent static analysis

The equivalent static analysis procedure is permitted to be used for design of a
seismically isolated structure provided that:
(1) The structure is located on Site Class SA, SB, SC, SD or SE site;
(2) The structure above the isolation interface is not more than four stories or
20 m in height
(3) Effective period of the isolated structure at the maximum displacement,
TM, is less than or equal to 3.0 sec.

(4) The effective period of the isolated structure at the design displacement,
TD, is greater than three times the elastic, fixed-base period of the
structure above the isolation system as determined in Sec. 2.5.7.2

(5) The structure above the isolation system is of regular configuration; and

(6) The isolation system meets all of the following criteria:

(a) The effective stiffness of the isolation system at the design

displacement is greater than one third of the effective stiffness at 20
percent of the design displacement,

(b) The isolation system is capable of producing a restoring force as

specified in Sec. 2.5.16.1,

(c) The isolation system does not limit maximum considered

earthquake displacement to less than the total maximum
displacement.

Where the equivalent lateral force procedure is used to design seismically isolated
structures, the requirements of this Section shall apply.

2.5.16.2.1 Displacement of isolation system: The isolation system shall be

designed and constructed to withstand minimum lateral earthquake displacements
that act in the direction of each of the main horizontal axes of the structure and such
displacements shall be calculated as follows:

S g T2 
DD  a  D  (6.2.62)
4 2  BD 
3240 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Where,
Sa = Design spectral acceleration (in units of g), calculated using Eq. 6.2.34
for period TD and assuming R=1, I=1, =1 (Sec 2.5.4.3) for the design
basis earthquake (DBE).
g = acceleration due to gravity
BD= damping coefficient related to the effective damping βD of the isolation
system at the design displacement, as set forth in Table 6.2.24.
TD = effective period of seismically isolated structure at the design
displacement in the direction under consideration, as prescribed by Eq.
6.2.63:
W
TD  2 (6.2.63)
kD min g

Where,
W = seismic weight above the isolation interface
kDmin = minimum effective stiffness of the isolation system at the design
displacement in the horizontal direction under consideration.

Table 6.2.24: Damping Coefficient, BD or BM

Effective Damping, βD or βM a, b (%) B or B

D M

≤2 0.8

5 1.0

10 1.2

20 1.5

30 1.7

40 1.9

≥ 50 2.0
a
The damping coefficient shall be based on the effective damping of the isolation system
b
The damping coefficient shall be based on linear interpolation for effective damping values other
than those given.
3192 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.5.4 Earthquake Ground Motion

2.5.4.1 Regional seismicity
Bangladesh can be affected by moderate to strong earthquake events due to its
proximity to the collision boundary of the Northeast moving Indian plate and
Eurasian Plate. Strong historical earthquakes with magnitude greater than 7.0
have affected parts of Bangladesh in the last 150 years, some of them had their
epicenters within the country. A brief description of the local geology, tectonic
features and earthquake occurrence in the region is given in Appendix B.
2.5.4.2 Seismic zoning
The intent of the seismic zoning map is to give an indication of the Maximum
Considered Earthquake (MCE) motion at different parts of the country. In
probabilistic terms, the MCE motion may be considered to correspond to having
a 2% probability of exceedance within a period of 50 years. The country has
been divided into four seismic zones with different levels of ground motion.
Table 6.2.14 includes a description of the four seismic zones. Figure 6.2.24
presents a map of Bangladesh showing the boundaries of the four zones. Each
zone has a seismic zone coefficient (Z) which represents the maximum
considered peak ground acceleration (PGA) on very stiff soil/rock (site class SA)
in units of g (acceleration due to gravity). The zone coefficients (Z) of the four
zones are: Z50.12 (Zone 1), Z50.20 (Zone 2), Z50.28 (Zone 3) and Z50.36
(Zone 4). Table 6.2.15 lists zone coefficients for some important towns of
Bangladesh. The most severe earthquake prone zone, Zone 4 is in the northeast
which includes Sylhet and has a maximum PGA value of 0.36g. Dhaka city falls in
the moderate seismic intensity zone with Z50.2, while Chittagong city falls in a
severe intensity zone with Z50.28.

2.5.4.3 Design response spectrum

The earthquake ground motion for which the building has to be designed is
represented by the design response spectrum. Both static and dynamic analysis
methods are based on this response spectrum. This spectrum represents the
spectral acceleration for which the building has to be designed as a function of
the building period, taking into account the ground motion intensity. The
spectrum is based on elastic analysis but in order to account for energy
dissipation due to inelastic deformation and benefits of structural redundancy,
the spectral accelerations are reduced by the response modification factor R.
For important structures, the spectral accelerations are increased by the
importance factor I. The design basis earthquake (DBE) ground motion is
3242 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Where,
m3 \' 5 maximum effective stiffness of the isolation system at the design
displacement in the horizontal direction under consideration.
#3 5 design displacement at the center of rigidity of the isolation system in the
direction under consideration as prescribed by Eq. 6.2.62.
@µ 5 response reduction factor related to the type of seismic-force-resisting
system above the isolation system. RI shall be based on the type of

system and shall be taken as the lesser of @ (Table 6.2.19) or 2.0, but
2
seismic-force-resisting system used for the structure above the isolation
(
need not be taken less than 1.0.
In no case shall Vs be taken less than the following:
(1) The lateral force required by Sec 2.5.7 for a fixed-base structure of the
same weight, W, and a period equal to the isolated period, TD;
(2) The base shear corresponding to the factored design wind load; and
(3) The lateral force required to fully activate the isolation system (e.g., the
yield level of a softening system, the ultimate capacity of a sacrificial
wind-restraint system, or the break-away friction level of a sliding
system) multiplied by 1.5.
The isolation system, the foundation, and all structural elements below the isolation
system shall be designed and constructed to withstand a minimum lateral force,
4 using all of the appropriate provisions for a non-isolated structure. 4 shall be
determined in accordance with Eq. 6.2.67 as follows:

4 5 m3\' #3 (6.2.67)

In all cases, 4 shall not be taken less than the maximum force in the isolation system
at any displacement up to and including the design displacement.
2.5.16.2.3 Vertical distribution of lateral forces: The total lateral force shall be
distributed over the height of the structure above the isolation interface in
accordance with Eq. 6.2.68 as follows:

w x hx
Fx  V s (6.2.68)
n
 w i hi
i 1
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3243

Where:
5 Total seismic lateral design force on elements above the
isolation system.
ℎ ,ℎ 5 Height above the base, to Level i or Level x, respectively.
[ , [ 5 Portion of W that is located at or assigned to Level i or Level
x, respectively.
At each Level x the force, & shall be applied over the area of the structure in

element shall be determined by applying the lateral forces, & at all levels above the
accordance with the distribution of mass at the level. Stresses in each structural

base to an analytical model.

2.5.16.2.4 Storey drift: The storey drift shall be calculated as in Sec 2.5.7.7 except
that Cd for the isolated structure shall be taken equal to RI and importance factor
equal to 1.0. The maximum storey drift of the structure above the isolation system
shall not exceed 0.015hsx.
2.5.16.3 Dynamic analysis
Response spectrum analysis may be conducted if the behavior of the isolation system
can be considered as equivalent linear. Otherwise, non-linear time history analysis
shall be used where the true non-linear behaviour of the isolation system can be
modeled. The mathematical models of the isolated structure including the isolation
system shall be along guidelines given in Sections 2.5.9.1 and 2.5.11.1, and other
requirements given in Sec 2.5.16.
The isolation system shall be modeled using deformational characteristics developed
and verified by testing. The structure model shall account for: (i) spatial distribution
of isolator units; (ii) consideration of translation in both horizontal directions, and
torsion of the structure above the isolation interface considering the most
disadvantageous location of eccentric mass; (iii) overturning/uplift forces on
individual isolator units; and (iv) effects of vertical load, bilateral load, and the rate
of loading if the force-deflection properties of the isolation system are dependent on
such attributes.
A linear elastic model of the isolated structure (above isolation system) may be used
provided that: (i) stiffness properties assumed for the nonlinear components of the
isolation system are based on the maximum effective stiffness of the isolation
system, and (ii) all elements of the seismic-force-resisting system of the structure
above the isolation system behave linearly.
3244 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.5.16.3.1 Response Spectrum Analysis: Response spectrum analysis shall be

performed using a modal damping value for the fundamental mode in the direction
of interest not greater than the effective damping of the isolation system or 30
percent of critical, whichever is less. Modal damping values for higher modes shall
be selected consistent with those that would be appropriate for response spectrum
analysis of the structure above the isolation system assuming a fixed base.

Response spectrum analysis used to determine the total design displacement and the
total maximum displacement shall include simultaneous excitation of the model by
100 percent of the ground motion in the critical direction and 30 percent of the
ground motion in the perpendicular, horizontal direction. The design basis
earthquake shall be used for the design displacement, while the maximum
considered earthquake shall be used for the maximum displacement. The maximum
displacement of the isolation system shall be calculated as the vectorial sum of the
two orthogonal displacements.

For the design displacement, structures that do not require site-specific ground
motion evaluation, shall be analyzed using the design acceleration response spectrum
in accordance with Sec 2.5.4.3. The maximum design spectrum to be used for the
maximum considered earthquake shall not be less than 1.5 times the design
acceleration response spectrum.

The response spectrum procedure is based on an equivalent linear model, where the
effective stiffness and effective damping is a function of the displacement, this
formulation is thus an iterative process. The effective stiffness must be estimated,
based on assumed displacement, and then adjusted till obtained displacement agree
with assumed displacement.

The design shear at any story shall not be less than the story shear resulting from
application of the story forces calculated using Eq. 6.2.68 with a value of equal to
the base shear obtained from the response spectrum analysis in the direction of
interest.

2.5.16.3.2 Nonlinear Time History Analysis: Where a time history analysis

procedure is performed, not fewer than three appropriate ground motions shall be
used in the analysis as described below.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3245

Ground motions shall consist of pairs of appropriate horizontal ground motion

acceleration components that shall be selected and scaled from individual recorded
events. Appropriate ground motions shall be selected from events having
magnitudes, fault distance, and source mechanisms that are consistent with those that
control the maximum considered earthquake. If required number of recorded ground
motion pairs are not available, appropriate simulated ground motion pairs shall be
used to make up the total number required. For each pair of horizontal ground-
motion components, a square root of the sum of the squares (SRSS) spectrum shall
be constructed by taking the SRSS of the 5 percent damped response spectra for the
scaled components (where an identical scale factor is applied to both components of
a pair). Each pair of motions shall be scaled such that for each period between 0.5TD
and 1.25TM (where TD and TM are defined in Sec 2.5.16.2.1) the average of the SRSS
spectra from all horizontal component pairs does not fall below 1.3 times the
corresponding ordinate of the design response spectrum (Sec 2.5.16.4), by more than
10 percent.

Each pair of ground motion components shall be applied simultaneously to the model
considering the most disadvantageous location of eccentric mass. The maximum
displacement of the isolation system shall be calculated from the vectorial sum of the
two orthogonal displacements at each time step.

The parameters of interest shall be calculated for each ground motion used for the
time history analysis. If at least seven ground motions are used for the time history
analysis, the average value of the response parameter of interest is permitted to be
used for design. If fewer than seven ground motions are analyzed, the maximum
value of the response parameter of interest shall be used for design.

2.5.16.3.3 Storey drift: Maximum story drift corresponding to the design lateral
force including displacement due to vertical deformation of the isolation system shall
not exceed the following limits:

calculated by response spectrum analysis shall not exceed 0.015ℎ .

1. The maximum story drift of the structure above the isolation system

calculated by nonlinear time history analysis shall not exceed 0.020ℎ .

2. The maximum story drift of the structure above the isolation system

The storey drift shall be calculated as in Sec 2.5.7.7 except that Cd for the isolated
structure shall be taken equal to RI and importance factor equal to 1.0.
3246 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.5.16.4 Testing
The deformation characteristics and damping values of the isolation system used in
the design and analysis of seismically isolated structures shall be based on test results
of isolator units. The tests are for establishing and validating the design properties of
the isolation system and shall not be considered as satisfying the manufacturing
quality control tests.
The following sequence of tests shall be performed on isolator units for the
prescribed number of cycles at a vertical load equal to the average dead load plus
one-half the effects due to live load on all isolator units of a common type and size:

(1) Twenty fully reversed cycles of loading at a lateral force corresponding to

the wind design force.

(2) Three fully reversed cycles of loading at each of the following increments
of the total design displacement-0.25DD, 0.5DD, 1.0DD, and 1.0DM where
DD and DM are as determined in Sec 2.5.16.2.1.

(3) Three fully reversed cycles of loading at the total maximum

displacement, 1.0DTM.

(4) Not less than ten fully reversed cycles of loading at 1.0 times the total
design displacement, 1.0DTD.

For each cycle of each test, the force-deflection and hysteretic behavior of each
isolator unit shall be recorded. The effective stiffness is obtained as the secant value
of stiffness at design displacement while the effective damping is determined from
the area of hysteretic loop at the design displacement.

2.5.16.5 Design review

A design review of the isolation system and related test programs shall be performed
by an independent team of design professionals experienced in seismic analysis
methods and the application of seismic isolation. Isolation system design review shall
include, but need not be limited to, the following:

(1) Review of site-specific seismic criteria including the development of site-

specific spectra and ground motion time histories and all other design
criteria developed specifically for the project;
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3247

(2) Review of the preliminary design including the determination of the total
design displacement of the isolation system and the lateral force design
level;
(3) Overview and observation of prototype (isolator unit) testing
(4) Review of the final design of the entire structural system and all
supporting analyses; and
(5) Review of the isolation system quality control testing program.

