Polarization of Light:

from Basics to Instruments

(in less than 100 slides)

Originally by N. Manset, CFHT,

Modified and expanded by K. Hodapp
 Part I: Different polarization
states of light

• Light as an electromagnetic wave

• Mathematical and graphical descriptions of
polarization
• Linear, circular, elliptical light
• Polarized, unpolarized light

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 2

Part I: Polarization states

Light as an electromagnetic
wave

Light is a transverse wave,

an electromagnetic wave

?!?

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 3

Part I: Polarization states

Mathematical description of
the EM wave

Light wave that propagates in the z direction:

 
E x (z, t )  E0x cos(kz -  t) x
 
E y (z, t )  E0y cos(kz -  t   ) y

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 4

Part I: Polarization states

Graphical representation of the

EM wave (I)
 
One can go from: E x (z, t )  E0x cos(kz -  t) x
 
E y (z, t )  E0y cos(kz -  t   ) y
to the equation of an ellipse (using trigonometric
identities, squaring, adding):
2
 Ex   Ey 
2
E Ey
     2 x
cos  sin2 
 
 E0x   E0y  E0x E0y

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 5

Part I: Polarization states

Graphical representation of the

EM wave (II)

An ellipse can be represented

by 4 quantities:
1. size of minor axis
2. size of major axis
3. orientation (angle)
4. sense (CW, CCW)

Light can be represented by 4 quantities...

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 6
Part I: Polarization states, linear polarization

Vertically polarized light

 
E x (z, t )  E0x cos(kz -  t) x
 
E y (z, t )  E0y cos(kz -  t   ) y
If there is no amplitude in x (E0x = 0), there is
only one component, in y (vertical).

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 7

Part I: Polarization states, linear polarization

Polarization at 45º (I)

 
E x (z, t )  E0x cos(kz -  t) x
 
E y (z, t )  E0y cos(kz -  t   ) y
If there is no phase difference (=0) and
E0x = E0y, then Ex = Ey

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 8

Part I: Polarization states, linear polarization

Polarization at 45º (II)

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 9

Part I: Polarization states, circular polarization

Circular polarization (I)

 
E x (z, t )  E0x cos(kz -  t) x
 
E y (z, t )  E0y cos(kz -  t   ) y

If the phase difference is = 90º and E0x = E0y

then: Ex / E0x = cos  , Ey / E0y = sin 
and we get the equation of a circle:
2
 Ex   Ey 
2

      cos2  sin2  1
E 
 0x   0y 
E

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 10

Part I: Polarization states, circular polarization

Circular polarization (II)

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 11

Part I: Polarization states, circular polarization

Circular polarization (III)

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 12

Part I: Polarization states, circular polarization... see it now?

Circular polarization (IV)

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 13

Part I: Polarization states, elliptical polarization

Elliptical polarization

• Linear + circular polarization = elliptical polarization

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 14

Part I: Polarization states, unpolarized light

Unpolarized light
(natural light)

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 15

Part II: Stokes parameters and
Mueller matrices
• Stokes parameters, Stokes vector
• Stokes parameters for linear and circular
polarization
• Stokes parameters and polarization P
• Mueller matrices, Mueller calculus
• Jones formalism

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 16

Part II: Stokes parameters

Stokes parameters (III)

described in geometrical terms

I  a2 
   2 
 Q   a cos 2  cos 2 

 U   a 2 cos 2  sin 2 
   
 2
 
  
V a sin 2 

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 17

Part II: Stokes parameters, Stokes vectors

Stokes vector
The Stokes parameters can be arranged in a Stokes vector:
 
I  E 2
 E 2
  intensity 
   0x 0y
  
 Q   E 0x  E 0y   I0  I90 
2 2

 U    2 E E cos ε    I45  I135 

   0x 0y  
 
  IRCP   ILCP 
 2 E E sin ε 
   0x 0y
V
• Linear polarization Q  0, U  0, V  0
• Circular polarization Q  0, U  0, V  0
• Fully polarized light I 2  Q2  U 2  V 2
• Partially polarized light I 2  Q2  U 2  V 2
• Unpolarized light QUV0
N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 18
Part II: Stokes parameters

