Electric current Electric Energy and Power

current Electricity Rate of flow of Charge, I=

dq
dt
Heat energy developed across regsistor
H = I2Rt
Resistance S.I. Unit Ampere (A) Coulomb/ Second
Power, P = VI = I2R = V
2

dq q R
Instantaneous, Iins = Average, Iav =
dt t In parallel, P = P1 + P2
Drift velocity
Ohm's Law PP
In series, P = 1 2

The property due to which body opposes

Drift velocity is defined as the velocity with which P1 + P2
the free electrons get drifted towards the positive
the flow of current through it, is • current passing through metals or
terminal under the effect of the applied external
known as resistance. conductors is directly proportional Galvenometer to Ammeter Galvenometer to Voltmeter
electric field
ρ
R= to the potential difference applied qE
A
across them. vd = τ Gig
m S=
i − ig
G

R=
V
−G
I ∝ V ⇒ V = IR;(R-electric resistance)
G R
• S.I Unit of Resistance ohm(Ω)
ig
ig ig

• The property of any material due to

Relation between Drift velocity ig + –

which it opposes the flow of electric

and current Balanced Condition i
+
a
S
i – ig b
–
a
Circuit
element

• substances which Obey Ohm's law called

i b i

of wheat stone
V

current through it.

S.I unit of Resistivity:( m) Ω
Ohmic and that do not obey called bridge P R Potentiometer
non-ohmic substances. = Meter bridge
Factors affecting resistivity:
A vd Q S Based on wheat Used to
• Nature of material • The slope of V-I plot for E1 1
– B (i) compare emfs =
• Temperature. I stone bridge E2  2
• Ohmic substance dx i1 i1 P R  R
V

ig = 0
• Relation between resistivity and = = = Internal resistance of cell
tan θ = = R P
Q S 100 −  S
ne2 AτE V
Q
temprature
I
A  
V G
C E 
r = R  − 1 = R  1 − 1
i = neAVd = = neAµ eE = neAµ e
ρf = ρi 1 + α ( t f − t i )  V   2 
Unknown resistance
R S
m  X

i2 i2 Resistance box
R
i D

D
G Galvanometer
E
Current density (J) 0

A
10 20

P
30 40

B
50 60 70

Q
80 90 100

Current per unit cross-section (100 – )

area perpendicular to current I E When cell is discharging

J= =
E

Conductivity (σ) flow. A ρ E

+ –
K
Resistance colour code
1 1 1 1
r i
Conductance, C = = σ= = A B
Resistance R Resistivity ρ
Unit is mho (Ω )
–1
∆V = E − ir
Unit = 1 = 1 or mho Kirchoff's laws
Ωm ohm ⋅ m m

Grouping of Resistance 1st law/

nd
2 law/loop
Junction law rule When cell charging
Series grouping of resistance
Some Important Formula
• Sum of the incoming •The algebraic sum of the E r
currents is equal to sum of potential differences in any
• Equivalent resistance, RS = R1 + R2 + R3 ..... • After stretching length of wire
the outgoing currents at any loop (including those i
increases by n times then junction. associated with emf’s and
resistance will increase by n² • Based on law of those of resistive elements), ∆V = E + ir
• Current flow through each resistance is same.
times i.e., conservation of charge. must equal zero.
• Potential difference, V∝R • Based on law of
i i2
conservation of energy. When cell is open circuit
1 1
R=∞
• If radius be reduced to �mes then area of Vdrop = –iR1 Vdrop = –iR2 Vdrop = –iR3
n i3
Parallel grouping of resistance R1 R2 R3 E
cross-sec�on decreases 12 �me so the i Loop i I= = 0 and V = E
n i4 R+r
• Equivalent resistance, resistance become n4 times i.e., R2 = n4R1
+ –
V
Vrise = +V

1 1 1 1
= + + + .... When cell is short circuited
Rp R1 R2 R3 i 0
junction
V 0 Resistance colour code
R = 0 and I = −E and V = IR = 0
Closedloop
R = 1st digit – 2nd digit × 3rd digit + 4th digit%
R+r

Power transferred to load by cell

• Potential difference across Grouping of cells P = I2R =
E2R
and P = Pmax
each resistance same (r + R)2 2
E
Pmax =
4r
current distribution, in each Cell in series, Cell in parallel if dP and P = Pmax if r = R
1
resistance, I ∝ Cells in series and parallel dR P
R nε ε
nε Current in the circuit, I =
i.e., mixed current in the circuit, I = Current in the circuits, I = r 2 2
nr
+R R + nr R+ Pmax = E = E r=R
R
m m 4r 4R
 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Total Sessions – 13
SESSION – 1
AIM
✓ To introduce concept of electric current
✓ To introduce various properties of current
✓ To introduce relation between electric current and charge
✓ To introduce relation between current density and current

THEORY
1] CONCEPT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
We have learnt that charge moves from higher to lower potential. This motion of
charge is called current.
Current is defined as rate of flow of charge. Unit Cs-----1 or A(Ampere)
dQ n dn
Hence I = = t e = e. dt
dt
The convectional direction of current is taken to be the direction of flow of positive
charge , I .e., filed and current i is opposite to the direction of flow of negative
charge

The net charge in a current carrying conductor is zero

For a given conductor current does not change with change in cross− sectional area
i1 = i2 = i3 = i

The charged particles whose flow in different direction constitutes the electric
current are called current carriers.
Current due to translatory motion of charge:
If n particles each having a charge q, pass through a given area in time t then I
nq
current i = t
124 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

If n particles each having a charge q pass per second per unit area , the current
associated with cross−sectional area i = nqA

If there are n particles per unit volume each having a charge q

And moving with velocity V , the current through ,cross−sectional area A sii = nqVA.

Current due to rotating motion of charge :

If a point charge q is moving in a circle of radius r with speed V

dq Q q qV qω
i= = = = = = qν
dt t T 2πr 2π
T → time period , ω → angular speed
ν → frequency V → linear speed
Ex1: If n electrons are passing through a cross section at a point in conductor along normal
direction, in time t, the charge flowing is dQ = ne.
Ex2: If Q charge revolves in a circle with speed  and radius of the path is R.
dQ Q Qv Qω 
I= = 2πR = = ω=R
dt 2πR 2π
v

I = Qfwhere =ω = 2πf
Note: Here charge can be in the form of electrons also. If we substitute Q = ne. Then it is
known as revolution current.

2] PROPERTIES OF CURRENT
On the basis of type of medium, Current can flow through four mediums.
A) Conductor: Current flows free electrons available in “Metal” only.
B) Electrolytes: Current flows through “Cations and anions”.
C) Gases: Usually at low pressure high voltage (Potential difference) Current flows due
to electron’s and positive ions.
D) Semiconductors: Current flows through holes and electrons.
On the basis of nature of flow current is of four types
125 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

TYPES OF CURRENT:
A) Direct Current (DC):When the direction doesnot change, it is called DC. It can be
constant or variable.

I I I

f f t
Constant DC Variable DC Variable DC

B) Alternating Current (AC) : When direction of current keeps on changing periodically

with time, the current is called AC.
I I
t
Ex : t

C) Transient Current: When current rises to its maximum or falls to minimum only once
through its lifetime, it is called Transient Current.