2.5.17 Buildings with Soft Storey

Buildings with possible soft storey action at ground level for providing open parking
spaces belong to structures with major vertical irregularity [Figure 6.2.28(a)]. Special
arrangement is needed to increase the lateral strength and stiffness of the soft/open
storey. The following two approaches may be considered:
(1) Dynamic analysis of such building may be carried out incorporating the
strength and stiffness of infill walls and inelastic deformations in the
members, particularly those in the soft storey, and the members designed
accordingly.
(2) Alternatively, when system overstrength factor,  o, is not included in
determining seismic load effects, the following design criteria are to be
adopted after carrying out the earthquake analysis, neglecting the effect of
infill walls in other storeys. Structural elements (e.g columns and beams)
of the soft storey are to be designed for 2.5 times the storey shears and
moments calculated under seismic loads neglecting effect of infill walls.
Shear walls placed symmetrically in both directions of the building as far
away from the centre of the building as feasible are to be designed
exclusively for 1.5 times the lateral shear force calculated before.

2.5.18 Non-Building Structures

Calculation of seismic design forces on non-building structures (e.g. chimney, self-
supported overhead water/fluid tank, silo, trussed tower, storage tank, cooling tower,
monument and other structures not covered in Sec 2.5) shall be in accordance with
"Chapter 15: Seismic Design Requirements for Non-Building Structures, Minimum
Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE Standard ASCE/SEI 7-05"
complying with the requirements of Sec 2.5 of this Code.
3248 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.6 Miscellaneous Loads

2.6.1 General

The procedures and limitations for the determination of selected miscellaneous loads
are provided in this Section. Loads that are not specified in this Section or elsewhere
in this Chapter, may be determined based on information from reliable references or
specialist advice may be sought.

2.6.2 Rain Loads

Rain loads shall be determined in accordance with the following provisions.

2.6.2.1 Blocked drains

Each portion of a roof shall be designed to sustain the load from all rainwater that
could be accumulated on it if the primary drainage system for that portion is
undersized or blocked. Ponding instability shall be considered in this situation.

2.6.2.2 Controlled drainage

Roofs equipped with controlled drainage provisions shall be designed to sustain all
rainwater loads on them to the elevation of the secondary drainage system plus 0.25
kN/m2. Ponding instability shall be considered in this situation.

2.6.3 Loads Due to Flood and Surge

For the determination of flood and surge loads on a structural member, consideration
shall be given to both hydrostatic and hydrodynamic effects. Required loading shall
be determined in accordance with the established principles of mechanics based on
site specific criteria and in compliance with the following provisions of this Section.
For essential facilities like cyclone and flood shelters and for hazardous facilities
specified in Table 6.1.1, values of maximum flood elevation, surge height, wind
velocities etc., required for the determination of flood and surge load, shall be taken
corresponding to 100-year return period. For structures other than essential and
hazardous facilities, these values shall be based on 50-year return period.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3249

2.6.3.1 Flood loads on structures at inland areas

For structures sited at inland areas subject to flood, loads due to flood shall be
determined considering hydrostatic effects which shall be calculated based on the
flood elevation of 50-year return period. For river-side structures such as that under
Exposure C specified in Sec 2.4.6.3, hydrodynamic forces, arising due to
approaching wind-generated waves shall also be determined in addition to the
hydrostatic load on them. In this case, the amplitude of such wind-induced water
waves shall be obtained from site-specific data.
2.6.3.2 Flood and surge loads on structures at coastal areas
Coastal area of Bangladesh has been delineated as Risk Area (RA) and High Risk
Area (HRA) based on the possible extend of the inland intrusion of the cyclone storm
surge as shown in Figure 6.2.30. To be classified as coastal RISK AREA, the
principal source of flooding must be sea tides, storm surge, and not riverine flood.
The RA extends from the coast line to an inland limit up to which surge water can
reach. The HRA includes a strip of land within the RA. It extends from the coast line
up to the limit where the depth of storm surge inundation may exceed 1m.Entire area
of the off-shore islands except the Maheshkhali area is included in the HRA. A part
of Maheshkhali is covered by hills and therefore free from inundation. However, the
western and northern parts of Maheshkhali are of low elevation and risk inundation.
For structures sited in coastal areas (Risk Areas), the hydrostatic and hydrodynamic
loads shall be determined as follows:
2.6.3.2.1 Hydrostatic Loads
The hydrostatic loads on structural elements and foundations shall be determined
based on the maximum static height of water, Hm, produced by floods or surges as
given by the relation:
-\ 5 5L Ôℎ , ℎ Õ (6.2.69)
ℎ 5 âe − â (6.2.70)

Where,
ℎ = Maximum surge height as specified in (i) below.
âe = Elevation of the extreme surface water level corresponding to a T-year
return period specified in (ii) below, meters
â = Elevation of ground level at site, meters.
3250 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Figure 6.2.30 Coastal risk areas (RA) and high risk areas (HRA) of Bangladesh
3200 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021
2.5.5.4 Type of structural systems
The basic lateral and vertical seismic force–resisting system shall conform to
one of the types A to G indicated in Table 6.2.19. Each type is again subdivided
by the types of vertical elements used to resist lateral seismic forces.
A combination of systems may also be permitted as stated in Sec 2.5.5.5.
The structural system to be used shall be in accordance with the seismic design
category indicated in Table 6.2.18. Structural systems that are not permitted for
a certain seismic design category are indicated by “NP”. Structural systems that
do not have any height restriction are indicated by “NL”. Where there is height
limit, the maximum height in meters is given.
The response reduction factor, R, and the deflection amplification factor,
indicated in Table 6.2.19 shall be used in determining the design base shear and
design story drift. The selected seismic force-resisting system shall be designed
and detailed in accordance with the specific requirements for the system.
Seismic force resisting systems that are not given in Table 6.2.19 may be
permitted if substantial analytical and test data are submitted that establish the
dynamic characteristics and demonstrate the lateral force resistance and energy
dissipation capacity to be equivalent to the structural systems listed in Table
6.2.19 for equivalent response modification coefficient, R, and deflection
amplification factor, values.

(a) Torsional Irregularity (b) Re-entrant corners (A/L>0.15)

(c) Diaphragm discontinuity

3252 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Notes:
* Values prepared from information obtained from Annex-D3, MCSP.
(1) These values may be used in the absence of site specific data for structures other than
essential facilities listed in Table 6.1.1.
(2) These values may be used in the absence of site specific data for essential facilities listed in
Table 6.1.1.

Table 6.2.26: Extreme Surface Water Levels above PWD Datum, yT* at Coastal
Areas during Monsoon

Coastal Area yT (m)

Location Thana T = 50 years(1) T = 100 years(2)
Teknaf Teknaf 2.33 2.44
Cox's Bazar Cox's Bazar 3.84 3.88
Shaflapur Moheshkhali 4.67 4.87
Lemsikhali Kutubdia 4.95 5.19
Banigram Patiya 5.05 5.24
Chittagong Bandar 4.72 4.88
Patenga Bandar 4.08 4.16
Sonapur Sonagazi 7.02 7.11
Sandwip Sandwip 6.09 6.2
Companyganj Companyganj 7.53 7.94
Hatiya Hatiya 5.55 5.76
Daulatkhan Daulatkhan 4.62 4.72
Dashmina Dashmina 3.60 3.73
Galachipa Galachipa 3.79 3.92
Patuakhali Patuakhali 2.87 3.03
Khepupara Kalapara 2.93 3.02
Bamna Bamna 3.32 3.37
Patharghata Patharghata 3.65 3.84
Raenda Sarankhola 3.66 3.75
Chardouni Patharghata 4.41 4.66
Mongla Mongla port 3.23 3.36
Kobodak (river Shyamnagar 3.51 3.87
estuary)
Kaikhali Shyamnagar 3.94 4.12
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3253

Notes:
* Values prepared from information obtained from Annex -D3, MCSP
(1)
These values may be used in the absence of site specific data for structures in
Structure Occupancy Category IV listed Table 6.1.1.
(2)
These values may be used in the absence of site specific data for structures in
Structure Occupancy Categories I, II and III listed in Table 6.1.1.

2.6.3.2.2 Hydrodynamic loads

The hydrodynamic load applied on a structural element due to wind-induced local
waves of water, shall be determined by a rational analysis using an established
method of fluid mechanics and based on site specific data. In the absence of a site-

be taken as ℎ> 5 ≥ 1 m, where, hs is given in Sec 2.6.3.2.1. Such forces shall be

specific data the amplitude of the local wave, to be used in the rational analysis, shall
ℎ
q
calculated based on 50-year or 100-year return period of flood or surge. The
corresponding wind velocities shall be 80 m/s or 90 m/s (3-sec gust) respectively.
Exception:
Where water velocities do not exceed 3.0 m/s, dynamic effects of moving water shall
be permitted to be converted into equivalent hydrostatic loads by increasing Hm for
design purposes by an equivalent surcharge depth, dh, on the headwater side and
above the ground level only, equal to
5
'T È
ℎ (6.2.72)
Where,
V = average velocity of water in m/s
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
a = coefficient of drag or shape factor (not less than 1.25)

In absence of more authentic site specific data, the velocity of water, V, may be
estimated such that ds ≤ V ≤ tQ where g is the acceleration due to gravity and ds is
defined in Sec 2.6.3.4. Selection of the correct value of drag-coefficient a in Eq.
6.2.72 will depend upon the shape and roughness of the object exposed to flood flow,
as well as the flow condition. As a general rule, the smoother and more streamlined
the object, the lower the drag coefficient (shape factor). Drag coefficients for
elements common in buildings and structures (round or square piles, columns, and
rectangular shapes) will range from approximately 1.0 to 2.0, depending upon flow
3254 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

conditions. However, given the uncertainty surrounding flow conditions at a

particular site, it is recommended that a minimum value of 1.25 be used. Fluid
mechanics texts should be consulted for more information on when to apply drag
coefficients above 1.25.
The equivalent surcharge depth, dh, shall be added to the design depth Hm and the
resultant hydrostatic pressures applied to, and uniformly distributed across, the
vertical projected area of the building or structure that is perpendicular to the flow.
Surfaces parallel to the flow or surfaces wetted by the tail water shall be subject to
the hydrostatic pressures for depths to the Hm only.
2.6.3.3 Breakaway walls
Walls and partitions required to break away, including their connections to the
structure, shall be designed for the largest of the following loads acting perpendicular
to the plane of the wall:
(i) The wind load specified in Sec. 2.4.
(ii) The earthquake load specified in Sec. 2.5.
(iii) 0.50 kN/m2 pressure.
The loading at which breakaway walls are intended to collapse shall not exceed 1.0
kN/m2 unless the design meets the following conditions:
(i) Breakaway wall collapse is designed to result from a flood load less than
that which occurs during the base flood.
(ii) The supporting foundation and the elevated portion of the building shall
be designed against collapse, permanent lateral displacement, and other
structural damage due to the effects of flood loads in combination with
other loads as specified elsewhere in this Chapter.
2.6.3.4 Wave loads
Wave loads shall be determined by one of the following three methods: (1) by using
the analytical procedures outlined in this Section, (2) by more advanced numerical
modeling procedures, or (3) by laboratory test procedures (physical modeling).
Wave loads are those loads that result from water waves propagating over the water
surface and striking a building or other structure. Design and construction of
buildings and other structures subject to wave loads shall account for the following
loads: a) waves breaking on any portion of the building or structure; b) uplift forces
caused by shoaling waves beneath a building or structure, or portion thereof; c) wave
runup striking any portion of the building or structure; d) wave-induced drag and
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3255

inertia forces; and e) wave-induced scour at the base of a building or structure, or its
foundation. Nonbreaking and broken wave loads shall be calculated using the
procedures described in Sections 2.6.3.2.1 and 2.6.3.2.2 that show how to calculate
hydrostatic and hydrodynamic loads.
Breaking wave loads shall be calculated using the procedures described in Sections
2.6.3.4.1 to 2.6.3.4.4. Breaking wave heights used in the procedures described in
these Sections shall be calculated for using Equations 6.2.73 and 6.2.74.
Hb = 0.78 ds (6.2.73)
Where,
-4 5 breaking wave height in meter.
5 local still water depth in meter.
The local still water depth shall be calculated using Eq. 6.2.74 unless more advanced
procedures or laboratory tests permitted by this Section are used.
5 0.65-\ (6.2.74)

2.6.3.4.1 Breaking wave loads on vertical pilings and columns

The net force resulting from a breaking wave acting on a rigid vertical pile or column
shall be assumed to act at the still water elevation and shall be calculated by the
following:
&3 5 0.5ð> 3 #-4 (6.2.75)
Where,
&3 = net wave force, in kN.
ð> = unit weight of water, in kN/m3 = 9.80 kN/m3 for fresh water and 10.05
kN/m3 or salt water.
3 = coefficient of drag for breaking waves, = 1.75 for round piles or columns,
and = 2.25 for square piles or columns.
#= pile or column diameter, in meter for circular sections, or for a square pile
or column, 1.4 times the width of the pile or column in meter.
-4 = breaking wave height, in meter.
3256 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.6.3.4.2 Breaking wave loads on vertical walls

(depth-limited in size, with -4 5 0.78 acting on a rigid vertical wall shall be

Maximum pressures and net forces resulting from a normally incident breaking wave

calculated by the following:

;\' 5 ! ð> + 1.2ð> (6.2.76)

&" 5 1.1 ! ð> + 2.4ð> (6.2.77)

Where,

;\' = maximum combined dynamic Ô ! ð> Õ and static (1.2ð> ) wave

pressures, also referred to as shock pressures in kN/m2.
&" = net breaking wave force per unit length of structure, also referred to as
shock, impulse, or wave impact force in kN/m, acting near the still water
elevation.