Pictorial representation of the

Stokes parameters




N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 19

Part II: Stokes parameters, examples

Stokes vectors for linearly

polarized light
LHP light LVP light +45º light -45º light

1 1 1 1

       
1
I0     1  0
I0   0
I0   I0  
0 0 1 1
       
 0 0  0 0
N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 20
Part II: Stokes parameters, examples

Stokes vectors for circularly

polarized light
RCP light LCP light

1 1
   
 0 0
I0   I0  
0 0
   
1  1
N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 21
Part II: Stokes parameters

(Q,U) to (P,)
In the case of linear polarization (V=0):

Q2  U 2 
1 U
P arctan  
I 2 Q

Q  P cos 2 U  P sin 2

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 22

Part II: Stokes parameters, Mueller matrices

Mueller matrices
If light is represented by Stokes vectors, optical components are
then described with Mueller matrices:
[output light] = [Muller matrix] [input light]

 I'   m11 m12 m13 m14  I 

    
 Q'   m21 m22 m23 m24  Q 
 U'    m m32 m33 m34  U 
   31
 
 V'   m41 m42 m43 m44  V 

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 23

Part II: Stokes parameters, Mueller matrices

Mueller calculus (I)

Element 1 Element 2 Element 3

M1 M2 M3

I’ = M3 M2 M1 I

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 24

Part II: Stokes parameters, Mueller matrices

Mueller calculus (II)

Mueller matrix M’ of an optical component with
Mueller matrix M rotated by an angle :

M’ = R(- ) M R() with:

1 0 0 0
 
 0 cos 2 sin 2 0
R( )  
0  sin 2 cos 2 0
 
0 0 0 1

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 25

 Part III: Optical components
for polarimetry

• Complex index of refraction

• Polarizers
• Retarders

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 26

Part III: Optical components

Complex index of refraction

The index of refraction is actually a complex quantity:

m  n  ik
• real part • imaginary part
• optical path length, • absorption, attenuation,
refraction: speed of light extinction: depends on
depends on media media
• birefringence: speed of • dichroism/diattenuation:
light also depends on P also depends on P
N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 27
Part III: Optical components, polarizers

Polarizers
Polarizers absorb one component of the
polarization but not the other.
The input is natural light, the output is polarized light (linear,
circular, elliptical). They work by dichroism, birefringence,
reflection, or scattering.

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 28

Part III: Optical components, polarizers

Wire-grid polarizers (I)

[dichroism]
• Mainly used in the IR and longer
wavelengths
• Grid of parallel conducting wires with a
spacing comparable to the wavelength of
observation
• Electric field vector parallel to the wires is
attenuated because of currents induced in
the wires

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 29

Part III: Optical components, polarizers

Wide-grid polarizers (II)

[dichroism]

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 30

Part III: Optical components, polarizers

Dichroic crystals
[dichroism]

Dichroic crystals absorb one

polarization state over the other
one.
Example: tourmaline.

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 31

Part III: Optical components, polarizers – Polaroids, like in sunglasses!

Polaroids
[dichroism]
Made by heating and stretching a sheet of PVA laminated to
a supporting sheet of cellulose acetate treated with iodine
solution (H-type polaroid). Invented in 1928.

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 32

 Part III: Optical components, polarizers

Crystal polarizers (I)

[birefringence]
• Optically anisotropic crystals
• Mechanical model:
• the crystal is anisotropic, which means that
the electrons are bound with different
‘springs’ depending on the orientation
• different ‘spring constants’ gives different
propagation speeds, therefore different indices
of refraction, therefore 2 output beams

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 33

Part III: Optical components, polarizers

Crystal polarizers (II)

[birefringence]

isotropic anisotropic
crystal crystal
(sodium (calcite)
chloride)

The 2 output beams are polarized (orthogonally).

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 34

Part III: Optical components, polarizers

Crystal polarizers (IV)

[birefringence]
• Crystal polarizers used as:
• Beam displacers,
• Beam splitters,
• Polarizers,
• Analyzers, ...
• Examples: Nicol prism, Glan-
Thomson polarizer, Glan or Glan-
Foucault prism, Wollaston prism,
Thin-film polarizer, ...