I
I

t t
Discharging of Inductor or
Charging of Inductor Charging / Discharging
Ex : through Resistance of capacitor through a resistance

D) Displacement Current: During charging or discharging of capacitor, transfer of

charge between the plates of capacitor (through air or dielectric) is called
displacement current.
For Capacitor Q = CV
0 kA
= V
d
V V
=0 kA (d) = E (Electric field)
d
Q = 0 k(E A)
= 0 k E E = E AElectric flux
dQ d
 I = dt = k0 ( dtE )
I = k0 x (Rate of change of flux) is called displacement current.
EX:3 If charge through a conductor is given at Q = at 2 + bt + c at an instant t. Find the
current
Sol: Q = at 2 + bt + c
dQ d
I= I = dt (at 2 + bt + c)
dt
I = 2at + b
126 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Current density:(j)
Current density at any point in side a conductor is defined as a vector having
magnitude equal to current per unit area surrounding that point
di
⃗J = ⃗⃗
n
dA
Current density at point p
⇒ if the croos sectional not normal to the curve but makes an angle θ with the
direction of current then
di
j = dA cos θ ⇒ di = JdA cos θ v = ⃗J. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
dA
i = ∫ ⃗j. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
dA

⇒if current density j is uniform for a normal cross−sectional area A

i
thenJ = A
⇒current density j is a vector quantity .its direction is same as that of E
⃗⃗ . its S.I unit
→ amp/ m2
dimension = [L−2 A]
⇒ in case of uniform flow of charge through a cross−section normal to it i = nqVA ⇒
i
j = A = nqv

⇒current density its electric filed

⃗E⃗
⃗⃗ =
j = σE
ρ
127 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Drift velocity :
Drift velocity is the average uniform velocity required by free electrons inside a
metal by the application of an electric field which is responsible for current through
it.
n→ no of electronsper unit volume of the conductor

i→ current, j→ current density ,

i = n eA (vd )
i j σE E V
vd = = = = =
neA ne ne ρne ρlne
The average velocity of electrons during and average relaxation time is called drift
velocity
V
E=
l
V
F = eE = e
l
eV
A=
ml
during motion of free electrons .it has collide with the opposite charge . the time
between such to collisions is called relaxation timeτ . distance travelled during average
relaxation time is
1 1 eE 2
s = 2 at 2 = τ
2m
s eE
Vd = = τ
t 2m
⃗⃗d α ⃗E⃗orv
v ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗d = μE
μ → mobility

Relaxation time :
the time taken between two successive collision of electrons with the positive ions in
the metallic lattice is defined as relaxation time
mean free path λ
τ= =
rms velocity of electorns Vrms
128 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

with rise in temperature vrms increases, decreasing the ′τ′

Mobility 𝛍:
vd = μE
vd
μ=
E
it is the ratioof drift velocity per unit electric field
m2
μ→
volt − sec
Ex 4: Current I passes through a conductor of non uniform cross section area as shown in
figure.

A1 A2 A3

1] Find ratio of current densities, drift velocities and Electric fields.

Sol : Since I = jA (θ = 0)
I I
⇒ j = A ⇒ j αA
1
1 1 1
⇒ j1 : j2 : j3 = A : A : A
1 2 3

Since j α υd and j α E
1 1 1
j1 : j2 : j3 = υd1 : υd2 : υd3 = E1 : E2 : E3 = : :
A1 A2 A3

RELATION OF CHARGE AND CURRENT:

dQ
As we know rate of flow of charge is current. I = dt

Ex: If charge through a conductor is given at Q = at2 + bt + c at an instant t then

current
dQ
I= = 2at + b
dt
C
Unit  or A (Coulomb per second or Ampere)
S
Consider a conductor of length l maintained at a voltage V (potential difference). If
cross section area of conductor is A and free electron density is n, we can have
relation of current and drift velocity.
Drift Velocity: The average velocity of electrons achieved during an average
relaxation time is called drift velocity.
129 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Note: During motion of free electron’s through a conductor it has to collide with the
‘+ve’ ions again and again. The time between such two collisions is called relaxation
time.
V
The electric field in above case will be E = l
eV
So force on free electron is F = eE = l
If average relaxation time is ‘’ distance travelled during average relaxation time is
a2
1
S= 2
1 eE 2 F eE
=  (where a = m = ) t=
2m m
S eEτ
Hence drift velocityd = =
τ 2m
Relation between current and drift velocity:
Reconsidering above case again the distance travelled by free electrons during a time
interval dtdx = υd dt
Volume of electron’s moved under influence of Potential difference through Cross
Sectional Area ‘A’
dV = Adx = A υd dt
No of electrons moved
dN = ndV = nAυd dt ⇒ dV = A dx
Hence charge transferred
dq = edN = nAυd dt e
dq
Hence current I = = nAe υd
dt
Note: Direction of current is opposite to drift velocity i.e., motion of electrons because
conventional current is flow of positive charge but electrons that flow and develop
current are negative.
Current Density: The current passing through unit area along normal to cross section area
of conductor is called current density. j =
Note: Current is scalar but current density is a vector.
Hence i = ⃑j . A
⃗⃑ = j A cosθ
Where θ is angle between area vector (normal to CSA of conductor) and direction of
current.
i
Note: Sincej =A neυd
eVτ eEτ
butυd = 2ml = 2m
υd eτ
Hence = μ = 2m Whereμ is called mobility of free electrons.
E
130 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

SESSION – 2 AND 3
AIM
✓ To introduce the concept of Ohm’s Law which defines the relation between current
and potential difference.
✓ To introduce the concept of resistance and conductance.
✓ To introduce the concept of resistivity and conductivity.
✓ To introduce the factors on which resistivity and conductivity depend on.
✓ To introduce the concept of different values of resistance of the same conductor for
the same sense of current.
✓ To introduce the temperature dependence of resistance.

THEORY
Ohm’s Law:
According to Ohm’s law current density is always proportional to electric field at a
point
Hencej⃑ ∝ ⃗E⃑ or j∝ E
j =σE (Both are parallel σ ⇒ conductivity)
I V I V
But j = A and E = ⇒A=σl
l
l 1
⇒V = I σA But ρ =σ = Resistivity
1 ρl
⇒V = ρ A I V = RI ⇒R = A = Resistance
V
R= constant and V ∝ I
I
Hence you got your old form of Ohm’s law
V
V=IR where R = I
Only if physical conditions of wire does not change during the flow of current.
V
Unit of R = A orΩ (ohm)
σA
P= so unit of P ⇒ Ohm-m = (conductance)
L

Hence unit of σ ⇒ ohm−m = mho m-1

1

1 σA 1
= is called conductance unit ‘mho’.
R l Ω
131 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Note: Resistivity and conductivity depends on material hence constant but resistance and
conductance depends on dimensions (l and A)
1 1
Hence Resistance = and Resistivity = Conductivity
Conductance

Concept of Resistance and Resistivity:

During the motion of free electrons within the conductor under influence of external
electric field they have to collide again and again either with electrons or positive ions
(formed by removal of free electrons from atom). These collisions cause loss of KE of
free electrons hence heat is generated within conductor. This tendency of material to
hinder smooth flow of electrons is called resistance. The property which is
independent of dimensions of conductor is called Resistivity of material.
1
Resisting some relations againR
eVτ
υd = 2ml .....(i)
and I = n e A υd ....(ii)
Substituting drift velocity from equation (i) and equation (ii)
eVl ne2 VA 2m ℓ
I = n e A2ml= ( 2m τ)  V = (ne2τ) A I
l

Comparing with ohms law (old form V = IR)

2m ℓ
Resistance R = (ne2 τ) Adepending on dimensions of conductor
2m
Resistivityρ = independent of dimensions of conductor (l and A)
ne2 τ
Dependence of resistance:
Resistance of conductor depends on following factor s
1) Length of conductor: resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length
R∝l
2) Area of conductor : resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its area of
cross−section
1
R∝
A
132 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

3) Temperature : resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the temperature