! = dynamic pressure coefficient. It shall be taken as 1.6, 2.8, 3.2 or 3.5 for
building occupancy categories I, II, III or IV respectively.
ð> = unit weight of water, in kN/m3 = 9.80 kN/m3 for fresh water and 10.05
kN/m3 for salt water
= still water depth in meter at base of building or other structure where the
wave breaks.

the water ward side of the wall with the crest of the wave at a height of 1.2 above
This procedure assumes the vertical wall causes a reflected or standing wave against

the still water level. Thus, the dynamic static and total pressure distributions against
the wall are as shown in Figure 6.2.31.
This procedure also assumes the space behind the vertical wall is dry, with no fluid
balancing the static component of the wave force on the outside of the wall. If free
water exists behind the wall, a portion of the hydrostatic component of the wave
pressure and force disappears (Figure 6.2.32) and the net force shall be computed by
Eq. 6.2.78 (the maximum combined wave pressure is still computed with Eq. 6.2.76).

&" 5 1.1 ! ð> + 1.9ð> (6.2.78)

 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3257

Where,
&" = net breaking wave force per unit length of structure, also referred to as
shock, impulse, or wave impact force in kN/m, acting near the still water
elevation.

! = dynamic pressure coefficient. It shall be taken as 1.6, 2.8, 3.2 or 3.5 for
building occupancy categories I, II, III or IV respectively.
ð> = unit weight of water, in kN/m3 = 9.80 kN/m3 for fresh water and 10.05
kN/m3 for salt water
= still water depth in meter at base of building or other structure where the
wave breaks.

2.6.3.4.3 Breaking wave loads on nonvertical walls

Breaking wave forces given by Equations 6.2.77 and 6.2.78 shall be modified in
instances where the walls or surfaces upon which the breaking waves act are
nonvertical. The horizontal component of breaking wave force shall be given by
&)¼ 5 &" sin a (6.2.79)
Where,
&)¼ = horizontal component of breaking wave force in kN/m.
&" = net breaking wave force acting on a vertical surface in kN/m.
a = vertical angle between nonvertical surface and the horizontal.

2.6.3.4.4 Breaking Wave Loads from Obliquely Incident Waves.

Breaking wave forces given by Equations 6.2.77 and 6.2.78 shall be modified in
instances where waves are obliquely incident. Breaking wave forces from non-
normally incident waves shall be given by
& 5 &" sin a (6.2.80)

Where,
& = horizontal component of obliquely incident breaking wave force in kN/m.
&" = net breaking wave force (normally incident waves) acting on a vertical
surface in kN/m.
a= horizontal angle between the direction of wave approach and the vertical
surface.
3258 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.6.3.5 Impact loads

Impact loads are those that result from debris, ice, and any object transported by
floodwaters striking against buildings and structures, or parts thereof. Impact loads

horizontally at the most critical location at or below -\ (Eq. 6.2.69). Eq. 6.2.81
shall be determined using a rational approach as concentrated loads acting

provides a rational approach for calculating the magnitude of the impact load.

&5
67T8 +9 +: +í +¿ S
∆"
(6.2.81)

Where,
&= impact force in N
I = debris weight in N, to be taken equal to 4448 N unless more specific data is
available.

4 = velocity of the debris, m/s, assumed equal to the velocity of water V defined
in Sec. 2.6.3.2.2.
Q= acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
∆± = duration of impact, which may be taken as 0.03 second

µ = importance co-efficient = 0.6, 1.0, 1.2 or 1.3 for building occupancy

categories I, II, III or IV respectively

; = orientation co-efficient = 0.8

3 = depth co-efficient, to be taken equal to 0.0 for water depth 0.3m or less
and equal to 1.0 for water depth 1.5m or more. Linear interpolation shall
be made for intermediate water depth values.

A= blockage co-efficient, to be taken equal to 0.0 for upstream flow channel

width 1.5m or less and equal to 1.0 for upstream flow channel width 9.1 m
or more. Linear interpolation shall be made for intermediate values of
upstream flow channel width. The upstream shall extend 30.0 m from the
building.
@\' = maximum response ratio for impulsive load (half sine wave type) to be
obtained from Table 6.2.27.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3259
2.6.4 Temperature Effects
Temperature effects, if significant, shall be considered in the design of structures or
components thereof in accordance with the provision of this Section. In determining
the temperature effects on a structure, the following provisions shall be considered:
(a) The temperatures indicated, shall be the air temperature in the shade. The
range of the variation in temperature for a building site shall be taken into
consideration.
(b) Effects of the variation of temperature within the material of a structural
element shall be accounted for by one of the following methods.
(i) Relieve the stresses by providing adequate numbers of expansion or
contraction joints,
(ii) Design the structural element to sustain additional stresses due to
temperature effects.
(c) when the method b(ii) above is considered to be applicable, the structural
analysis shall take into account the following :
(i) The variation in temperature within the material of the structural
element, exposure condition of the element and the rate at which the
material absorb or radiate heat.
(ii) The warping or any other distortion caused due to temperature
changes and temperature gradient in the structural element.
(d) When it can be demonstrated by established principle of mechanics or by
any other means that neglecting some or all of the effects of temperature,
does not affect the safety and serviceability of the structure, the
temperature effect can be considered insignificant and need not be
considered in design.

Figure 6.2.31 Normally incident breaking wave pressures against a vertical wall (space
behind vertical wall is dry)
3260 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Figure 6.2.32 Normally incident breaking wave pressures against a vertical wall (still water
level equal on both sides of wall)

Table 6.2.27: Values of response ratio, 1 ú< , for impulsive loads

@\' @\'
(∆± ) to natural period (∆± ) to natural period
Ratio of impulse duration Ratio of impulse duration

(Sec. 2.5) of structure (Sec. 2.5) of structure

0 0 0.8 1.8

0.1 0.4 0.9 1.8

0.2 0.8 1 1.7

0.3 1.1 1.1 1.7

0.4 1.4 1.2 1.6

0.5 1.5 1.3 1.6

0.6 1.7 ≥1.4 1.5

0.7 1.8
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3261

2.6.5 Soil and Hydrostatic Pressure

For structures or portions thereof, lying below ground level, loads due to soil and
hydrostatic pressure shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of this
Section and applied in addition to all other applicable loads.
2.6.5.1 Pressure on basement wall:
In the design of basement walls and similar vertical or nearly vertical structures
below grade, provision shall be made for the lateral pressure of adjacent soil.
Allowance shall be made for possible surcharge due to fixed or moving loads. When
a portion or the whole of the adjacent soil is below the surrounding water table,
computations shall be based on the submerged unit weight of soil, plus full
hydrostatic pressure.
2.6.5.2 Uplift on floors:
In the design of basement floors and similar horizontal or nearly horizontal
construction below grade, the upward pressure of water, if any, shall be taken as the
full hydrostatic pressure applied over the entire area. The hydrostatic head shall be
measured from the underside of the construction.
2.6.6 Loads due to Explosions
Loads on buildings or portions thereof, shall be assessed in accordance with the
provisions of this Section.
2.6.6.1 Explosion effects in closed rooms
(a) Determination of Loads and Response: Internal overpressure developed
from an internal explosion such as that due to leaks in gas pipes,
evaporation of volatile liquids, internal dust explosion etc., in rooms of
sizes comparable to residential rooms and with ventilation areas
consisting of window glass breaking at a pressure of 4 kN/m2 (3-4 mm
machine made glass) may be calculated from the following method :
The overpressure, X; provided in Figure 6.2.33(a) shall be assumed
to depend on a factor ; /=, where, ; is the total window area in
(i)

m2 and = is the volume in m3 of the room considered,

(ii) The internal pressure shall be assumed to act simultaneously upon
all walls and floors in one closed room, and
(iii) The action X; obtained from Figure 6.2.33(a) may be taken as static
action.
3262 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

When a time dependent response is required, an impulsive force function similar to

that shown in Figure 6.2.33(b) shall be used in a dynamic analysis, where t1 is the
time from the start of combustion until maximum pressure is reached and t2 is the
time from maximum pressure to the end of combustion. For t1 and t2 the most
unfavourable values shall be chosen in relation to the dynamic properties of the
structures. However, the values shall be chosen within the intervals as given in
Figure 6.2.33(b).
The pressure may be applied solely in one room or in more than one room at the
same time. In the latter case, all rooms are incorporated in the volume v. Only
windows or other similarly weak and light weight structural elements may be taken
as ventilation areas even though certain limited structural parts break at pressures less
than qo.
(b) Limitations : Procedure for determining explosion loads given in (a)
above shall have the following limitations:
(i) Values of qo given in Figure 6.2.33(a) are based on tests with gas
explosions in room corresponding to ordinary residential flats, and
may be applied to considerably different conditions with caution
after appropriate adjustment of the values based on more accurate
information.
(ii) Figures 6.2.33(a) and 6.2.33(b) shall be taken as guides only, and
probability of occurrence of an explosion shall be checked in each
case using appropriate values.

Figure 6.2.33 Magnitude and distribution of internal pressure in a building due to internal
gas explosion
3206 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.5.5.5.2 Combinations of Structural Systems in the Same Direction: Where

different seismic force–resisting systems are used in combination to resist
seismic forces in the same direction of structural response, other than those
combinations considered as dual systems, the more stringent system limitation
contained in Table 6.2.19 shall apply. The value of R used for design in that
direction shall not be greater than the least value of R for any of the systems
utilized in that direction. The deflection amplification factor, in the direction
under consideration at any story shall not be less than the largest value of this
factor for the R factor used in the same direction being considered.
2.5.5.6 Provisions for Using System Overstrength Factor, Ω
2.5.5.6.1 Combinations of Elements Supporting Discontinuous Walls or
Frames.
Columns, beams, trusses, or slabs supporting discontinuous walls or frames of
structures having horizontal irregularity Type IV of Table 6.1.5 or vertical
irregularity Type IV of Table 6.1.4 shall have the design strength to resist the
maximum axial force that can develop in accordance with the load
combinations with overstrength factor of Section 2.5.13.4. The connections of
such discontinuous elements to the supporting members shall be adequate to
transmit the forces for which the discontinuous elements were required to be
designed.
2.5.5.6.2 Increase in Forces Due to Irregularities for Seismic Design Category D.
For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D and having a horizontal
structural irregularity of Type I.a, I.b, II, III, or IV in Table 6.1.5 or a vertical
structural irregularity of Type IV in Table 6.1.4, the design forces determined
from Section 2.5.7 shall be increased 25 percent for connections of diaphragms
to vertical elements and to collectors and for connections of collectors to the
vertical elements. Collectors and their connections also shall be designed for
these increased forces unless they are designed for the load combinations with
overstrength factor of Section 2.5.5.4, in accordance with Section 2.5.13.4.
2.5.5.6.3 Collector Elements Requiring Load Combinations with Overstrength
Factor for Seismic Design Categories C through D.
In structures assigned to Seismic Design Category C or D, collector elements,
splices, and their connections to resisting elements shall resist the load
combinations with overstrength of Section 2.5.13.4.
3264 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.6.8 Loads on Helicopter Landing Areas

In addition to all other applicable loads provided in this Chapter, including the dead
load, the minimum live load on helicopter landing or touch down areas shall be one
of the loads L1, L2 or L3 as given below producing the most unfavourable effect:
61 5 I1 (6.2.82a)
6 5 mI (6.2.82b)
62 5 [ (6.2.82c)
Where,
I1 = Actual weight of the helicopter in kN,
I = Fully loaded weight of the helicopter in kN,
[ = A distributed load of 5.0 kN/m2,
m = 0.75 for helicopters equipped with hydraulic - type shock absorbers,
and
= 1.5 for helicopters with rigid or skid-type landing gear.
The live load, 61 shall be applied over the actual areas of contact of landing. The
load, 6 shall be a single concentrated load including impact applied over a 300 mm
x 300 mm area. The loads 61 and 6 may be applied anywhere within the landing
area to produce the most unfavourable effects of load.
2.6.9 Erection and Construction Loads
All loads required to be sustained by a structure or any portion thereof due to placing
or storage of construction materials and erection equipment including those due to
operation of such equipment shall be considered as erection loads. Provisions shall
be made in design to account for all stresses due to such loads.

2.7 Combinations of Loads

2.7.1 General
Buildings, foundations and structural members shall be investigated for adequate
strength to resist the most unfavorable effect resulting from the various combinations
of loads provided in this Section. The combination of loads may be selected using the
provisions of either Sec 2.7.2 or Sec 2.7.3 whichever is applicable. However, once
Sec 2.7.2 or Sec 2.7.3 is selected for a particular construction material, it must be
used exclusively for proportioning elements of that material throughout the structure.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3265

In addition to the load combinations given in Sections 2.7.2 and 2.7.3 any other
specific load combination provided elsewhere in this Code shall also be investigated
to determine the most unfavourable effect.
The most unfavourable effect of loads may also occur when one or more of the
contributing loads are absent, or act in the reverse direction. Loads such as F, H or S
shall be considered in design when their effects are significant. Floor live loads shall
not be considered where their inclusion results in lower stresses in the member under
consideration. The most unfavourable effects from both wind and earthquake loads
shall be considered where appropriate, but they need not be assumed to act
simultaneously.