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 35

Part III: Optical components, polarizers

Mueller matrices of polarizers

(I)
• (Ideal) linear polarizer at angle :

 1 cos 2χ sin 2χ 0
 
1  cos 2χ cos2 2χ sin 2χ cos 2χ 0
2  sin 2χ sin 2χ cos 2χ sin2 2χ 0
 
 0 0 0 0

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 36

Part III: Optical components, polarizers

Mueller matrices of polarizers

(II)

Linear (±Q) Linear (±U) Circular (±V)

polarizer at 0º: polarizer at 0º : polarizer at 0º :
 1 1 0 0 1 0  1 0 1 0 0  1
     
1 1 0 0  0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0
0.5  0.5 
0 0
0.5 
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
     
 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 37

Part III: Optical components, polarizers

Mueller calculus with a

polarizer
Input light: unpolarized --- output light: polarized

 I'  1 0  1 0  I  I
      
 Q'  0 0 0 0  0  0
 U'   0.5   1 0 1 0 0     0.5  
-I
      
 V'  0 0 0 0  0  0

Total output intensity: 0.5 I

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 38

Part III: Optical components, retarders

Retarders
• In retarders, one polarization gets ‘retarded’, or delayed,
with respect to the other one. There is a final phase
difference between the 2 components of the polarization.
Therefore, the polarization is changed.
• Most retarders are based on birefringent materials (quartz,
mica, polymers) that have different indices of refraction
depending on the polarization of the incoming light.

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 39

Part III: Optical components, retarders

Half-Wave plate (I)

• Retardation of ½ wave
or 180º for one of the
polarizations.

• Used to flip the linear

polarization or change
the handedness of
circular polarization.

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 40

Part III: Optical components, retarders

Half-Wave plate (II)

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 41

Part III: Optical components, retarders

Quarter-Wave plate (I)

• Retardation of ¼ wave or 90º for one of the
polarizations

• Used to convert linear polarization to elliptical.

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 42

Part III: Optical components, retarders

Quarter-Wave plate (II)

• Special case: incoming light polarized at 45º with respect to
the retarder’s axis

• Conversion from linear to circular polarization (vice versa)

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 43
Part III: Optical components, retarders

Mueller matrix of retarders (I)

• Retarder of retardance  and position angle :
1 0 0 0 
 
 0 G  H cos4ψ H sin4ψ  sinτ sin2ψ 
0 H sin4ψ G  H cos4ψ sinτ cos2ψ 
 
 0 sinτ sin2ψ  sinτ cos2ψ cosτ 
with : G  1  cosτ  and H  1  cosτ 
1 1
2 2

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 44

Part III: Optical components, retarders

Mueller matrix of retarders (II)

• Half-wave oriented at 0º • Half-wave oriented at

or 90º ±45º

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
   
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
k
1 0
k
0 0 1 0  
0 0

 
0 0 0  1 0 0 0  1

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 45

Part III: Optical components, retarders

Mueller matrix of retarders

(III)
• Quarter-wave oriented at • Quarter-wave oriented at
0º ±45º

1 0 00 1 0 0 0
   
0 1 0 0 0 0 0  1
k
1 0
k
0 0 0 1 
0 0

 
0 0  1 0 0 1 0 0

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 46

Part III: Optical components, retarders

Mueller calculus with a

retarder
• Input light linear polarized (Q=1)
• Quarter-wave at +45º
• Output light circularly polarized (V=1)

 I'  1 0 0 0  1  1
      
 Q'  0 0 0  1 1   0
 U'   k 0 0  k
1 0  0   0
      
 V'  0 1 0 0  0  1
N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 47
Part III: Optical components, polarizers

(Back to polarizers, briefly)

Circular polarizers
• Input light: unpolarized ---
Output light: circularly polarized
• Made of a linear polarizer
glued to a quarter-wave plate
oriented at 45º with respect to
one another.

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 48

Part III: Optical components, retarders

Achromatic retarders (I)

• Retardation depends on wavelength
• Achromatic retarders: made of 2 different materials with
opposite variations of index of refraction as a function of wavelength

• Pancharatnam achromatic retarders: made of 3

identical plates rotated w/r one another

• Superachromatic retarders: 3 pairs of quartz and MgF2

plates

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 49

 Part III: Optical components, retarders

Achromatic retarders (II)

=140-220º
not very
achromatic!