R ∝ Temperature
variation of resistance with temperature :
ifR 0 → resistance of conductor at 0°c
R t → resistance of comnductor at t°c
α → coefficient of resistsance
R t = R 0 (1 + αt)
Rt − R0
α= /°C.
R0 t
coefficient of resistance is the increase in resistance per 1° c ride in temperature to
that of resistance at 0°c
ifR1 and R 2 are the resistance at t1 °C&t 2 °
R1 = R 0 (1 + αt1 )
R 2 = R 0 (1 + αt 2 )
R1 (1 + α t1 )
=
R 2 (1 + αt 2 )
R 2 − R1
α=
R1 t 2 − -R 2 t1
R1 + R1 αt 2 = R 2 + R 2 αt1
(R1 t 2 − R 2 t1 )α = R 2 − R1
R 2 − R1
α= /°C
R1 t 2 − R 2 t1

Variation of resistance of some electrical material with temperature:

s.no Material Temperature co efficient Variation of resistance
of resistance (α) with temperature rise
1. Metals Positive Increases
2 Solid non metal Zero Independent
3 Semiconductor Negative Decrease
4 Electrolyte Negative Decreases
5 Ionised gases Negative Decreases
6 Alloys Small Positive Volume Almost constant

Conductance and Conductivity:

1 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏 ℓ
Inverse of Resistance is conductance = = ( 2𝑚 ) 𝐴
𝑅
0 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
Conductivity is Inverse of Resistivity 𝜌 = 2𝑚
133 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Factors affecting Resistivity

2𝑚
Since= 𝑛𝑒 2𝜏so fundamentally resistivity is inversely proportional to product (n𝜏) of
free electron density and average relaxation time. These two quantities are constants
for a material. These value change with temperature. When temperature increases,
free electron density increases but relaxation time falls drastically for conductors
(metals). (n𝜏)value of products reduces and resistivity increases.
Therefore for metals resistivity will increase with temperature for metals.
𝛥𝑅 𝑅−𝑅0 𝜌−𝜌0
𝜌 = 𝜌0 (1 + 𝛼𝑡) 𝛼 = 𝑅𝛥𝑡 = = R = Ro (1 + 𝛼t)
𝑅0 𝑡 𝜌0 𝑡

𝜌0= Resistivity at 00C 𝛼= Temperature coefficient of Resistivity

For semiconductors charge carrier density increase so rapidly with temperature that
the fall in average relaxation time can not reduce the product. Hence Resistance of
semiconductors decrease with temperature increase.
[𝛼is negative for semiconductors].

Factors affecting Resistance

Apart from temperature other factor is dimension of resistance.
Let us consider some examples:
A) Suppose a rectangular slab is of dimension a x b x c is taken
If Potential difference is applied across side a,
𝜌𝑎
l = a, A = bc R = 𝑏𝑐
If potential difference is applied across side b,
𝜌𝑏
l = b, A = ac R= 𝑎𝑐
If potential is applied across side c,
𝑐
l = c, A = ab𝜌 𝑎𝑏
𝑙
B) Relation for a resistance is R = 𝜌 𝐴 but lA = V (volume)
𝑉
If length of conductor is changed (substitute A) A = 𝑙

hence Rl2 so if length is increased n times, Resistance becomes n2 times

𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙2
R= =
𝑉/𝑙 𝑉
𝑉 𝜌𝑉 / 𝐴 𝜌𝑉 1
C) If area is changed (Substitutel= 𝐴) R = = Hence R 𝐴2
𝐴 𝐴2
1
Hence if area is increased by n times, Resistance becomes times.
𝑛2
134 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Stretching of Wire:

Electrical conducting materials for specific use:

Colour coding of Resistance:

Colour code for carbon resistance:

Letter Colour A And B Multiplier (C)
B Black 0 10°
B Brown 1 101
R Red 2 102
O Orange 3 103
Y Yellow 4 104
G Green 5 105
B Blue 6 106
V Violet 7 107
G Gray 8 108
W White 9 109

To members the sequence ofcolour code the following sentence should be kept in
memory
BBROY great Brittan very good wife
135 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Illustration 1:- Variable Cross section:

A material of resistivity 𝜌, is in the shape as shown Find value of Resistance

b
a
.
l

Sol: Here area of cross section is continuously varying. Choose a slice of radius y, thickness
dx at distance x from smaller end.
𝜌𝑑𝑥 𝑏−𝑎
Now dR = 𝜋𝑦 2 and y = x + a from equation y line
𝑙

(0,0)
. dx
.
(1,0)
b

x
l
𝑙 𝑑𝑥
R = ∫0 𝜌 𝑏−𝑎 2
𝜋( 𝑥+ 𝑎)
𝑙
𝑙
𝑙𝜌 −1
Hence R = [ ]
𝜋(𝑏−𝑎) (𝑏−𝑎) 𝑥+𝑎
𝑙 0
𝑙𝜌 −1 1 𝜌𝑙 𝑏−𝑎 𝜌𝑙
= [ + 𝑎]= [ ] R = 𝜋𝑎𝑏
𝜋(𝑏−𝑎) 𝑏 𝜋(𝑏−𝑎) 𝑎𝑏

Illustration 2:
The resistance of the platinum wire of a platinum resistance thermometer at the ice
point is 5𝛺 and at steam point is 5.23𝛺. When the thermometer is inserted in a hot
bath, the resistance of the platinum wire is 5.795𝛺. Calculate the temperature of the
bath.
Sol: 𝑅0 = 5𝛺, 𝑅100 = 5.23𝛺 and 𝑅𝑡 = 5.795𝛺
𝑅𝑡 −𝑅0 5.795−5 0.795
Now, 𝑡 = 𝑅 × 100, 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼𝑡) = × 100 = × 100 = 345.65°𝐶
100 −𝑅0 5.23−5 0.23

Illustration 3:
The resistance of a conductor is 5 ohm at 50°𝐶 and 6 ohm at 100°𝐶. Its resistance at
0°𝐶 is
a) 1 ohm b) 2 ohm c) 3 ohm d) 4 ohm
𝑅1 (1+𝛼𝑡1 ) 5 (1+𝛼×50) 1
Sol: (d)𝑅 = (1+𝛼𝑡 ) ⇒ 6 = (1+𝛼×100) ⇒ 𝛼 = 200 𝑝𝑒𝑟°𝐶
2 2
136 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

1
Again by 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼𝑡) ⇒ 5 = 𝑅0 (1 + 200 × 50) ⇒ 𝑅0 = 4𝛺

Illustration 4:
Temperature of a resistance at temperature 𝑡°𝐶is 𝑅 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏𝑡 2 ). Here 𝑅0 is the
temperature at 0°𝐶. The temperature coefficient of resistance at temperature t is
𝑎+2𝑏𝑡 1+𝑎𝑡+𝑏𝑡 2
a) b) 𝑎 + 2𝑏𝑡 c) d) 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
1+𝑎𝑡+𝑏𝑡 2 𝑎+2𝑏𝑡
1 𝑑𝑅 1 𝑎+2𝑏𝑡
Sol: a)𝛼 = 𝑅 . 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑅 2)
[𝑅0 (𝑎 + 2𝑏𝑡)] = ( )
0 (1+𝑎𝑡+𝑏𝑡 1+𝑎𝑡+𝑏𝑡 2

Illustration 5:
Dimensions of a block are 1𝑐𝑚 × 1𝑐𝑚 × 100𝑐𝑚.If specific resistance of its material is
3 × 10−7 𝑜ℎ𝑚 − 𝑚, then the resistance between the opposite rectangular faces is
a) 3 × 10−9 𝑜ℎ𝑚 b) 3 × 10−7 𝑜ℎ𝑚 c)3 × 10−5 𝑜ℎ𝑚 d) 3 × 10−3 𝑜ℎ𝑚