2.7.2 Combinations of Load effects for Allowable Stress/Strength Design Method

2.7.2.1 Basic combinations
Provisions of this Section shall apply to all construction materials permitting their
use in proportioning structural members by allowable stress/strength design method.
When this method is used in designing structural members, all loads listed herein
shall be considered to act in the following combinations. The combination that
produces the most unfavorable effect shall be used in design.
1. D + F
2. D + H + F + L + T
3. D + H + F + (Lr or R)
4. D + H + F + 0.75(L + T ) + (Lr or R)
5. D + H + F + (W or 0.7E)
6. D + H + F + 0.75(W or 0.7E) + 0.75L + 0.75(Lr or R)
7. 0.6D + W + H
8. 0.6D + 0.7E + H
When a structure is located in a flood zone or in tidal surge zone, the following load
combinations shall be considered:
1. In Coastal Zones vulnerable to tidal surges, 1.5Fa shall be added to other
loads in combinations (5), (6); E shall be set equal to zero in (5) and (6).
2. In non-coastal Zones, 0.75Fa shall be added to combinations (5), (6) and (7);
E shall be set equal to zero in (5) and (6).
2.7.2.2 Stress increase
Unless permitted elsewhere in this Code, increases in allowable stress shall not be
used with the loads or load combinations given above in Sec 2.7.2.1.
3266 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021
2.7.3 Combinations of Load effects for Strength Design Method
When strength design method is used, structural members and foundations shall be
designed to have strength not less than that required to resist the most unfavorable
effect of the combinations of factored loads listed in the following Sections:
2.7.3.1 Basic combinations
1. 1.4(D + F)
2. 1.2(D + F + T) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.5(Lr or R)
3. 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or R) + (L or 0.8W)
4. 1.2D + 1.6W + L + 0.5(Lr or R)
5. 1.2D + 1.0E + 1.0L
6. 0.9D + 1.6W + 1.6H
7. 0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H
Each relevant strength limit state shall be investigated. Effects of one or more loads
not acting shall be investigated. The most unfavorable effect from both wind and
earthquake loads shall be investigated, where appropriate, but they need not be
considered to act simultaneously.
Exceptions:
1. The load factor on live load L in combinations (3), (4), and (5) is
permitted to be reduced to 0.5 for all occupancies in which minimum
specified uniformly distributed live load is less than or equal to 5.0
kN/m2, with the exception of garages or areas occupied as places of
public assembly.
2. The load factor on H shall be set equal to zero in combinations (6) and (7)
if the structural action due to H counteracts that due to W or E. Where
lateral earth pressure provides resistance to structural actions from other
forces, it shall not be included in H but shall be included in the design
resistance.
3. For structures designed in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 6,
Part 6 of this Code (reinforced concrete structures), where wind load W
has not been reduced by a directionality factor, it shall be permitted to use
1.3W in place of 1.6W in (4) and (6) above.
When a structure is located in a flood zone or in tidal surge zone, the following load
combinations shall be considered:
1. In Coastal Zones vulnerable to tidal surges, 1.6W shall be replaced by
1.6W+2.0Fa in combinations (4) and (6).
2. In Non-coastal Zones, 1.6W shall be replaced by 0.8W+1.0Fa in combinations
(4) and (6).
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3267
2.7.4 Load Combinations for Extraordinary Events
Where required by the applicable Code, standard, or the authority having jurisdiction,
strength and stability shall be checked to ensure that structures are capable of
withstanding the effects of extraordinary (i.e., low-probability) events, such as fires,
explosions, and vehicular impact.
2.7.5 Load Combination for Serviceability
Serviceability limit states of buildings and structures shall be checked for the load
combinations set forth in this Section as well as mentioned elsewhere in this Code.
For serviceability limit states involving visually objectionable deformations,
repairable cracking or other damage to interior finishes, and other short term effects,
the suggested load combinations for checking vertical deflection due to gravity load
is
1. D + L
For serviceability limit states involving creep, settlement, or similar long-term or
permanent effects, the suggested load combination is:
2. D + 0.5L
The dead load effect, D, used in applying combinations 1 and 2 above may be that
portion of dead load that occurs following attachment of nonstructural elements. In
applying combination 2 above to account for long term creep effect, the immediate
(e.g. elastic) deflection may be multiplied by a creep factor ranging from 1.5 to 2.0.
Serviceability against gravity loads (vertical deflections) shall be checked against the
limits set forth in Sec 1.2.5 Chapter 1 of this Part as well as mentioned elsewhere in
this Code.
For serviceability limit state against lateral deflection of buildings and structures due
to wind effect, the following combination shall be used:
3. D + 0.5L + 0.7W
Due to its transient nature, wind load need not be considered in analyzing the effects
of creep or other long-term actions. Serviceability against wind load using load
combination 3 above shall be checked in accordance with the limit set forth in Sec
1.5.6.2 Chapter 1 of this Part.

2.8 List of Related Appendices

Appendix A Equivalence of Nonhomogenous Equations in SI-Metric, MKS-
Metric, and U.S. Customary Units
Appendix B Local Geology, Tectonic Features and Earthquake Occurrence in the
Region
Appendix C Seismic Design Parameters for Alternative Method of Base Shear
Calculation
3268 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

PART VI
Chapter 3
Soils And Foundations

3.1 General
The Soils and Foundations Chapter of the Code is divided into the following three
distinct Divisions:
Division A: Site Investigations, Soil Classifications, Materials and Foundation
Types
Division B: Service Load Design Method of Foundations
Division C: Additional Considerations in Planning, Design and Construction of
Building Foundations
Division A (Site Investigations, Soil Classifications, Materials and Foundation
Types) consists of the following Sections:
 Site Investigations
 Identification, Classification and Description of Soils
 Materials
 Types of Foundation
Division B (Service Load Design Method of Foundations) has the sections as under:
 Shallow Foundations
 Geotechnical Design of Shallow Foundations
 Geotechnical Design of Deep Foundations
 Field Tests for Driven Piles and Drilled Shafts
Division C (Additional Considerations in Planning, Design and Construction of
Building Foundations) deals with the following sections:
 Excavation
 Dewatering
 Slope Stability of Adjoining Building
 Fills
 Retaining Walls for Foundations
 Waterproofing and Damp-proofing
 Foundation on Slopes
 Foundations on Fill and Problematic Soils
 Foundation Design for Dynamic Forces
 Geo-hazards for Buildings
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3269

3.2 Scope
The provisions of this Chapter shall be applicable to the design and construction of
foundations of buildings and structures for the safe support of dead and
superimposed loads without exceeding the allowable bearing stresses, permissible
settlements and design capability. Because of uncertainties and randomness involved
in sub-soil characteristics, Geotechnical Engineering requires a high degree of
engineering judgment. As such the Code provisions of this Chapter provided here
under, are kept elaborative for better understanding of the readers. Provisions that are
stated in imperative form using “shall” are mandatory. Other provisions of this
Chapter should be followed using sound Geotechnical Engineering judgment.

3.3 Definitions and Symbols

3.3.1 Definitions
For the terms used in this Chapter, the following definitions shall apply.

ALLOWABLE It is the minimum of the safe bearing capacity and

BEARING CAPACITY safe settlement pressure, so that the foundation/
structure is safe and stable under both shear failure

symbol X'ÐÐ > . The lateral dimensions of the

and settlement criteria. It may be denoted by

foundation (width or diameter and the length) are

designed on the basis of allowable bearing capacity.
Also known as Allowable Bearing Pressure.
ALLOWABLE LOAD The maximum load that may be safely applied to a
foundation unit, considering both the strength and
settlement of the soil, under expected loading and
soil conditions.
ANGULAR Angle between the horizontal and any two
DISTORTION foundations or two points in a single foundation.
AUGUR PILE Same as SCREW PILE.
BATTER PILE The pile which is installed at an angle to the vertical
in order to carry lateral loads along with the vertical
loads. This is also known as RAKER PILE.
BEARING CAPACITY The general term used to describe the load carrying
capacity of foundation soil or rock in terms of
average pressure that enables it to bear and transmit
loads from a structure.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3211

2.5.7.6 Horizontal torsional moments

Design shall accommodate increase in storey shear forces resulting from
probable horizontal torsional moments on rigid floor diaphragms. Computation
of such moments shall be as follows:
2.5.7.6.1 In-built torsional effects: When there is in-built eccentricity between
centre of mass and centre of rigidity (lateral resistance) at floor levels, rigid
diaphragms at each level will be subject to torsional moment 9" .
2.5.7.6.2 Accidental torsional effects: In order to account for uncertainties in
the location of masses and in the spatial variation of the seismic motion,
accidental torsional effects need to be always considered. The accidental
moment 9"' is determined assuming the storey mass to be displaced from the
calculated centre of mass a distance equal to 5 percent of the building
dimension at that level perpendicular to the direction of the force under
consideration. The accidental torsional moment 9"' at level is given as:

Mtai  eai Fi (6.2.43)

Where,
eai  accidental eccentricity of floor mass at level i applied in the same
direction at all floors 5 ±0.056
6 5 floor dimension perpendicular to the direction of seismic force
considered.

Where torsional irregularity exists (Sec 2.5.5.3.1) for Seismic Design Category
C or D, the irregularity effects shall be accounted for by increasing the
accidental torsion 9"' at each level by a torsional amplification factor, as
illustrated in Figure 6.2.29 determined from the following equation:

5 %1. ' ≤ 3.0 (6.2.44)

&
& ·Þ

Where,

\' 5 Maximum displacement at level-x computed assuming 5 1.

'¼ 5 Average displacements at extreme points of the building at level-x

computed assuming 5 1.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3271

DEEP FOUNDATION A foundation unit that provides support for a

structure transferring loads by end bearing and/or by
shaft resistance at considerable depth below the
ground. Generally, the depth is at least five times the
least dimension of the foundation.
DESIGN BEARING The maximum net average pressure applied to a soil
CAPACITY or rock by a foundation unit that the foundation soil
or rock will safely carry without the risk of both
shear failure and exceedance of permissible
settlement. It is equal to the least of the two values of
net allowable bearing capacity and safe bearing
pressure. This may also be called ALLOWABLE
BEARING PRESSURE.
DESIGN LOAD The expected un-factored load to a foundation unit.
DIFFERENTIAL The difference in the total settlements between two
SETTEMENT foundations or two points in the same foundation.
DISPERSIVE SOIL Soils that are structurally unstable and disperse in
water into basic particles i.e. sand, silt and clay.
Dispersible soils tend to be highly erodible.
Dispersive soils usually have a high Exchangeable
Sodium Percentage (ESP).
DISPLACEMENT PILE Same as DRIVEN PILE.
DISTORTION Same as ELASTIC SETTLEMENT.
SETTLEMENT
DOWNDRAG The transfer of load (drag load) to a deep foundation,
when soil settles in relation to the foundation. This is
also known as NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION.
DRILLED PIER A deep foundation generally of large diameter shaft
usually more than 600 mm and constructed by
drilling and excavating into the soil.
DRILLED SHAFT Same as DRILLED PIER.
DRIVEN PILE A pile foundation pre-manufactured and placed in
ground by driving, jacking, jetting or screwing.
3272 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

EFFECTIVE STRESS The pressure transmitted through grain to grain at the

contact point through a soil mass is termed as
effective stress or effective pressure.
ELASTIC SETTLEMENT It is attributed due to lateral spreading or elastic
deformation of dry, moist or saturated soil without a
change in the water content and volume.
END BEARING The load being transmitted to the toe of a deep
foundation and resisted by the bearing capacity of
the soil beneath the toe.
EXCAVATION The space created by the removal of soil or rock for
the purpose of construction.
EXPANSIVE SOIL These are clay soils expand when they become
wetted and contract when dried. These are formed of
clay minerals like montmorillonite and illite.
FACTOR OF SAFETY The ratio of ultimate capacity to design (working)
capacity of the foundation unit.
FILL Man-made deposits of natural earth materials (soil,
rock) and/or waste materials.
FOOTING A foundation constructed of masonry, concrete or
other material under the base of a wall or one or
more columns for the purpose of spreading the load
over a larger area at shallower depth of ground
surface.
FOUNDATION Lower part of the structure which is in direct contact
with the soil and transmits loads to the ground.
FOUNDATION A graduate Engineer with at least five years of
ENGINEER experience in civil engineering particularly in
foundation design or construction.
GEOTECHNICAL Engineer with Master’s degree in geotechnical
ENGINEER engineering having at least 2 (two) years of
experience in geotechnical design/construction or
graduate in civil engineering/engineering geology
having 10 (ten) years of experience in geotechnical
design/construction.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3273

GRAVEL Particles of rock that will pass a 3-in. (75-mm) sieve

and be retained on a No. 4 (4.75-mm) sieve.
GROSS PRESSURE The total pressure at the base of a footing due to the
weight of the superstructure and the original
overburden pressure.
GROSS ALLOWABLE The maximum gross average pressure of loading that
BEARING PRESSURE the soil can safely carry with a factor of safety
considering risk of shear failure. This may be
calculated by dividing gross ultimate bearing
capacity with a factor of safety.
GROUND WATER The level of water at which porewater pressure is
TABLE equal to atmospheric pressure. It is the top surface of
a free body of water (piezometric water level) in the
ground.
IMMEDIATE This vertical compression occurs immediately after
SETTLEMENT the application of loading either on account of elastic
behaviour that produces distortion at constant
volume and on account of compression of air void.
For sands, even the consolidation component is
immediate.
INORGANIC SOIL Soil of mineral origin having small amount usually
less than 5 percent of organic matter content.
LATERALLY LOADED A pile that is installed vertically to carry mainly the
PILE lateral loads.
MAT FOUNDATION See RAFT.
NEGATIVE SKIN See DOWNDRAG.
FRICTION
NET PRESSURE The gross pressure minus the surcharge pressure i.e.
the overburden pressure of the soil at the foundation
level.
NET SAFE BEARING The maximum net pressure that can be safely applied
CAPACITY from the foundation on the soil at its base, and at

suitable factor of safety (&C). It is denoted by

which the shear failure of the soil is avoided with a

symbol X) . Thus, X) 5 .
>
?
3274 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

NET ULTIMATE The minimum net pressure at the base of the

BEARING CAPACITY foundation, excluding the weight of the overburden,
at which the soil fails in shear due to the load on the

symbol X)D . Thus, X)D 5 XDÐ" − X ′ where, X ′ is the

foundation from superstructure. It is denoted by the

effective stress at foundation level due to overburden

soil.
ORGANIC SOIL Soil having appreciable/significant amount of
organic matter content to influence the soil
properties.
OVERCONSOLIDATION The ratio of the preconsolidation pressure (maximum
RATIO (OCR) past pressure) to the existing effective overburden
pressure of the soil.
PEAT SOIL An organic soil with high organic content, usually
more than 75% by weight, composed primarily of
vegetable tissue in various stages of decomposition
usually with an organic odor, a dark brown to black
color, a spongy consistency, and a texture ranging
from fibrous to amorphous. Fully decomposed
organic soils are known as MUCK.
PILE A slender deep foundation unit made of materials
such as steel, concrete, wood, or combination thereof
that transmits the load to the ground by skin friction,
end bearing and lateral soil resistance.
PILE CAP A pile cap is a special footing needed to transmit the
column load to a group or cluster of piles.
PILE HEAD The upper small length of a pile. Also known as pile
top.
PILE SHOE A separate reinforcement or steel form attached to
the bottom end (pile toe) of a pile to facilitate
driving, to protect the pile toe, and/or to improve the
toe resistance of the pile.
PILE TOE The bottom end of a pile. Also known as pile tip.
PORE WATER The pressure induced in the water or vapour and
PRESSURE water filling the pores of soil. This is also known as
neutral stress.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3275

PRESUMPTIVE The net approximate pressure prescribed as

BEARING CAPACITY appropriate for the particular type of ground to be
used in preliminary designs of foundations
RAFT A relatively large spread foundation supporting an
arrangement of columns or walls in a regular or
irregular layout transmitting the loads to the soil by
means of a continuous slab and/or beams, with or
without depressions or openings. This is also known
as MAT FOUNDATION.
RAKER PILE See BATTER PILE.
ROCK A natural aggregate of one or more minerals that are
connected by strong and permanent cohesive forces.
ROTATION It is the angle between the horizontal and any two
foundations or two points in a single foundation.
RELATIVE ROTATION Same as ANGULAR DISTORTION
REPLACEMENT PILE Same as BORED PILE.
SAFE BEARING It is the maximum gross pressure that can carry

symbol X ' < . Thus, X ' < 5 X) + X ′ . When the

CAPACITY safely, without shear failure. It is denoted by

excavation for foundation is backfilled, X ' < 5 X) .