= 177-183º
much better!

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 50

 Part IV: Polarimeters

• Polaroid-type polarimeters
• Dual-beam polarimeters

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 51

Part IV: Polarimeters, polaroid-type

Polaroid-type polarimeter
for linear polarimetry (I)
• Use a linear polarizer (polaroid) to measure
linear polarization ... [another cool applet]
Location: [Link]

• Polarization percentage and position angle:

I max  I min
P
I max  I min

  ( I  I max ) 
N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 52
Part IV: Polarimeters, dual-beam type

Dual-beam polarimeters
Principle
• Instead of cutting out one polarization and keeping
the other one (polaroid), split the 2 polarization
states and keep them both
• Use a Wollaston prism as an analyzer
• Disadvantages: need 2 detectors (PMTs, APDs) or
an array; end up with 2 ‘pixels’ with different gain
• Solution: rotate the Wollaston or keep it fixed and
use a half-wave plate to switch the 2 beams

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 53

Part IV: Polarimeters, dual-beam type

Dual-beam polarimeters
Switching beams
• Unpolarized light: two beams have
identical intensities whatever the prism’s
position if the 2 pixels have the same gain



• To compensate different gains, switch the
2 beams and average the 2 measurements
N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 54
Part IV: Polarimeters, dual-beam type

Dual-beam polarimeters
Switching beams by rotating the prism

rotate by
180º

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 55

Part IV: Polarimeters, dual-beam type

Dual-beam polarimeters
Switching beams using a ½ wave plate

Rotated
by 45º

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 56

UH DBIP (Masiero, 2007)

Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 57

Part IV: Polarimeters, example of circular polarimeter

A real circular polarimeter

Semel, Donati, Rees (1993)

Quarter-wave plate, rotated at -45º and +45º

Analyser: double calcite crystal

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 59

Part IV: Polarimeters, summary

Polarimeters - Summary
• 2 types:
– polaroid-type: easy to make but ½ light is lost, and affected
by variable atmospheric transmission
– dual-beam type: no light lost but affected by gain
differences and variable transmission problems
• Linear polarimetry:
– analyzer, rotatable  2 positions minimum
– analyzer + half-wave plate
• Circular polarimetry:  1 position minimum
– analyzer + quarter-wave plate

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 60

 Credits for pictures and movies
• Christoph Keller’s home page – his 5 lectures
[Link]
• “Basic Polarisation techniques and devices”, Meadowlark Optics Inc.
[Link]
• Optics, E. Hecht and Astronomical Polarimetry, J. Tinbergen
• Planets, Stars and Nebulae Studied With Photopolarimetry, T.
Gehrels
• Circular polarization movie
[Link]

• Unpolarized light movie

[Link]

• Reflection of wave [Link]

• ESPaDOnS web page and documents

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 61

 References/Further reading
On the Web
• Very short and quick introduction, no equation
[Link]
• Easy fun page with Applets, on polarizing filters
[Link]
• Polarization short course
[Link]
• “Instrumentation for Astrophysical
Spectropolarimetry”, a series of 5 lectures given at the
IAC Winter School on Astrophysical Spectropolarimetry,
November 2000 –
[Link]

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 62

 References/Further reading
Polarization basics

• Polarized Light, D. Goldstein – excellent book,

easy read, gives a lot of insight, highly
recommended
• Undergraduate textbooks, either will do:
– Optics, E. Hecht
– Waves, F. S. Crawford, Berkeley Physics Course vol. 3

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 63

 References/Further reading
Astronomy, easy/intermediate
• Astronomical Polarimetry, J. Tinbergen –
instrumentation-oriented
• La polarisation de la lumière et l'observation
astronomique, J.-L. Leroy – astronomy-oriented
• Planets, Stars and Nebulae Studied With
Photopolarimetry, T. Gehrels – old but classic
• 3 papers by K. Serkowski – instrumentation-oriented

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 64

 References/Further reading
Astronomy, advanced

• Introduction to Spectropolarimetry, J.C.

del Toro Iniesta – radiative transfer – ouch!
• Astrophysical Spectropolarimetry,
Trujillo-Bueno et al. (eds) – applications to
astronomy

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 65