Sol: (b)Length 𝑙 = 1 𝑐𝑚 = 10−2 𝑚

Area of cross-section A = 1 cm 100 cm= 100 cm2 = 10–2m2

10−2
Resistance𝑅 = 3 × 10−7 × 10−2 = 3 × 10−7 𝛺

Illustration 6:
Dimensions of a block are 1𝑐𝑚 × 1𝑐𝑚 × 100𝑐𝑚.If specific resistance of its material is
3 × 10−7 𝑜ℎ𝑚 − 𝑚, then the resistance between the square faces is
a) 3 × 10−9 𝑜ℎ𝑚 b) 3 × 10−7 𝑜ℎ𝑚 c)3 × 10−5 𝑜ℎ𝑚 d) 3 × 10−3 𝑜ℎ𝑚
Sol: (d)In the above question for calculating equivalent resistance between two opposite
square faces.
1
𝑙 = 100 𝑐𝑚 = 1 𝑚, 𝐴 = 1 𝑐𝑚2 = 10−4 𝑚2, so resistance 𝑅 = 3 × 10−7 × 10−4 = 3 × 10−3 𝛺
137 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Illustration 7:
In a neon discharge tube 2.9 × 1018 𝑁𝑒 + ions move to the right each second while
1.2 × 1018 electrons move to the left per second. Electron charge is 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 . The
current in the discharge tube
a) 1 A towards right b) 0.66 A towards right
c) 0.66 A towards left d) Zero
(𝑛+ )(𝑞+ ) (𝑛− )(𝑞− )
Sol: (b) Net current 𝑖 = 𝑖+ + 𝑖− = +
𝑡 𝑡

(𝑛+ ) (𝑛− )
⇒𝑖= ×𝑒+ ×𝑒
𝑡 𝑡
= 2.9 × 1018 × 1.6 × 10−19 + 1.2 × 1018 × 1.6 × 10−19 ⇒ 𝑖 = 0.66 𝐴

Illustration 8:
The colour sequence in a carbon resistor is red, brown, orange and silver. The
resistance of the resistor is
a) 21 × 103 ± 10% b) 23 × 101 ± 10%
c) 21 × 103 ± 5% d) 12 × 103 ± 5%
Sol: a)Red, brown, orange, silver red and brown represents the first two significant
figures.
Significant figures Multiplier Tolerance
Red Brown Orange Silver
21 103  10%

∴ 𝑅 = 21 × 103 ± 10%

PROBLEMS FOR PRACTISE

1] The resistivity of a ferric-chromium-aluminium alloy is 51 × 10-8-m. A sheet of the
material is 15 cm long, 6 cm wide and 0.014 cm thick. Determine resistance between
(a) opposite ends and (b) opposite faces.
2] The storage battery of a car has an emf of 12 V. If the internal resistance of the
battery is 0.4 , what is the maximum current that can be drawn from the battery ?
138 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

3] At room temperature (27.0 0C) the resistance of a heating element is 100. What is
the temperature of the element if the resistance is found to be 117, given that the
temperature coefficient of the material of the resistor is 1.70 x 10–40C–1.
4] A negligibly small current is passed through a wire of length 15 m and uniform cross-
section 6.0 x 10---7 m2, and its resistance is measured to be 5.0 . What is the
resistivity of the material at the temperature of the experiment?
5] A silver wire has a resistance of 2.1 at 27.50 C, and a resistance of 2.7 at 1000C.
Determine the temperature coefficient of resistivity of silver. –
6] A heating element using nichrome connected to a 230 V supply draws an initial current
of 3.2 A which settles after a few seconds to a steady value of 2.8 A. What is the
steady temperature of the heating element if the room temperature is 27.0 C?
Temperature coefficient of resistance of nichrome averaged over the temperature
range involved is 1.70 x 10–40C–1.
7] Two wires of equal length, one of aluminium and the other of copper have the same
resistance. Which of the two wires is lighter ? Hence explain why aluminium wires are
preferred for overhead power cables. (𝜌𝐴𝑙 = 2.63 x 10–8m, 𝜌𝐶𝑢 = 1.72 x 10–8m,
Relative density of Al = 2.7, of Cu = 8.9)
8] Answer the following Questions:
a) A steady current flows in a metallic conductor of nonuniform cross-section.
Which of these quantities is constant along the conductor, current, current
density, electric field, drift speed?
b) Is Ohm’s law universally applicable for all conducting elements? If not, give
example of elements which do not obey Ohm’s law.
c) A low voltage supply from which one needs high currents must have very low
internal resistance. Why?
d) A high tension (HT) supply of, say, 6 kV must have a very large internal
resistance. Why?
9] Choose the correct alternatives:
a) Alloys of metals usually have (greater / less) resistivity than that of their
constituent metals.
b) Alloys usually have much (lower/higher) temperature coefficients of resistance
than pure metals.
139 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

c) The resistivity of the alloy manganin is nearly independent of / increases

rapidly with increase of temperature.
d) The resistivity of a typical insulator (e.g., amber) is greater than that of a
metal by a factor of the order of (1022 / 1023).

SESSION – 4
AIM
✓ To introduce the concept of series combination of resistors.
✓ To introduce the concept of parallel combination of resistors.
✓ To introduce simple circuit problems.

THEORY
COMBINATION OF RESISTORS
Resistance in Series:
Let the equivalent resistance between A and B equals Req By definition,
R1 R2 R3
A B

I
V

𝑉
Req = ......(1)
𝐼

Using Kirchoff’s 2nd rule for the loop shown in figure,

V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 .....(2)
From (1) and (2), Req = R1 + R2 + R3
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Resistance in Parallel:
R1

R2
A B
R3
I I

V
𝑉
Here again, Req = ....(1)
𝐼
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
I = i 1 + i2 + i3 = 𝑅 + +𝑅 ....(2)
1 𝑅2 3
1 1 1 1
From (1) and (2) =𝑅 + +𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞 1 𝑅2 3

Illustration 1:
A network of resistors is connected to a 16 V battery with internal resistance of as
shown in the figure. (a) Compute the equivalent resistance of the network. (b) Obtain
the current in each resistor. (c) Obtain the voltage drops VAB, VBC and VCD
4 12
A B 1 C D

4 6
I

16V 1

Sol: (a) The network is a simple series and parallel combination of resistors. First the two
4 resistors in parallel are equivalent to a resistor
= [(4 x 4) / (4 + 4)] = 2
In the same way, the 12 and 6 resistor in parallel are equivalent to a resistor of
[(12 x 6) / (12 + 6)] = 4
The equivalent resistance R of the network is obtained by combining these resistors
(2 and 4) with 1 in series that is, R = 2 + 4 + 1 = 7
𝜀 16𝑉
(b) The total current I in the circuit is I = 𝑅+𝑟 = (7+1) = 2A

Consider the resistors between A and B. If II is the current in one of the 4

resistors and I2 the current in the other.I1 x 4 = I2 x 4 that is, I1 = I2, which is
141 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

otherwise obvious from the symmetry of the two arms. But I1 + I2 =2A I = 2A. Thus,
I1 = I2 = 1A that is, current in each 4 resistor is 1A. Current in 1 resistor between
B and C would be 2A.
Now, consider the resistances between C and D. If I3 is the current in the 12
resistor, and I4 in the 6 resistor, I3x 12 = I4 x 6 , i.e., I4 = 2I3
2 4
But, I3 + I4 = I = 2A Thus, I3 = (3) A, I4 =(3) A
that is, the current in the 12 resistor is (2/3)A, while the current in the 6 resistor
is (4/3) A.
(c) The voltage drop across AB is VAB = I1 x 4 = 1A x 4 = 4V,
This can also be obtained by multiplying the total current between A and B by the
equivalent resistance between A and B, that is VAB = 2A x 2 = 4V
The voltage drop across BC is VBC = 2A x 1 = 2V
2
Finally, the voltage drop across CD is VCD = 12 x I3 = 12 x (3)A = 8V
This can alternately be obtained by multiplying total current between C and D by the
equivalent resistance between C and D, that is,
VCD = 2A x 4 = 8V
Note that the total voltage drop across AD is 4V + 2V + 8V = 14 V. Thus, the terminal
voltage of the battery is 14 V, while its emf is 16 V. The loss of the voltage (=2V) is
accounted for by the internal resistance 1 of the battery. [2A x 1 = 2V]
Illustration 2:
An infinite sequence of resistance is shown in the figure. The resultant resistance
between A and B will be, when𝑅1 = 1 𝑜ℎ𝑚 and 𝑅2 = 2𝑜ℎ𝑚
R1 R1 R1 R1 R1
A