SAFE SETTLEMENT The maximum pressure that can be applied from the
PRESSURE foundation on the soil at its base such that the
settlement of the foundation/structure is less than or

denoted by symbol X ! .
equal to the permissible settlement. It may be

SAND Aggregates of rounded, sub-rounded, angular, sub-

angular or flat fragments of more or less unaltered
rock or minerals which is larger than 75 μm and
smaller than 4.75 mm in size.
SCREW PILE A pre-manufactured pile consisting of steel helical
blades and a shaft placed into ground by screwing.
SECONDARY This is the settlement speculated to be due to the
CONSOLDATION plastic deformation of the soil as a result of some
SETTLEMENT complex colloidal-chemical processes or creep under
imposed long term loading.
3276 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

SERVICE LOAD The expected un-factored load to a foundation unit.

SETTLEMENT The downward vertical movement of foundation
under load. When settlement occurs over a large
area, it is sometimes called subsidence.
SHAFT RESISTANCE The resistance mobilized on the shaft (side) of a
deep foundation. Upward resistance is called
positive shaft resistance. Downward force on the
shaft is called negative shaft resistance.
SHALLOW A foundation unit that provides support for a
FOUNDATION structure transferring loads at a small depth below
the ground. Generally, the depth is less than two
times the least dimension of the foundation.
SILT Soil passing a No. 200 (75-μm) sieve either non-
plastic or plastic.
SOIL A loose or soft deposit of particles of mineral and/or
organic origin that can be separated by such gentle
mechanical means as agitation in water.
SOIL PARTICLE SIZE The sizes of particles that make up soil varying over
a wide range. Soil particles are generally gravel,
sand, silt and clay, though the terms boulder and
cobble can be used to describe larger sizes of gravel.
TILT Rotation of the entire superstructure or at least a
well-defined part of it.
TOTAL SETTLEMENT The total downward vertical displacement of a
foundation base under load from its as-constructed
position. It is the summation of immediate
settlement, consolidation settlement and secondary
consolidation settlement of the soil.
ULTIMATE BEARING The minimum gross pressure at the base of the
CAPACITY foundation at which the soil fails in shear due to the

denoted by the symbol XDÐ" and obtained from

load on the foundation from superstructure. It is

bearing capacity equation containing soil/ground

properties, depth of foundation, foundation
dimensions and shapes, and loading conditions. Also
known as Gross Ultimate Bearing Capacity.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3213

2.5.7.8 Overturning effects

The structure shall be designed to resist overturning effects caused by the
seismic forces determined in Sec 2.5.7.4. At any story, the increment of
overturning moment in the story under consideration shall be distributed to the
various vertical force resisting elements in the same proportion as the
distribution of the horizontal shears to those elements. The overturning
moments at level , 9 shall be determined as follows:

(6.2.47)
n
Mx   Fi hi  hx 
ix

Where,
& 5 Portion of the seismic base shear, induced at level
ℎ , ℎ 5 Height from the base to level or .
The foundations of structures, except inverted pendulum-type structures, shall
be permitted to be designed for three-fourths of the foundation overturning
design moment, 9 determined using above equation.

2.5.7.9 P-delta effects

The P-delta effects on story shears and moments, the resulting member forces
and moments, and the story drifts induced by these effects are not required to
be considered if the stability coefficient (θ) determined by the following
equation is not more than 0.10:

(6.2.48)
Px 

Vx hsxCd
Where,
; 5 Total vertical design load at and above level ; where
computing ; , no individual load factor need exceed 1.0
∆ 5 Design story drift occurring simultaneously with
5 Storey shear force acting between levels and −1
ℎ 5 Storey height below level
5 Deflection amplification factor given in Table 6.2.19
The stability coefficient g shall not exceed g\' determined as follows:

(6.2.49)
0.5
max   0.25
 Cd
3278 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

&B = Factor of safety against liquefaction

&C = Factor of safety
, = Modulus of rigidity
- = Height of wall from foundation footing (Sec 3.9.4)
- = Layer thickness (Sec 3.10.5)
- = Thickness of sample (Sec 3.5.6)
- ′
= Final thickness of sample (Sec 3.5.6)
.p = Plasticity index
. D4 = Relative subsidence
0 = Coefficient of earth pressure
0 = Coefficient of earth pressure at rest
6 = Length of pile (Sec 3.10)

6
= Length of deflected part of wall/raft or centre to centre distance
between columns. (Sec 3.9.4)
66 Liquid limit
: = Standard penetration test value (SPT)
:º= = Corrected SPT value for field procedures
_º=
: = Average SPT :º= value
(:1 )º= = Corrected SPT value for overburden pressure (for sandy soil)
Nc, Nq, Nγ = Bearing capacity factors
@ @ = Overconsolidation ratio
;. = Plasticity index; same as .!
?'ÐÐ > = Allowable load
Qp = End bearing at the base or tip of the pile
Qp = Load transferred to the soil at pile tip level
? = Skin friction or shaft friction or side shear
?DÐ" = Ultimate bearing/load carrying capacity
@ = Group settlement ratio of pile group
C' = Settlement due to axial deformation
Sg = Settlement of pile group
Spt = Settlement at pile tip
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3279

C = Settlement of pile due to skin friction

C7 = Degree of saturation
C"( ) Ð<) = Total settlement of a single pile
I = Weight of the pile
I;. = Weighted plasticity index
L\' = Peak horizontal acceleration on the ground surface
O = Apparent cohesion of soil
OD = Undrained cohesion of soil
dp = Diameter of pile
P = Void ratio
P+ = Critical void ratio
PB = Void ratio at liquid limit
PA = Void ratio at plastic limit
P = Initial void ratio
P = Initial void ratio; same as P
B4 = End bearing resistance on unit tip area of pile
B) = Natural frequency
B = Skin frictional resistance on unit surface area of pile
B = Adhesive stress (Sec. 3.10.1.12)
Q = Gravitational acceleration
m = Modulus of sub-grade reaction
kp = Stiffness of soil
m = Coefficient of horizontal soil stress
5 = Total mass of machine foundation system
5 = Mass of foundation block
5 = Mass of soil
* = Number of pile in a group
X'ÐÐ > = Allowable bearing capacity of shallow foundation
X = Ultimate end bearing capacity pile
X) = Net safe ultimate bearing capacity of shallow foundation
X)D = Net ultimate bearing capacity of shallow foundation
3280 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

X ' < = Safe ultimate bearing capacity

qsp = Safe settlement pressure of shallow foundation
XD = Unconfined compressive strength
XDÐ" = Ultimate bearing capacity of shallow foundation
Y
= Stress reduction coefficient to allow for the deformability of the
soil column
ZD = undrained shear strength; same as OD
[B = Liquid limit; same as LL
4 = Depth
∆4 = Thickness of any ( "3
) layer
a = Adhesion factor
c = Ratio of footing length to width (Sec 3.9.6.8)
c = Friction factor due to overburden (3.10.1)
ð, ð" = Unit weight of the soil
ð> = Unit weight of water
= Total settlement
+ = Consolidation settlement
< = Elastic settlement
= Immediate settlement
= Secondary consolidation settlement
C = Poisson’s ratio of soil
′
σ = Initial effective stress at mid-point of a soil layer

σ′!
= Increase in effective stress at mid-point of a soil layer due to
increase in stress
σ′7 = Reference stress (100 kPa) for computation of pile settlement
D¼ = The total vertical stress
D¼′ = Effective vertical stress
D/′ = Effective vertical stress; same as D¼′
E\' = Maximum shear stress
k = Apparent angle of internal fiction
k′ = Effective/drained angle of internal fiction
k = Soil shaft interface friction angle
F) = natural circular frequency
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3281

Division A: Site Investigations, Soil Classifications, Materials and

Foundation Types (Sections 3.4 to 3.7)

3.4 Site Investigations

3.4.1 Sub-Surface Survey
Depending on the type of project thorough investigations has to be carried out for
identification, location, alignment and depth of various utilities, e.g., pipelines,
cables, sewerage lines, water mains etc. below the surface of existing ground level.
Detailed survey may also be conducted to ascertain the topography of existing
ground.
3.4.2 Sub-Soil Investigations
Sub soil investigation shall be done describing the character, nature, load bearing
capacity and settlement capacity of the soil before constructing a new building and
structure or for alteration of the foundation of an existing structure. The aims of a
geotechnical investigation are to establish the soil, rock and groundwater conditions,
to determine the properties of the soil and rock, and to gather additional relevant
knowledge about the site. Careful collection, recording and interpretation of
geotechnical information shall be made. This information shall include ground
conditions, geology, geomorphology, seismicity and hydrology, as relevant.
Indications of the variability of the ground shall be taken into account.
An engineering geological study may be an important consideration to establish the
physiographic setting and stratigraphic sequences of soil strata of the area.
Geological and agricultural soil maps of the area may give valuable information of
site conditions.
During the various phases of sub-soil investigations, e.g. drilling of boreholes, field
tests, sampling, groundwater measurements, etc. a competent graduate engineer
having experiences in supervising sub-soil exploration works shall be employed by
the drilling contractor.
3.4.3 Methods of Exploration
Sub soil exploration process may be grouped into three types of activities such as:
reconnaissance, exploration and detailed investigations. The reconnaissance method
includes geophysical measurements, sounding or probing, while exploratory methods
involve various drilling techniques. Field investigations should comprise :
(i) Drilling and/or excavations (test pits including exploratory boreholes) for
sampling;
(ii) Groundwater measurements;
(iii) Field tests.
3282 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Examples of the various types of field investigations are:

(i) Field testing (e.g. CPT, SPT, dynamic probing, WST, pressuremeter tests,
dilatometer tests, plate load tests, field vane tests and permeability tests);

(ii) Soil sampling for description of the soil and laboratory tests;

(iii) Groundwater measurements to determine the groundwater table or the

pore pressure profile and their fluctuations

(iv) Geophysical investigations (e.g. seismic profiling, ground penetrating

radar, resistivity measurements and down hole logging);

(v) Large scale tests, for example to determine the bearing capacity or the
behaviour directly on prototype elements, such as anchors.

Where ground contamination or soil gas is expected, information shall be gathered

from the relevant sources. This information shall be taken into account when
planning the ground investigation. Some of the common methods of exploration,
sampling and ground water measurements in soils are described in Appendix D.

3.4.4 Number and Location of Investigation Points

The locations of investigation points, e.g., pits and boreholes shall be selected on the
basis of the preliminary investigations as a function of the geological conditions, the
dimensions of the structure and the engineering problems involved. When selecting
the locations of investigation points, the following should be observed:

(i) The investigation points should be arranged in such a pattern that the
stratification can be assessed across the site;

(ii) The investigation points for a building or structure should be placed at

critical points relative to the shape, structural behaviour and expected
load distribution (e.g. at the corners of the foundation area);

(iii) For linear structures, investigation points should be arranged at adequate

offsets to the centre line, depending on the overall width of the structure,
such as an embankment footprint or a cutting;
(iv) For structures on or near slopes and steps in the terrain (including
excavations), investigation points should also be arranged outside the
project area, these being located so that the stability of the slope or cut
can be assessed. Where anchorages are installed, due consideration
should be given to the likely stresses in their load transfer zone;
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3283

(v) The investigation points should be arranged so that they do not present a
hazard to the structure, the construction work, or the surroundings (e.g.
as a result of the changes they may cause to the ground and groundwater
conditions);
(vi) The area considered in the design investigations should extend into the
neighbouring area to a distance where no harmful influence on the
neighbouring area is expected. Where ground conditions are relatively
uniform or the ground is known to have sufficient strength and stiffness
properties, wider spacing or fewer investigation points may be applied.
In either case, this choice should be justified by local experience.
(vii) The locations and spacing of sounding, pits and boreholes shall be such
that the soil profiles obtained will permit a reasonably accurate estimate
of the extent and character of the intervening soil or rock masses and
will disclose important irregularities in subsurface conditions.
(viii) For building structures, the following guidelines shall be followed:
On uniform soils, at least three borings, not in one line, should be made
for small buildings and at least five borings one at each corner and one
at the middle should be made for large buildings. As far as possible the
boreholes should be drilled closed to the proposed foundations but
outside their outlines.
Spacing of exploration depends upon nature and condition of soil, nature
and size of the project. In uniform soil, spacing of exploration (boring)
may be 30 m to 100 m apart or more and in very erratic soil conditions,
spacing of 10 m or less may be required. The following chart gives
an approximate idea about spacing of boring required for small
and multistoried buildings having different horizontal stratification of
soil.