R2 R2 R2 R2 R2

a)Infinity b)1𝛺 c)2𝛺 d)1.5𝛺

Sol: (c)Let the resultant resistance beR. If we add one more branch, then the resultant
resistance would be the same because this is an infinite sequence.
142 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

R1= 1 X
A

R2= 2 R

B
Y
𝑅𝑅
∴ 𝑅+𝑅2 + 𝑅1 = 𝑅 ⇒ 2𝑅 + 𝑅 + 2 = 𝑅 2 + 2𝑅 ⇒ 𝑅 2 − 𝑅 − 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑅 = −1or𝑅 = 2 𝑜ℎ𝑚
2

Illustration 3:
Three equal resistances each of value Rare joined as shown in the figure. The
equivalent resistance between M and N is

M R

L R R N Z

𝑅 𝑅
a)R b)2R c) 2 d) 3
Sol: (d)Three resistances are in parallel.
1 1 1 1 3
∴ 𝑅′ = 𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 = 𝑅
𝑅
The equivalent resistance𝑅 ′ = 3 𝛺

Illustration 4:
𝑛equal resistors are first connected in series and then connected in parallel. What is
the ratio of the maximum to the minimum resistance
1 1
a)𝑛 b)𝑛2 c)𝑛2 d)𝑛
𝑅 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
Sol: (c)𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛𝑅 and 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛 ⇒ = 𝑛2
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛

Illustration 5:
A uniform wire of16𝛺 is made into the form of a square. Two opposite corners of the
square are connected by a wire of resistance 16𝛺. The effective resistance between
the other two opposite corners is
a)32𝛺 b)20𝛺 c)8𝛺 d)4𝛺
Sol: (d)According to the principle of Wheatstone’s bridge, the effective resistance
between the given points is 4.
143 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

4 4
A C
16

4 4

CBSE:
1] a) Three resistors 1 , 2 and 3 are combined in series. What is the total
resistance of the combination.
b) If the combination is connected to a battery of emf 12 V and negligible internal
resistance, obtain the potential drop across each resistor.
2] a) Three resistors 2 , 4 and 5 are combined in parallel. What is the total
resistance of the combination.
b) If the combination is connected to a battery of emf 20 V and negligible internal
resistance, determine the current through each resistor, and the total current
drawn from the battery.
3] a) Given n resistors each of resistance R, how will you combine them to get the
(i) maximum (ii) minimum effective resistance ?
b) Given the resistances of 1, 2, 3 how will be combine them to get an
equivalent resistance of
(i) (11/3), (ii) (11/5),
(iii) 6, (iv) (6/11)?
c) Determine the equivalent resistance of networks shown in figure.
R

R
1 1 1 1 R
R

2 2 2 2 R

(a) (b)
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SESSION - 5 AND 6
AIM
✓ Explain behavior of cell (EMF and Terminal Voltage)
✓ To Explain Kirchoff’s laws
✓ Concept of Earthing and short circuiting
✓ To Explain wheat stone bridge.

THEORY
Cause of Current:
The cause of flow of current in a conductor is potential difference. This potential
difference is maintained with the help of a cell.
Cell:A cell is a device which transfers positive charge from lower potential to higher
potential. Cell in an electric circuit is analogous to water pump used to transfer water
(analogous to current) from lower gravitational potential to higher gravitational
potential.

R No flow
No flow
A B
(0V) No current (0V)

(high potential) R (low potential)

A B

Circular flow
i of water

Cell Pump

EMF of a Cell: EMF stands of electromotive force. It is not a force. It represents

the work done per unit charge by a battery in transferring charge from negative to
positive terminal. Let W be the work done in transferring a charge q0, then its emf is
given by
𝑊
𝜀 = 𝑞 (unit: volt)
0

It represents the potential difference between the terminals, when there is no

current flowing through the cell.
Ideal Cell: In an ideal cell, there is no internal opposition to flow to charge or current.
In other words, there is no resistance of the cell.
Real Cell: In a real cell, there is some internal resistance present in the cell.
A real cell can be taken as an ideal cell along with some resistance.
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+ -

Ideal Cell Real Cell

KIRCHOFF’S LAWS
Kirchoff’s First Law (Current Law): The algebraic sum of all the currents meeting at
a junction is zero. If current flowing towards the junction is taken as positive, then
current flowing away from the junction is taken as negative.
i2

i1 i3

i4

 +i1_i2 + i3_i4 = 0 or i1 + i3 = i2 + i4
It is based on the principle of conservation of charge.
Kirchoff’s Second Law (Voltage Law): It states that the algebraic sum of all the
potential differences along a closed loop in the circuit is zero.
If we move along the circuit elements from A to B, we can relate the potentials of A
and B as
VA + 𝛴(rise in V) - 𝛴(fall in V) = VB
where, 𝛴 (rise in V) represents the increase in potential as we move across a circuit
element and 𝛴 (fall in V) represents the decrease in potential as we move across a
circuit element.
For a closed loop, we can write the above result as
𝛴(rise in V) __𝛴(fall in V) = 0 (∵VA = VB)
This law is based on the law of conservation of energy. While applying Kirchoff’s
voltage law, following points must be remembered.
1) 1) i R 2) R i
B
A B A
VA - iR = VB VA + iR = VB
3) 4)
A B A B
VA -  = VB VA +  = VB
146 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

5) Q, C
+ - 6) Q, C
- +
A B A B
Q Q
VA − = VB VA + = VB
C C

Using Kirchoff’s Laws:

1) Ideal Cell:In closed loop ABCDA, using KVL,
_iR + 𝜀 = 0 or 𝜀 = iR
i R
A B

D C

2) Real Cell: In closed loop ABCDA, using KVL,

_iR_ir + 𝜀 = 0 i=
𝜀
𝑅+𝑟
i R i
A B

D i r i C

Terminal Potential Difference:

The potential difference between the positive and negative terminal of an ideal cell is
equal to its emf. But in case of a real cell, it is not so. The terminal potential
difference is different from its emf. Consider the following situations.
(1) Discharging

i i
A B
r

Using KVL, VA_𝜀 + ir = VB

or VA_ VB = 𝜀 _ir

or V = 𝜀 _ir
V is called the terminal potential difference. Here V <𝜀.
(2) Charging
147 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

i i
A B
r

VA_𝜀 _ir = VB

or VA_ VB = 𝜀 + ir
or V = 𝜀 + ir
i.e. V >𝜀

(3) Isolated

A B
i=0

VA_𝜀 = VB or VA_ VB = 𝜀 V=𝜀

emf of a cell is the potential difference between its terminals when no current is
flowing through the cell. The potential difference between its terminal may be
greater, lesser or equal to its emf.
The applications of Kirchoff’s law will become more clear by carefully reading and
solving the following examples.

Problem Solving Strategy: Applying Kirchoff’s rules:

In this section, you will learn how Kirchoff’s rules can be used to analyze multiloop
circuits. The steps are summarized below :
1) Draw a circuit diagram, and label all the quantities, both known and unknown. The
number of unknown quantities is equal to the number of linearly independent equations
we must look for.
2) Assign a direction to the current in each branch of the circuit. (If the actual direction
is opposite to what you have assumed, your result at the end will be a negative
number).
3) Apply the junction rule to all but one of the junctions. (Applying the junction rule to
the last junction will not yield any independent relationship among the currents).
4) Apply the loop rule to the loops until the number of independent equations obtained is
the same as the number of unknowns. For example, if there are three unknowns, then
148 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

we must write down three linearly independent equations in order to have a unique
solution.
Traverse the loops using the convention below for 𝛥𝑉:

travel direction travel direction

higher V I lower V lower V I higher V

Resistor
a a
ΔV = Vb − Va = − IR b ΔV = Vb − Va = + IR b

travel direction travel direction

lower V higher V higher V lower V
emf source - + + -
a b a b
ΔV = Vb − Va = + ΔV = Vb − Va = −

travel direction travel direction

lower V higher V higher V lower V
-q +q +q -q
Capacitor
a b a b
ΔV = Vb − Va = + q/C ΔV = Vb − Va = −q/C

The same equation is obtained whether the closed loop is traversed clockwise or
counter clockwise. (The expressions actually differ by an overall negative sign.
However, using the loop rule, we are led to 0 = -0, and hence the same equation).
5) Solve the simultaneous equations to obtain the solutions for the unknowns.
As an example of illustrating how the above procedure are executed, let’s analyze the
circuit shown in following figure.
Suppose the emf sources 𝜀1 and 𝜀2 , and the resistances R1, R2 and R3 are all given, and
we would like to find the currents through each resistor, using the methodology
outlined above.
1
e + - f

R2

b - + c
R1
2

a d
R3
A multi loop circuit

1) The unknown quantities are the three currents I1, I2 and I3 associated with the
three resistors. Therefore, to solve the system, we must look for three independent
equations.
149 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

2) The directions for the three currents are arbitrarily assigned, as indicated in
following figure.
1
e f
+ -

I2 R2
1 I1
b - + c
2 R1

a d
R3 I3

3) Applying Kirchoff’s current rule to junction b yields I1 + I2 = I3 since I1 and I2 are

leaving the junction while I3 is entering the junction. The same equation is obtained if
we consider junction c.
4) The other two equations can be obtained by using the loop (voltage) rule, which states
that the net potential difference across all elements in a closed circuit loop is zero.
Traversing the first loop befcb in the clockwise direction yields.
-I2R2 - 𝜀1 + I1R1 - 𝜀2 = 0
Similarly, traversing the second loop abcda clockwise gives 𝜀2 – I1R1 – I3R3 = 0
Note however, that one may also consider the big loop abefcda. This leads to – I2R2 –
𝜀2 – I3R3 = 0
However, the equation is not linearly independent of the other two loop equations
since it is simply the sum of those equations.
5) The solutions to the above three equations are given by, after tedious but
straightforward algebra,
𝜀 𝑅 +𝜀 𝑅 +𝜀 𝑅
I1 = 𝑅 1𝑅 3+𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅2 𝑅2
1 2 1 3 2 3
𝜀1 𝑅1 +𝜀1 𝑅3 +𝜀2 𝑅3
I2 = − 𝑅
1 𝑅2 +𝑅1 𝑅3 +𝑅2 𝑅3
𝜀2 𝑅2 −𝜀1 𝑅1
I3 = 𝑅
1 𝑅2 +𝑅1 𝑅3 +𝑅2 𝑅3

Note that I2 is a negative quantity. This simply indicates that the direction of I2 is
opposite of what we have initially assumed.
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EARTHING OR GROUNDING IN AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

If a certain point in an electrical circuit is earthed, its potential is taken as zero.
Consider the following circuit. When only one point is grounded, there is no effect on
current in the circuit.
Using KVL in ABCDEA,
__3i __ 6i __i + 10 = 0 or i = 1A.
Now, VC = 0 V (because C is grounded)
A i ε = 10 V i E
i 1
i i

iC
B i 3 6 i D

(earthing)

Using KVL, VB__ 3i = VC

 VB = VC + 3i  VB = 3V

Similarly VC __ 6i = VD VD = __6 V.

Hence, earthing point gives us the reference level i.e., zero potential. Potentials of
different points can then be calculated using this reference.

SHORT CIRCUIT
If two points in a circuit are connected by a conducting wire (zero resistance path), it
is called a short circuit. The potential difference between the two points becomes
zero.
(1) Short - Circuiting a resistance: Consider a part of some circuit. The points B and C
are connected by a wire. Here R2 is short circuited.
R2
i R1 i
A B C R3 D

(i) The effective resistance between B and C becomes zero.

1 1 1 1
as𝑅 = 𝑅 + 0 = ∞ RBC = 0
𝐵𝐶 𝑅𝐵𝐶

 Effective resistance between A and D is R1 + R3.

(ii)The current through R2 = 0. Whole of the current i passes through conducting wire
𝑉
BC. This is because i= 𝑅. As VBC = 0  current through R2 is zero.
151 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

(2) Short-Circuiting of a cell:The terminal A and D of a cell are connected by a

connecting wire BC of zero resistance.
A i r i D

C
B i i

Using KVL in ABCDA, __ir + 𝜀 = 0𝜀 = ir or i =

𝜀
𝑟

Terminal potential difference across the cell isVAD = 𝜀 __ir = 𝜀 __ r, VAD = 0

Ex : A cell of is connected to an external resistance R. If terminal potential difference
across the cell is found to be V, find the internal resistance of the cell.
Sol : Given VA__VB = V
i R i
D C

i A r B i

Using KVL in ABCDA

−𝜀 + ir + iR = 0 𝜀 __ir = iR
Also VA__𝜀 + ir = VB VA__ VB = 𝜀 __ir

 V = 𝜀 __ir = iR
𝜀−𝑉 𝜀−𝑉 𝜀−𝑉
⇒R = or r= 𝑉 (∵ V = iR) R = ( )𝑅
𝑖 ( ) 𝑉
𝑅

Illustration 1:
Find the equivalent resistance between the points a and b of the circuit shown in
figure.
a 10  5

5

5 10 

Sol: Appling KVL between .

152 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

𝑉𝑎 – 𝑉𝑏 = 5(𝐼 – 𝑥) + 10𝑥 .....(i)

Appling KVL In loop ABCD 10𝑥 – 5(𝐼 – 2𝑥) – 5(𝐼 – 𝑥) = 0
25𝑥 – 10 𝐼 = 0
2
𝑥 = 5𝐼 .....(ii)
from eqn. (i) and (ii)
𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = 7 𝐼
𝑅 = 7𝛺

Illustration 2:
In the circuit shown in the figure E, F, G, are cells of emf 2, 1, 3 and 1 volt
respectively, and their internal resistances are 2,1,3 and 1 ohm respectively. Calculate
(i) the potential difference between B and D (ii) the potential difference across the
terminals of cells G
E
A B

2
F H

D C
G
Sol: (C–4): Let 𝐼2 Current flow throguht the branch BAD and 𝐼1 current flow through the
branch DCB
By Kirchoff’s function law, current in branch DB will be 𝐼2 − 𝐼1 as shown in the figure

Applying Kichoff’s law in loop BDAB

+2(𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) + 1 + 1 × 𝐼2 − 2 + 2𝐼2 = 0
2𝐼1 − 5𝐼2 = −1 .........(i)
Applying Kirchoff’s law in loop BCDB we get −2(𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) + 1 + 𝐼1 − 3 + 3𝐼1
3𝐼1 – 𝐼2 = 1 .........(ii)
6 5
Solving (i) and (ii) we get 𝐼1 = 13and 𝐼2 = 13
To find the p.d between B and D, we more from B to D
153 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

5 6 2
𝑉𝐵 + [13 − 13] × 2 = 𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐷 = 13 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
6 39−18 21
p.d. across volt 𝐺 = 3 − 13 × 3 = = 13
13
[the cell is the the charging mode]