Type of Spacing of Bore Holes (m)

Building
Type of Soil in Horizontal Stratification

Uniform Average Erratic

Small buildings 60 30 15

Multistoried 45 30 15
buildings
3284 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

(ix) For large areas covering industrial and residential colonies, the
geological nature of the terrain will help in deciding the number of
boreholes or trial pits. The whole area may be divided into grid pattern
with Cone Penetration Tests (Appendix D) performed at every 100 m
grid points. The number of boreholes or trial pits shall be decided by
examining the variation in penetration curves. At least 67% of the
required number of borings or trial pits shall be located within the area
under the building.

3.4.5 Depth of Exploration

The depth of investigations shall be extended to all strata that will affect the project
or are affected by the construction. The depth of exploration shall depend to some
extent on the site and type of the proposed structure, and on certain design
considerations such as safety against foundation failure, excessive settlement,
seepage and earth pressure. Cognizance shall be taken of the character and sequence
of the subsurface strata. The site investigation should be carried to such a depth that
the entire zone of soil or rock affected by the changes caused by the building or the
construction will be adequately explored. A rule of thumb used for this purpose is to
extend the borings to a depth where the additional load resulting from the proposed
building is less than 10% of the average load of the structure, or less than 5% of the
effective stress in the soil at that depth. Where the depth of investigation cannot be
related to background information, the following guide lines are suggested to
determine the depth of exploration:
(i) Where substructure units will be supported on spread footings, the
minimum depth boring should extend below the anticipated bearing
level a minimum of two footing widths for isolated, individual footings
where length  2 times of width, and four footing widths for footings
where length  5 times of width. For intermediate footing lengths, the
minimum depth of boring may be estimated by linear interpolation as a
function of length between depths of two times width and five times
width below the bearing level. Greater depth may be required where
warranted by local conditions.
(ii) For more heavily loaded structures, such as multistoried structures and
for framed structures, at least 50% of the borings should be extended to
a depth equal to 1.5 times the width of the building below the lowest
part of the foundation.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3219

2.5.11 Non-Linear Time History Analysis (NTHA)

Nonlinear time history analysis (NTHA) shall consist of analysis of a
mathematical model of the structure which incorporates the nonlinear
hysteretic behavior of the structure’s components to determine its response,
through methods of numerical integration, to ground acceleration time histories
compatible with the design response spectrum for the site. The analysis shall be
performed in accordance with the requirements of this Section. For the
purposes of analysis, the structure shall be permitted to be considered to be
fixed at the base or, alternatively, it shall be permitted to use realistic
assumptions with regard to the stiffness of foundations. The acceleration time
history (ground motion) is applied at the base of the structure. The advantage of
this procedure is that actual time dependent behavior of the structural response
considering inelastic deformations in the structure can be obtained.
2.5.11.1 Modeling (NTHA)
A mathematical model of the structure shall be constructed that represents the
spatial distribution of mass throughout the structure. The hysteretic behavior of
elements shall be modeled consistent with suitable laboratory test data and
shall account for all significant yielding, strength degradation, stiffness
degradation, and hysteretic pinching indicated by such test data. Strength of
elements shall be based on expected values considering material over-strength,
strain hardening, and hysteretic strength degradation. As a minimum, a bilinear
force deformation relationship should be used at the element level. In
reinforced concrete and masonry buildings, the elastic stiffness should
correspond to that of cracked sections. Linear properties, consistent with the
provisions of Chapter 5 shall be permitted to be used for those elements
demonstrated by the analysis to remain within their linear range of response.
The structure shall be assumed to have a fixed base or, alternatively, it shall be
permitted to use realistic assumptions with regard to the stiffness and load
carrying characteristics of the foundations consistent with site-specific soils
data and rational principles of engineering mechanics.
For regular structures with independent orthogonal seismic-force-resisting
systems, independent two dimensional models shall be permitted to be
constructed to represent each system. For structures having plan irregularity or
structures without independent orthogonal systems, a three-dimensional model
incorporating a minimum of three dynamic degrees of freedom consisting of
3286 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Penetration tests consist of driving or pushing a standard sampling tube or a cone.

The devices are also termed as penetrometers, since they penetrate the subsoil with a
view to measuring the resistance to penetrate the soil strata. If a sampling tube is
used to penetrate the soil, the test is referred to as Standard Penetration Test (or
simply SPT). If a cone is used, the test is called a Cone Penetration Test. If the
penetrometer is pushed steadily into the soil, the procedure is known as Static
Penetration Test. If driven into the soil, it is known as Dynamic Penetration Test.
Details of sounding and penetrations tests are presented in Appendix D.
3.4.7 Geotechnical Investigation Report
The results of a geotechnical investigation shall be compiled in the Geotechnical
Investigation Report which shall form a part of the Geotechnical Design Report. The
Geotechnical Investigation Report shall consist of the following :
(i) A presentation of all appropriate geotechnical information on field and
laboratory tests including geological features and relevant data;
(ii) A geotechnical evaluation of the information, stating the assumptions
made in the interpretation of the test results.
The Geotechnical Investigation Report shall state known limitations of the results, if
appropriate. The Geotechnical Investigation Report should propose necessary further
field and laboratory investigations, with comments justifying the need for this further
work. Such proposals should be accompanied by a detailed programme for the further
investigations to be carried out. The presentation of geotechnical information shall
include a factual account of all field and laboratory investigations. The factual
account should include the following information :
(i) The purpose and scope of the geotechnical investigation including a
description of the site and its topography, of the planned structure and the
stage of the planning the account is referring to;
(ii) The names of all consultants and contractors;

(iii) The dates between which field and laboratory investigations were
performed;

(iv) The field reconnaissance of the site of the project and the surrounding area
noting particularly :

 evidence of groundwater;
 behaviour of neighbouring structures;
 exposures in quarries and borrow areas;
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3287

 areas of instability;
 difficulties during excavation;
 history of the site;
 geology of the site,
 survey data with plans showing the structure and the location of all
investigation points;
 local experience in the area;
 information on the seismicity of the area.
The presentation of geotechnical information shall also include documentation of the
methods, procedures and results including all relevant reports of :
(i) desk studies;

(ii) field investigations, such as sampling, field tests, groundwater

measurements and technical specifications of field equipment used

(iii) laboratory tests and test standard followed

The results of the field and laboratory investigations shall be presented and reported
according to the requirements defined in the ASTM or equivalent standards applied in
the investigations.

3.5 Identification, Classification and Description af Soils

3.5.1 Identification of Soils

Samples and trial pits should be inspected visually and compared with field logs of
the drillings so that the preliminary ground profile can be established. For soil
samples, the visual inspection should be supported by simple manual tests to identify
the soil and to give a first impression of its consistency and mechanical behaviour. A
standard visual-manual procedure of describing and identifying soils may be
followed.
Soil classification tests should be performed to determine the composition and index
properties of each stratum. The samples for the classification tests should be selected
in such a way that the tests are approximately equally distributed over the complete
area and the full depth of the strata relevant for design.
3288 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

3.5.2 Particle Size Classification of Soils

Depending on particle sizes, main soil types are gravel, sand, silt and clay. However,
the larger gravels can be further classified as cobble and boulder. The soil particle
size shall be classified in accordance with Table 6.3.1.

Table 6.3.1: Particle Size Ranges of Soils

Soil Type Particle Size Retained on Mesh

Range (mm) Size/ Sieve No.

Boulder > 300 12″

Cobble 300 – 75 3″

Gravel: Coarse Gravel 75 – 19 3/4″

Medium Gravel 19 – 9.5 3/8″

Fine Gravel 9.5 – 4.75 No. 4

Sand: Coarse Sand 4.75 – 2.00 No. 10

Medium Sand 2.00 – 0.425 No. 40

Fine Sand 0.425 – 0.075 No. 200

Silt 0.075 – 0.002 ---

Clay < 0.002 ---

3.5.3 Engineering Classification of Soils

Soils are divided into three major groups, coarse grained, fine grained and organic.
The classification is based on classification test results namely grain size analysis and
consistency test. The coarse grained soils shall be classified using Table 6.3.2.
Outlines of organic and inorganic soil separations are also provided in Table 6.3.2.
The fine grained soils shall be classified using the plasticity chart shown in Figure
6.3.1. In this context, this Code adopts the provisions of ASTM D2487. In addition to
these classifications, a soil shall be described by its colour, particle angularity (for
coarse grained soils) and consistency. Further to the above classification soils
exhibiting swelling or collapsing characteristic shall be recorded. For undisturbed
soils information on stratification, compactness, cementation, moisture conditions
and drainage characteristics shall be included.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3289
Table 6.3.2: Engineering Classification of Soils (Criteria for Assigning Group
Symbols and Names using Laboratory Tests A)
Classification (For particles smaller Group Group Name B Laboratory Classification
than 75 mm and based on estimated Symbol
weights) Percent Other Criteria
finer than
0.075 mm
Coarse Gravels Clean GW Well graded gravels,
grained soils (More gravels sandy gravels, sand Cu  4 and
(More than than gravel mixture, little or 1 ≤ Cz ≤ 3 C
50% of the 50%of no fines.D
coarse <5E
material GP Poorly graded gravels,
retained on fraction
sandy gravels, Sand Cu < 4 and/or
No. 200 sieve retained
gravel mixture, little or 1> Cz> 3 C
(0.075 mm) on No. 4
no fines. D
sieve
(4.75 mm) Gravel with GM Silty gravels, silty sandy IP< 4 or the For 4> IP >
fines gravels. D, F, G limit values 7 and limit
below 'A' values
line of above
plasticity 'A' line,
> 12 E chart dual symbol
GC Clayey gravels, silty IP >7 and the required*
clayey gravels. . D, F, G limit values
above 'A' line
of Plasticity
Chart
Sands Clean Sands SW Well graded sand, Cu ≥ 6 and
(over gravelly sand, little or no 1≤ Cz ≤ 3 C
50% of fines. H
coarse <5E
SP Poorly graded sands, Cu < 6 and/or
fraction
gravelly sand, little or no 1 > Cz > 3 C
smaller fines. H
than
Sands with SM Silty sand, poorly graded IP < 4 or the
4.75
fines sand silt mixtures. F, G, H limit values
mm)
below 'A' line For 4 > IP
of Plasticity >7 and limit
chart values
SC Clayey sand, sand clay > 12 E IP >7 and above A-
mixtures. F, G, H the limit line, dual
values above symbols
'A' line of required.
plasticity
chart
Fine grained Silts & Inorganic ML Silt of low to medium
soils (Over Clays compressibility, very fine Limit values on or below 'A' line of
w < 50 sands, rock flour, silt with plasticity chart & IP <4
50% of the L sand. K, L, M
material
smaller than CL Clays of low to medium Limit values above 'A' line of
0.075 mm) plasticity, gravelly clay, plasticity chart and/or IP > 4
sandy clay, silty clay,
lean clay. K, L, M
Organic OL Organic clay K, L, M, N and
Organic silt K, L, M, O Liquid limit (oven dried)
< 0.75
of low to medium Liquid limit (undried)
plasticity
3290 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021
Classification (For particles smaller Group Group Name B Laboratory Classification
than 75 mm and based on estimated Symbol
Percent Other Criteria
weights)
finer than
0.075 mm

Fine grained Silts & MH Silt of high plasticity, Limit values on or below 'A' line of
soils (Over Clays micaceous fine sandy or plasticity chart
50% of the w ≥ 50 silty soil, elastic silt. K, L, M
L Inorganic
material
CH High plastic clay, fat Limit values above 'A' line of
smaller than
clay. K, L, M plasticity chart
0.075 mm)
Organic OH Organic clay of high Liquid limit (oven dried)
< 0.75
Liquid limit (undried)
plasticity. K, L, M, P

Soils of high organic origin PT Peat and highly organic Identified by colour, odour, fibrous
soils. K, L, M, Q texture and spongy characteristics.

Notes:

A
Based on the material passing the 3-in. (75-mm) sieve
B
If field sample contained cobbles or boulders, or both, add “with cobbles or boulders, or both” to group name.
C
Cu = D60/D10, CZ = (D30)2 / (D10 ×D60)
D
If soil contains ≥ 15 % sand, add “with sand” to group name.
E
Gravels with 5 to 12 % fines require dual symbols:

GW-GM well-graded gravel with silt

GW-GC well-graded gravel with clay

GP-GM poorly graded gravel with silt

GP-GC poorly graded gravel with clay

F
If fines classify as CL-ML, use dual symbol GC-GM, or SC-SM.
G
If fines are organic, add “with organic fines” to group name.
H
If soil contains ≥ 15 % gravel, add “with gravel” to group name.
I
Sands with 5 to 12 % fines require dual symbols:

SW-SM well-graded sand with silt

SW-SC well-graded sand with clay

SP-SM poorly graded sand with silt

SP-SC poorly graded sand with clay.