Illustration 3:
If in the circuit shown below, the internal resistance of the battery is 1.5  and VP
and VQ are the potentials at P and Q respectively, what is the potential difference
between the points P and Q
a) Zero b) 4 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 (𝑉𝑃 > 𝑉𝑄 )
c) 4 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 (𝑉𝑄 > 𝑉𝑃 ) d)2.5 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 (𝑉𝑄 > 𝑉𝑃 )

5 20
Sol: (d) 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 2 𝛺 ⇒ 𝑖 = 5 = 5𝐴
+1.5
2

Potential difference between X and P,

5
𝑉𝑋 − 𝑉𝑃 = (2) × 3 = 7.5𝑣
5
𝑉𝑋 − 𝑉𝑄 = 2 × 2 = 5𝑉 …(ii)
On solving (i) and (ii)
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑣𝑄 = −2.
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑄 = −2.5 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡; 𝑉𝑄 > 𝑉𝑃 .
Short Trick:
𝑖 5
(𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑄 ) = (𝑅2 − 𝑅1 ) = (2 − 3) = −2.5
2 2
⇒ 𝑉𝑄 > 𝑉𝑃
154 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Illustration 4:
In the circuit shown below 𝐸1 = 4.0 𝑉, 𝑅1 = 2 𝛺, 𝐸2 = 6.0 𝑉, 𝑅2 = 4𝛺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅3 = 2𝛺.The
current 𝐼1 is
a) 1.6 𝐴 b)1.8 𝐴 c)1.25 𝐴 d) 1.0 𝐴

Sol: (b) Applying Kirchhoff’s law for the loops (1) and (2) as shown in figure
For loop (1)

−2𝑖1 − 2(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) + 4 = 0 ⇒ 2𝑖1 − 𝑖2 = 2 …(i)

For loop (2)
−2(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) + 4𝑖2 − 6 = 0 ⇒ −𝑖1 + 3𝑖2 = 3 …(ii)
On solving equation (i) and (ii) 𝑖1 = 1.8𝐴.

CLASS EXERCISE
1] Find VB (Potential of pt B) and current in each resistor.
6V

6 2
36V B 3
12V

2] Find current in each resistor and find VA_VB (Potential difference between A and B)
155 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

6 A

3
2
24v
18v

3] Find VA_ VB (Potential difference between A and B)

6 16v
A

6 4
20v

24v 4v

6 B

4] The potential difference across 8 𝑜ℎ𝑚 resistance is 48volt as shown in the figure. The
value of potential difference across 𝑋 and 𝑌 points will be
a) 160 volt b) 128 volt c) 80 volt d) 62 volt

Sol: (a)The given circuit can be redrawn as follows

24×8
Resistance between A and B = = 6𝛺
32
48
Current between A and B= Current between 𝑋 and 𝑌 = 𝑖 = = 8𝐴
6
Resistance between 𝑋 and 𝑌 = (3 + 10 + 6 + 1) = 20𝛺
⇒ Potential difference between 𝑋 and 𝑌 = 8 × 20 = 160 𝑉
5] In the given circuit the current I1 is
156 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

a) 0.4 𝐴 b)– 0.4 𝐴 c) 0.8 𝐴 d)– 0.8 𝐴

Sol: (b) The circuit can be simplified as follows

Applying 𝐾𝐶𝐿 at junction 𝐴

𝒊𝟑 = 𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐 .….(i)
Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law for the loop 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐴
−30𝑖1 − 40𝑖3 + 40 = 0 ⇒ −30𝑖1 − 40(𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ) + 40 = 0
⇒ 7𝑖1 + 4𝑖2 = 4 .….(ii)
Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law for the loop 𝐴𝐷𝐸𝐹𝐴.
−40𝑖2 − 40𝑖3 + 80 + 40 = 0
⇒ −40𝑖2 − 40(𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ) = −120
⇒ 𝑖1 + 2𝑖2 = 3 ….(iii)
On solving equation (ii) and (iii)
𝑖1 = −0.4𝐴.
157 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

SESSION-7
AIM
✓ Applying Symmetry to determine Net Resistance of circuits.
✓ For applying this concept we analyze current distribution to understand flow of
current affecting the circuit. Finally we may use Kirchoff’sLaws, This can be
understood by the following example.

Illustration 1:
In the network shown, each resistance is R. Calculate the equivalent resistance
between A and B.

A B

Sol: Draw the lines of symmetry in the circuit.

Current distribution shall be symmetric about the lines of symmetry.
 If a current x goes in AC, then a current x also goes in AD.
Line of symmetry
C F

2x+y x y z z y
x
E B Line of symmetry
A z x
x Z

D G

Similarly at exit, a current x comes from FB, and same current from GB. This implies
that the current y through AE goes to EB as it is.
Also, if a current (say z) comes from CE, it goes to EF and from DE to EG.
 The junction at E is void. The circuit can be rearranged as
C R F 2R/3

R
R R
R R R
A E B A B
E R
R 2R
R E R
R R R R

R 2R/3

4𝑅
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 5
158 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Illustration 2:
Twelve identical wires, each of resistance R, are joined to form a cube as shown. Find
the equivalent resistance between two ends of a body diagonal.
Sol: The situation is shown in figure. Let a current I enters through A and leaves at G. the
I
potential difference between A and G is V. H G
I/3 I/3
𝑉 I/6 D
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = I/6
C
𝐼 I/6 I/3
I/3
E F I/6
I/3 I/6 I/6

I A I/3 B
V
I
Distribution of Current:
I

The currents are divided according to the resistances in different paths. At A, there
are three paths to G. They are
F-G H-G H-G
1) A B 2) A D 3) A E
C-G C-G F-G

Clearly the three paths are identical. Therefore, at 𝐴, current is divided into 3 equal
parts. At B, D and E, these parts further divide into two equal parts as the paths are
identical.
Now, using 𝐾𝑉𝐿 in closed loop 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐺𝐴,
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 5𝐼𝑅
−3 × 𝑅 − 6 × 𝑅 − 3 × 𝑅 + 𝑉 = 0 ⇒ 𝑉 = ......(ii)
6
5
From (i) & (ii), 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 6 R

DELTA TO STAR OR DELTA-STAR TRANSFORMATION

Suppose we are given three resistance 𝑅12 , 𝑅13 , 𝑅23 connected in delta fashion between
1,2,3 points. Then thses given resistance replaced by three
resistance𝑅1 , 𝑅2 𝑅3 connected in star
159 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

HOW TO REMEMBER:
Resistance of each arm of the is given by the product of the resistance of the two
delta sides that meet at its ends, divided by the sum of the delta resistance

𝑅12 + 𝑅13
𝑅1 =
𝑅12 + 𝑅13 + 𝑅23
𝑅12 × 𝑅23
𝑅2 =
𝑅12 + 𝑅13 + 𝑅23
𝑅13 × 𝑅23
𝑅3 =
𝑅12 + 𝑅13 + 𝑅23

Illustration 3:
Find the input resitance of the circuit between the points A and B of figure

4×8 16
Sol: 𝑅1 = = 𝛺
18 9
4 × 6 12
𝑅2 = = 𝛺
18 9
6 × 8 24
𝑅3 = = 𝛺
18 9
24 20
+4= 𝛺
9 3
12 28
+8= 𝛺
9 3
20 28
× 35
3 3
𝑅𝑃 = 20 28 = 9 𝛺
+ 3
3
16 35 87
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 4 + + 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝛺
3 9 9
160 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

STAR TO DELTA OR STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION:

Suppose we are given resistance 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 connected in star farstion between 1,2,3
points. Then theses resistance can be repl;aced by three resisitance
𝑅12 , 𝑅23 , 𝑅3 connected in Delta

HOW TO REMEMBER
The Equivalent delta resistance between any two terminals is given by the sum of star
resistance between those terminals plus the product of these two star resistance
divided by the third resistance.