J
If Atterberg limits plot in hatched area, soil is a CL-ML, silty clay.
K
If soil contains 15 to 29 % plus No. 200, add “with sand” or “with gravel,” whichever is predominant.
L
If soil contains ≥30 % plus No. 200, predominantly sand, add “sand ” to group name.
M
If soil contains ≥ 30 % plus No. 200, predominantly gravel, add “gravelly” to group name.
N
PI ≥ 4 and plots on or above “A” line.
O
PI < 4 or plots below“ A” line.
P
PI plots on or above “A” line.
Q
PI plots below “A” line.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3291

If desired, the percentages of gravel, sand, and fines may be stated in terms indicating a range of percentages,
as follows:
Trace − Particles are present but estimated to be less than 5 %
Few − 5 to 10 %
Little − 15 to 25 %
Some − 30 to 45 %
Mostly − 50 to 100 %

Figure 6.3.1 Plasticity chart (based on materials passing 425 m sieve)

3.5.4 Identification and Classification of Organic Soils

The presence of organic matter can have undesirable effects on the engineering
behaviour of soil. For example, the bearing capacity is reduced, the compressibility is
increased and, swelling and shrinkage potential is increased due to organic content.
Organic content tests are used to classify the soil. In soil with little or no clay
particles and carbonate content, the organic content is often determined from the loss
on ignition at a controlled temperature. Other suitable tests can also be used. For
example, organic content can be determined from the mass loss on treatment with
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which provides a more specific measure of organics.
Organic deposits are due to decomposition of organic matters and found usually in
topsoil and marshy place. A soil deposit in organic origin is said to peat if it is at the
higher end of the organic content scale (75% or more), organic soil at the low end,
and muck in between. Peat soil is usually formed of fossilized plant minerals and
characterized by fiber content and lower decomposition. The peats have certain
3292 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

characteristics that set them apart from moist mineral soils and required special
considerations for construction over them. This special characteristic includes,
extremely high natural moisture content, high compressibility including significant
secondary and even tertiary compression and very low undrained shear strength at
natural moisture content.
However, there are many other criteria existed to classify the organic deposits and it
remains still as controversial issue with numerous approaches available for varying
purpose of classification. A possible approach is being considered by the American
society for Testing and Materials for classifying organic soils having varying amount
of organic matter contents. The classification is given in Table 6.3.3.

Table 6.3.3: Classification and Description of Organic Soils (after Edil, 1997)

Organic Content Description

(ASTM D2974-07a)

<5% Little effect on behavior; considered inorganic soil.

Effects properties but behavior is still like mineral soils;

6 ~ 20 %
organic silts and clays.

Organic matter governs properties; traditional soil

21 ~ 74 %
mechanics may be applicable; silty or clayey organic soils.

Displays behavior distinct from traditional soil mechanics

> 75 %
especially at low stress.

3.5.5 Identification and Classification of Expansive Soils

Expansive soils are those which swell considerably on absorption of water and shrink
on the removal of water. In monsoon seasons, expansive soils imbibe water, become
soft and swell. In drier seasons, these soils shrink or reduce in volume due to
evaporation of water and become harder. As such, the seasonal moisture variation in
such soil deposits around and beneath the structure results into subsequent upward
and downward movements of structures leading to structural damage, in the form of
wide cracks in the wall and distortion of floors. For identification and classification
of expansive soils parameters like liquid limit, plasticity index, shrinkage limit, free
swell, free swell index, linear shrinkage, swelling potential, swelling pressure and
volume change from air dry to saturate condition should be evaluated experimentally
or from available geotechnical correlation. Various recommended criteria for
identification and classification of expansive soils are presented in Appendix E.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3293

3.5.6 Identification and Classification of Collapsible Soils

Soil deposits most likely to collapse are; (i) loose fills, (ii) altered wind-blown sands,
(iii) hill wash of loose consistency and (iv) decomposed granite or other acid igneous
rocks.
A very simple test for recognizing collapsible soil is the ″sauges test″. Two
undisturbed cylindrical samples (sausages) of the same diameter and length (volume)
are carved from the soil. One sample is then wetted and kneaded to form a cylinder
of the original diameter. A decrease in length as compared to the original,
undisturbed cylinder will confirm a collapsible grain structure. Collapse is probable

natural void ratio, P is higher than a critical void ratio, P+ that depends on void ratios
when the natural void ratio, collapsible grain structure. Collapse is probable when the

PB and PA at liquid limit and plastic limits respectively. The following formula should
be used to estimate the critical void ratio.

e c  0 . 85 e L  0 . 15 e P (6.3.1)

Collapsible soils (with a degree of saturation, C7  0.6) should satisfy the following
condition:

≤ 0.10
<v Ò<Ú
1³<Ú
(6.3.2)

A consolidation test is to be performed on an undisturbed specimen at natural

moisture content and to record the thickness, “H” on consolidation under a pressure
“p” equal to overburden pressure plus the external pressure likely to be exerted on

thickness H’ recorded. Relative subsidence, . D4 is found as:

the soil. The specimen is then submerged under the same pressure and the final

. D4 5
GÒG ′
(6.3.3)
G

Soils having . D4  0.02 are considered to be collapsible.

3.5.7 Identification and Classification of Dispersive Soils

Dispersive nature of a soil is a measure of erosion. Dispersive soil is due to the
dispersed structure of a soil matrix. An identification of dispersive soils can be made
on the basis of pinhole test.
The pinhole test was developed to directly measure dispersive potential of compacted
fine grained soils in which water is made to flow through a small hole in a soil
specimen, where water flow through the pinhole simulates water flow through a
crack or other concentrated leakage channel in the impervious core of a dam or other
structure. The test is run under 50, 180, 380 and 1020 mm heads and the soil is
classified as follows in Table 6.3.4.
3294 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Table 6.3.4: Classification of Dispersive Soil on the Basis of Pinhole Test (Sherard
et. al. 1976)

Test Observation Type of Soil Class of Soil

Fails rapidly under 50 mm head. Dispersive soils D1 and D2

Erode slowly under 50 mm or 180 mm head Intermediate soils ND4 and ND3

No colloidal erosion under 380 mm or 1020 mm head Non-dispersive soils ND2 and ND1

Another method of identification is to first determine the pH of a 1:2.5 soil/water

the mass. Then determine: (i) total excahangable bases, that is, 0 ³ , L ³, 9Q ³and
suspension. If the pH is above 7.8, the soil may contain enough sodium to disperse

Na+ (milliequivalent per 100g of air dried soil) and (ii) cation exchange capacity
(CEC) of soil (milliequivalent per 100g of air dried soil). The Exchangeable Sodium
Percentage ESP is calculated from the relation:

%C; 5 +H+ × 100(%) (6.3.4)

%9 ; is given by:

%9 ; 5 +H+ × 100(%)
2
(6.3.5)

If the %C; is above 8 percent and %C; plus %9Q ; is above 15, dispersion will take
place. The soils with %C; =7 to 10 are moderately dispersive in combination with
reservoir waters of low dissolved salts. Soils with %C; greater than 15 have serious
piping potential. Dispersive soils do not actually present any problems with building
structures. However, dispersive soil can lead to catastrophic failures of earth
embankment dams as well as severe distress of road embankments.

3.5.8 Identification and Classification of Soft Inorganic Soils

No standard definition exists for soft clays in terms of conventional soil parameters,
mineralogy or geological origin. It is, however, commonly understood that soft clays
give shear strength, compressibility and severe time related settlement problems. In
near surface clays, where form a crust, partial saturation and overconsolidation occur
together and the overconsolidation is a result of the drying out of the clay due to
changes in water table.
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In below surface clays, overconsolidation may have taken place when the clay was
previously at, or close to the ground surface and above the water table, but due to
subsequent deposition the strata may now be below the surface, saturated and
overconsolidated. Partial saturation does not in itself cause engineering problems,
but may lead to laboratory testing difficulties. Soft clays have undrained shear
strengths between about 10kPa and 40kPa, in other words, from exuding between the
fingers when squeezed to being easily moulded in the fingers.
Soft clays present very special problems of engineering design and construction.
Foundation failures in soft clays are comparatively common. The construction of
buildings in soft clays has always been associated with stability problems and
settlement. Shallow foundations inevitably results in large settlements which must be
accommodated for in the design, and which invariably necessitate long-term
maintenance of engineered facilities. The following relationship among N-values
obtained from SPT, consistency and undrained shear strength of soft clays may be
used as guides.

N-value Consistency Undrained Shear Strength (kN/m2)

Below 2 Very soft Less than 20

2–4 Soft 20 – 40

Undrained shear strength is half of unconfined compressive strength as determined

from unconfined compression test or half of the peak deviator stress as obtained from
unconsolidated undrained (UU) triaxial compression test.

3.6 Materials
All materials for the construction of foundations shall conform to the requirements of
Part 5 of this Code.

3.6.1 Concrete
All concrete materials and steel reinforcement used in foundations shall conform to
the requirements specified in Chapter 5 unless otherwise specified in this Section.
For different types of foundation the recommended concrete properties are shown in
Table 6.3.5. However, special considerations should be given for hostile environment
(salinity, acidic environment).
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3227

Where,
L3 5 expected horizontal peak ground acceleration (in g) for design 5
(2/3)KC
# 5 effect of dead load, S 5 site dependent soil factor (see Table 6.2.16).
2.5.13.3 Combination of earthquake loading with other loadings
When earthquake effect is included in the analysis and design of a building or
structure, the provisions set forth in Sec 2.7 shall be followed to combine
earthquake load effects, both horizontal and vertical, with other loading effects
to obtain design forces etc.
2.5.13.4 Seismic Load Effect Including Overstrength Factor
Where specifically required, conditions requiring overstrength factor, o,
applications shall be determined in accordance with the following,
1. For use in load combination 5 in Section 2.7.3 or load combinations 5 and 6
in Section 2.7.2, E shall be taken equal to Em as determined in accordance
with the following equation,
Em 5 Emh + Ev
2. For use in load combination 7 in Section 2.7.3 or load combination 8 in
Section 2.7.2, E shall be taken equal to Em as determined in accordance with
the following equation,
Em 5 Emh − Ev
where
Em 5 total seismic load effect including overstrength factor
Emh 5 effect of horizontal seismic forces as defined in Sections 2.5.7 or 2.5.9
including structural overstrength.
Ev 5 effect of vertical seismic forces as defined in Section 2.5.13.2
The horizontal seismic load effect with overstrength factor, Emh, shall be
determined in accordance with the following equation:
Emh 5 oEh
Where, o is the system overstrength factor as defined in Table 6.2.19. Like Eh,
directional combinations as defined in Sec. 2.5.13.1.(b) is also applicable for
calculating Emh. The value of Emh need not exceed the maximum force that can
develop in the structure or element as determined by a rational, plastic
mechanism analysis or nonlinear response analysis (static or dynamic) utilizing
realistic expected values of material strengths.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3297

mm per side per year may be used. In recent-fill soils or industrial waste soils, where
corrosion rates may be higher, protection systems should be considered.

(a) Atmospheric Corrosion

Atmospheric corrosion of steel of 0.035 mm/side per year may be used

for most atmospheric environments.

(b) Corrosion in Fresh Water

Corrosion losses in fresh water immersion zones are generally lower than
for sea water so the effective life of steel piles is normally proportionately
longer. However, fresh waters are variable and no general advice can be
given to quantify the increase in the length of life.

(c) Corrosion in Marine Environment

Marine environments may include several exposure zones with different

aggressivity and different corrosion performance.

(i) Below the bed level: Where piles are below the bed level little
corrosion occurs and the corrosion rate given for underground
corrosion is applicable, that is, 0.015 mm/side per year.

(ii) Seawater immersion zone: Corrosion of steel pilling in immersion

conditions is normally low, with a mean corrosion rate of 0.035
mm/side per year.

(iii) Tidal zones: Marine growths in this zone give significant protection
to the piling, by sheltering the steel from wave action between tides
and by limiting the oxygen supply to the steel surface. The
corrosion rate of steels in the tidal zone is similar to that of
immersion zone corrosion, i.e. 0.035 mm/side per year. Protection
should be provided where necessary, to the steel surfaces to prevent
the removal or damage of the marine growth.

(iv) Low water zone: In tidal waters, the low water level and the splash
zone are reasons of highest thickness losses, where a mean
corrosion rate of 0.075 mm/side per year occurs. Occasionally
higher corrosion rates are encountered at the lower water level
because of specific local conditions.
3298 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

(v) Splash and atmospheric zones: In the splash zone, which is a more
aggressive environment than the atmospheric zone, corrosion rates
are similar to the low water level, i.e. 0.075 mm/side per year. In
this zone thick stratified rust layers may develop and at thicknesses
greater than 10 mm this tend to spall from steel especially on curved
parts of the piles such as the shoulders and the clutches. Rust has a
much greater volume than the steel from which it is derived so that
the steel corrosion losses are represented by some 10 % to 20 % of
the rust thickness. The boundary between splash and atmospheric
zones is not well defined, however, corrosion rates diminish
rapidly with distance above peak wave height and mean
atmospheric corrosion rate of 0.035 mm/side per year can be
used.

(d) Method of Assessing Soil Corrosivity

The following variables attributes to accelerated corrosion: (i) acidity and

alkalinity; (ii) soluable salts; (iii) bacteria (sulphates usually promote
bacteria; (iv) resistivity; (v) moisture content; (vi) pH; and so on. The
following charts, Tables 6.3.6a and 6.3.6b provide guides in assessing the
corrosivity of soils. The parameters should be measured following
relevant Standards of ASTM.

Table 6.3.6a: Soil Corrosivity Scores for Various Parameters

Item/Parameter Measured value Score/Mark

Soil composition Calcareous, marly limestone, sandy marl, non- +2

stratified sand

Sandy silt, sandy clay, clayey silt 0

Clay, silty clay -2

Peat, marshy soil -4

Ground water None 0

Exist -1

Vary -2
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3299

Item/Parameter Measured value Score/Mark

Resistivity 10,000 ohm-cm or more 0

10,000-5,000 -1
5,000-2,300 -2
2,300-1,000 -3
1,000 or less -4
Moisture content 20% or less 0
More than 20% -1
pH 6 or more 0
Less than 6 -2
Sulphide and hydrogen None 0
sulphide
Trace -2
Exist -4
Carbonate 5% or more +2
5% - 1% +1
Less than 1% 0
Chloride 100 mg/kg or less 0
More than 100 mg/kg +1
Sulphate 200 mg/kg or less 0
200 – 500 mg/kg -1
500 – 1000 mg/kg -2
More than 1000 mg/kg -3
Cinder and coke None 0
Exist -4

Table 6.3.6b: Soil Corrosivity Rating

Score/Mark Corrosivity Rating
0 and above Non-corrosive

0 to -4 Slightly corrosive

-5 to -10 Corrosive

-10 or less Highly corrosive

3300 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

(e) Methods of Increasing Effective Life

The effective life of unpainted or otherwise unprotected steel piling

depends upon the combined effects of imposed stresses and corrosion.
Where measures for increasing the effective life of a structure are
necessary, the following should be considered; introduction of a corrosion
allowance (i.e. oversized cross-sections of piles, high yield steel etc), anti-
corrosion painting, application of a polyethylene (PE) coating (on steel
tube piles), zinc coating, electro-chemical (cathodic) protection, casting in
cement mortar or concrete, and use of atmospheric corrosion resistant
steel products instead of ordinary carbon steel in any foundation work
involving steel.

(i) Use of a heavier section: Effective life may be increased by the use
of additional steel thickness as a corrosion allowance. Maximum
corrosion seldom occurs at the same position as the maximum
bending moment. Accordingly, the use of a corrosion allowance
is a cost effective method of increasing effective life. It is preferable
to use atmospheric corrosion resistant high strength low alloy
steel.

(ii) Use of a high yield steel: An alternative to using mild steel in a

heavier section is to use a higher yield steel and retain the same
section.

(iii) Zinc coatings: Steel piles should normally be coated under shop
conditions. Paints should be applied to the cleaned surface by airless
spraying and then cured rapidly to produce the required coating
thickness in as few coats as possible. Hot zinc-coating of steel piles
in soil can achieve normally long-lasting protection, provided that
the zinc layer has sufficient thickness. In some soils, especially
those with low pH-values, the corrosion of zinc can be high, thereby
shortening the protection duration. Low pH-values occur normally
in the aerated zone above the lowest ground water level. In such a
case, it is recommended to apply protection paint on top of the zinc
layer.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3301

(iv) Concrete encasement: Concrete encasement may be used to protect

steel piles in marine environment. The use of concrete may be
restricted to the splash zone by extending the concrete cope to
below the mean high water level, both splash and tidal zones may
be protected by extending the cope to below the lowest water level.
The concrete itself should be a quantity sufficient to resist seawater
attack.
(v) Cathodic protection: The design and application of cathodic
protection systems to marine piles structures is a complex operation
requiring the experience of specialist firms. Cathodic protection
with electric current applied to steel sheet pile wall. Rod-type
anodes are connected directly with steel sheet pile. Cathodic
protection is considered to be fully effective only up to the half-tide
mark. For zones above this level, including the splash zone,
alternative methods of protection may be required, in addition to
cathodic protection. Where cathodic protection is used on marine
structures, provision should be made for earthing ships and buried
services to the quay.
(vi) Polyetheline coating: Steel tube piles can be protected effectively by
application of a PE-cover of a few millimeter of thickness. This
cover can be applied in the factory and is usually placed on a
coating of epoxy. Steel tube piles in water, where the mechanical
wear is low, can in this way be protected for long time periods.
When the steel tube piles with the PE-cover are driven into coarse-
grained soil, the effect of damaging the protection layer must be
taken into consideration.
(vii) Properly executed anti-corrosion measures, using high-quality
methods can protect steel piles in soil or water over periods of 15 to
20 years. PE-cover in combination with epoxy coating can achieve
even longer protection times.

3.6.3 Timber
Timber may be used only for foundation of temporary structure and shall conform to
the standards specified in Sec 2.9 of Part 5 of this Code. Where timber is exposed to
soil or used as load bearing pile above ground water level, it shall be treated in
accordance with BDS 819:1975.
3302 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

3.7 Types of Foundation

3.7.1 Shallow Foundations
Shallow foundations spread the load to the ground at shallow depth. Generally, the
capacity of this foundation is derived from bearing.
3.7.2 Footing
Footings are foundations that spread the load to the ground at shallow depths. These
include individual column footings, continuous wall footings, and combined
footings. Footings shall be provided under walls, pilasters, columns, piers, chimneys
etc. bearing on soil or rock, except that footings may be omitted under pier or
monolithic concrete walls if safe bearing capacity of the soil or rock is not exceeded.
3.7.3 Raft/Mat
A foundation consisting of continuous slab that covers the entire area beneath the
structure and supports all walls and columns is considered as a raft or mat
foundation. A raft foundation may be one of the following types:
(i) Flat plate or concrete slab of uniform thickness usually supporting
columns spaced uniformly and resting on soils of low compressibility.
(ii) Flat plates as in (a) but thickened under columns to provide adequate
shear and moment resistance.
(iii) Two way slab and beam system supporting largely spaced columns on
compressible soil.
(iv) Cellular raft or rigid frames consisting of slabs and basement walls,
usually used for heavy structures.
3.7.4 Deep Foundations
A cylindrical/box foundation having a ratio of depth to base width greater than 5 is
considered a Deep Foundation. Generally, its capacity is derived from friction and
end bearing.
3.7.5 Driven Piles
A slender deep foundation unit made of materials such as steel, concrete, wood, or
combination thereof, which is pre-manufactured and placed by driving, jacking,
jetting or screwing and displacing the soil.
(i) Driven Precast Concrete Piles: Pile structure capable of being driven into
the ground and able to resist handling stresses shall be used for this
category of piles.
3232 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

2.5.15.3 Seismic design force

The seismic design force, Fc, applied in the horizontal direction shall be centered
at the component’s center of gravity and distributed relative to the component's
mass distribution and shall be determined as follows:

(6.2.57)
 c a hW c I c  z
Fc  1  2 
Rc  h
Where,
0.75L3 I+ .+ ≤ &+ ≤ 1.5L3 I+ .+
a+ 5 component amplification factor which varies from 1.0 to 2.5 (Table
6.2.22 or Table 6.2.23).
L3 5 expected horizontal peak ground acceleration (in g) for design 5
0.67ZS
I+ 5 weight of component
@+ 5 component response reduction factor which varies from 1.0 to
12.0 (Table 6.2.22 or Table 6.2.23)
4 5 height above the base of the point of attachment of the component,
but z shall not be taken less than 0 and the value of 4/ℎ need not
exceed 1.0
h 5 roof height of structure above the base

The force &+ shall be independently applied in at least two orthogonal horizontal
directions in combination with service loads associated with the component. In
addition, the component shall also be designed for a concurrent vertical force of
± 0.5ahWc.
Where non-seismic loads on nonstructural components exceed &+ such loads
shall govern the strength design, but the seismic detailing requirements and
limitations shall apply.
2.5.15.4 Seismic relative displacements
The relative seismic displacement, #+ for two connection points on the same
structure A, one at a height ℎ and other at height ℎH , for use in component
design shall be determined as follows:
Dc   xA   yA (6.2.58)
3304 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

Division B: Design of Foundations (Sections 3.8 to 3.11)

3.8 Shallow Foundation

This Section shall be applicable to isolated Footings, Combined Footings and
Raft/Mats.
3.8.1 Distribution of Bearing Pressure
Footing shall be designed to keep the maximum imposed load within the safe bearing
values of soil and rock. To prevent unequal settlement footing shall be designed to
keep the bearing pressure as nearly uniform as practical. For raft design, distribution
of soil pressures should be consistent with the properties of the foundation materials
(subsoil) and the structure (raft thickness) and with the principles of geotechnical
engineering.
Mat or raft and floating foundations shall only be used when the applied load of
building or structure is so arranged as to result in practically uniformly balanced
loading, and the soil immediately below the mat is of uniform bearing capacity.

3.8.2 Dimension of Footings

Footings shall generally be proportioned from the allowable bearing pressure and
stress limitations imposed by limiting settlement.
The angle of spread of the load from the wall base to outer edge of the ground
bearing shall not exceed the following:
1
Brick or stone masonry horizontal to 1 vertical

2
Lime concrete horizontal to 1 vertical

Cement concrete 1 horizontal to 1 vertical

A footing shall be placed to depth so that:

(a) adequate bearing capacity is achieved,
(b) in case of clayey soil , shrinkage and swelling due to seasonal weather
change is not significant,
(c) it is below possible excavation close by, and
(d) it is at least 500 mm below natural ground level unless rock or other
weather resistant material is at the surface.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3305

Where footings are to be founded on a slope, the distance of the sloping surface at
the base level of the footing measured from the centre of the footing shall not be less
than twice the width of the footing.
When adjacent footings are to be placed at different levels, the distance between the
edges of footings shall be such as to prevent undesirable overlapping of structures in
soil and disturbance of the soil under the higher footing due to excavation of the
lower footing.
On a sloping site, footing shall be on a horizontal bearing and stepped. At all changes
of levels, footings shall be lapped for a distance of at least equal to the thickness of
foundation or three times the height of step, whichever is greater. Adequate
precautions shall be taken to prevent tendency for the upper layers of soil to move
downhill.
3.8.3 Thickness of Footing
The minimum thickness for different types of footing for light structures (two stories
or less in occupancy category A, B, C and D), shall be as follows:

Type of Footing Minimum Thickness Remark

Masonry 250 mm; twice the maximum Greater of the two

projection from the face of the values shall be
wall selected
Plain concrete 200 mm, or twice the maximum -
offset in a stepped footing
Reinforced concrete 150 mm Resting on soil
(depth above bottom 300 mm Resting on pile
reinforcement)

3.8.4 Footings in Fill Soil

Footings located in fill are subject to the same bearing capacity, settlement, and
dynamic ground stability considerations as footings in natural soil. The behavior of
both fill and underlying natural soil should be considered.
3.8.5 Soil and Rock Property Selection
Soil and rock properties defining the strength and compressibility characteristics of
foundation materials are required for footing design. Foundation stability and
settlement analysis for design shall be conducted using soil and rock properties based
on the results of field and laboratory testing.
3306 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021

3.8.6 Minimum Depth of Foundation

The minimum depth of foundation shall be 1.5 m for exterior footing of permanent
structures in cohesive soils and 2 m in cohesionless soils. For temporary structures
the minimum depth of exterior footing shall be 400 mm. In case of expansive and
soils susceptible to weathering effects, the above mentioned minimum depths will be
not applicable and may have to be increased.
3.8.7 Scour
Footings supported on soil shall be embedded sufficiently below the maximum
computed scour depth or protected with a scour countermeasure.
3.8.8 Mass Movement of Ground in Unstable Areas
In certain areas mass movement of ground may occur from causes independent of the
loads applied to the foundation. These include mining subsidence, landslides on
unstable slopes and creep on clay slopes. In areas of ground subsidence, foundations
and structures should be made sufficiently rigid and strong to withstand the probable
worst loading conditions. The construction of structures on slopes which are
suspected of being unstable and subject to landslip shall be avoided. Spread
foundations on such slopes shall be on a horizontal bearing and stepped. For
foundations on clay slopes, the stability of the foundation should be investigated.
3.8.9 Foundation Excavation
Foundation excavation below ground water table particularly in sand shall be made
such that the hydraulic gradient at the bottom of the excavation is not increased to a
magnitude that would case the foundation soils to loosen due to upward flow of
water. Further, footing excavations shall be made such that hydraulic gradients and
material removal do not adversely affect adjacent structures. Seepage forces and
gradients may be evaluated by standard flow net procedures. Dewatering or cutoff
methods to control seepage shall be used when necessary. In case of soil excavation
for raft foundations, the following issues should be additionally taken into
consideration:
(i) Protection for the excavation using shore or sheet piles and/or retaining
system with or without bracing, anchors etc.
(ii) Consideration of the additional bearing capacity of the raft for the depth
of the soil excavated.
(iii) Consideration of the reduction of bearing capacity for any upward
buoyancy pressure of water.
(iv) Other considerations as mentioned in Sec 3.12.
 evsjv‡`k †M‡RU, AwZwi³, †deªæqvwi 11, 2021 3307

3.8.10 Design Considerations for Raft foundation

Design provisions given in Sec 3.9.2 shall generally apply. In case the raft supports
structure consisting of several parts with varying loads and height, it is advisable to
provide separate joints between these parts. Joints shall also be provided wherever
there is a change in the direction of the raft. The minimum depth of foundation shall
generally be not less than 1.5 m in cohesive soil and 2 m in cohesionless soils.
Foundations subject to heavy vibratory loads shall preferably be isolated.
3.8.10.1 Dimensioning
The size and shape of the foundation shall be decided taking into consideration the
magnitude of subgrade modulus, the long term deformation of the supporting soil
and the distribution of contact pressure.
Distribution of contact pressure underneath a raft is affected by the physical
characteristics of the supporting soil. Consideration shall be given to the increased
contact pressure developed along the edges of foundation on cohesive soils and the
decrease in pressure on granular soils. Both long term and short term deformation
and settlement effects shall be considered in the design.
3.8.10.2 Eccentricity
Since raft foundation usually occupies the entire area of a building, it may not be
feasible to proportion the raft so that the centroid of the raft coincides with the line of
action of the resultant force due to building. In such cases, the effect of eccentricity
on the contact pressure distribution shall be considered in the design.
3.8.10.3 Rigidity of Foundation
The rigidity of foundation affects soil pressure distribution which in turn produces
additional stresses in the raft due to moments etc. A rigid foundation also generates
high secondary stresses. The effects of such rigidity shall be taken into consideration
in designing rafts.
3.8.10.4 Methods of Analysis
The essential part of analysis of a raft foundation is the determination of distribution
of contact pressure below the mat which is a complex function of the rigidity of raft,
and the rigidity of the superstructure and the supporting soil. Any analytical method
shall therefore use simplifying assumptions which are reas