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅12 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 +
𝑅3
𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅23 = 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 +
𝑅1
𝑅1 𝑅3
𝑅13 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 +
𝑅2

Illustration 4:
Compute the network resistance measured between
a) A and B b) B And C c) C and A
161 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

6+3 27 3×4 6×4

𝑅12 = 6 + 3 + = 𝛺 ⇒ 𝑅23 = 3 + 4 + = 9𝛺 ⇒ 𝑅13 = 4 + 6 +
9 2 6 3
= 18𝛺

27 9 9 27
6×( + ) 18 ×(6+ ) 441
20 10
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 27 9 = 11 𝛺 ⇒ 𝑅𝐵𝐶 = 109 20
27 = 550 𝛺
6+ + +6+
20 10 10 20

CLASS EXERCISE:
1] Find equivalent resistance across AB
R
R
R R R
A B
R
R

Find RAB.
2]
R R R
A

2R 2R 2R

3] A wire of resistance R is bent in a circular loop. Find the equivalent resistance across
AB.

A
B 0
60

a) b)
4] Find RAB
162 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

R R R

A R R B
R R R

5] Find RAB
R R

R
R R
A B

R
R R

HOME EXERCISE
1] The effective resistance between the points A and B of the electrical circuit shown in
the figure is
R

R R R
R
R R
A B

NCERT (CBSE) BOOK QUESTION

1] Determine the current drawn from a 12V supply with internal resistance 0.5by the
infinite network shown in Fig. Each resistor has 1 resistance.
1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 (12V
0.51)

1 1 1 1 1
163 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

SESSION - 8
AIM
✓ Grouping Of Cells

1] Series Combination:Two cells of emf’s and internal resistances r1 and r2 are

connected in series to an external resistance R as shown. Let us calculate equivalent
emf and internal resistance of the combination of two cells.
1 2
A D
r1 r2

B C
i R

Using KVL in ABCDA,

_iR_ ir +𝜀2 _ir + 𝜀1 = 0or𝑖 = 𝜀1+𝜀2
2 1 𝑅+𝑟1 +𝑟2
𝜀
Comparing with 𝑖 = 𝑅+𝑟, we get equivalent values as
𝜀 = 𝜀1 + 𝜀2 , r = r1 + r2
The two cells act like a single cell of emf𝜀1 + 𝜀2 and internal resistance r1 + r2. In
general, for series grouping of cells,
i) If there are n cells, then 𝜀 = 𝜀1 + 𝜀2 + … … + 𝜀𝑛 , r = r1 + r2 + ....+ rn
ii) When 𝜀1 = 𝜀2 = 𝜀3 … . = 𝜀0  𝜀 = 𝑛𝜀0
iii) When r1 + r2 = r3 ........ = r0 r = nr0
iv)If out of n cells, m cells are wrongly connected (with terminals reversed),
then𝜀 = (𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜀 − 𝑚𝜀= (n - 2m) 𝜀
2] Parallel Combination: Two cells, as shown, are sending current through an external
resistance R. In closed loop ABCDEFGHA,
𝜀 𝑖𝑅
−𝑖𝑅 − 𝑖1 𝑟1 + 𝜀1 = 0  𝑟1 = + 𝑖1 ......(1)
1 𝑟1

In closed loop IBCDEFGJI,

1 r1
i1
A H
G
C B F
i2 2
I r2 J

D i E
R
𝜀 𝑖𝑅
−𝑖𝑅 − 𝑖2 𝑟2 + 𝜀2 = 0  𝑟2 = + 𝑖2 ......(2)
2 𝑟2
164 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

By junction rule at B, i = i 1 + i2
Adding (1) and (2)
𝜀1 𝜀2 𝑅 𝑅 𝜀 𝜀2 1 1
+ = 𝑖 (𝑟 + 𝑟 ) + 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 𝑟1 + = 𝑖𝑅 (𝑟 + 𝑟 ) + 𝑖 (∵ 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 = 𝑖)
𝑟1 𝑟2 1 2 1 𝑟2 1 2
𝜀 𝜀
1 1 1 𝜀1 𝜀2 𝑅 ( 1 + 2 )𝑟
Taking 𝑟 = 𝑟 + 𝑟 , we have,
𝑟1 𝑟2
+ = 𝑖 [ 𝑟 + 1]𝑖 =
1 2 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑅+𝑟
𝜀 𝜀
𝜀 𝜀1 𝜀2 ( 1+ 2) 1 1 1
Comparing with i= 𝑅+𝑟, we have, 𝜀 = ( 𝑟 + 𝑟 ) rOr 𝜀 =
𝑟1 𝑟2
1 1 (∵ 𝑟 = 𝑟 + 𝑟 )
1 2 + 1 2
𝑟1 𝑟2
1 1 1
Also𝑟 = 𝑟 + 𝑟
1 2
𝜀1 𝜀2
+ 1
The two cells act like a single cell of emf𝜀 = and internal resistance r given by 𝑟 =
𝑟1 𝑟2
1 1
+
𝑟1 𝑟2
1 1
+𝑟
𝑟1 2
𝜀1 𝜀2 𝜀
+ + ..…+ 𝑛 1 1 1 1
In general, for parallel grouping of cells 𝜀 =
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟𝑛
1 1 1 ,𝑟 = 𝑟 + 𝑟 + .…+ 𝑟
+ + ..…+ 1 2 𝑛
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟𝑛

3] Mixed Grouping of Cells: Let S number of identical cells having marking (E,r) are
connected in series in a row and there are P such rows are connected in parallel across
an external resistor r. Then
𝑆𝑟 𝑆𝐸 𝐸 𝑆 𝑅
Eeq = SE req=  𝐼 = 𝑆𝑟 = 𝑟 𝑅 . This current I is maximum when = 𝑟 . So Imax =
𝑃 +𝑅 + 𝑃
𝑃 𝑃 𝑆
𝑃𝐸 𝑆𝐸
or .
2𝑟 2𝑅

Illustration 1:The n rows each containing m cells in series are joined in parallel. Maximum
current is taken from this combination across an external resistance of 3 resistance.
If the total number of cells used are 24 and internal resistance of each cell is 0.5 
.0then
a) 𝑚 = 8, 𝑛 = 3 b)𝑚 = 6, 𝑛 = 4
c) 𝑚 = 12, 𝑛 = 2 d) 𝑚 = 2, 𝑛 = 12
Sol: (c) Total cells = 𝑚  𝑛 = 24 .... (i)
𝑚𝑟
For maximum current in the circuit 𝑅 = 𝑛
𝑚 𝑚
⇒3= × (0.5) ⇒ 𝑚 = 6𝑛3 = × (0.5) ⇒ 𝑚 = 6𝑛 ..... (ii)
𝑛 𝑛
On solving equation (i) and (ii), we get 𝑚 = 12, 𝑛 = 2

Illustration 2:Two batteries, one of emf18 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 and internal resistance 2𝛺 and the other
of emf 12 volt and internal resistance 1 , are connected as shown. The voltmeter V will
record a reading of
165 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

a)15 volt b)30 volt c)14 volt d)18 volt

𝐸1 𝑟2 +𝐸2 𝑟1 10×1+12×2
Sol: (c) Reading of voltmeter = 𝐸𝑒𝑞 = = = 14𝑉
𝑟1 ++𝑟2 1+2

Illustration 3:
A cell of constant e.m.f. first connected to a resistance 𝑅1 and then connected to a
resistance 𝑅2 . If power delivered in both cases is equal then the internal resistance
of the cell is
𝑅 𝑅1 −𝑅2 𝑅1 +𝑅2
a) √𝑅1 𝑅2 b) √𝑅1 c) d) √
2 2 2

𝐸 2
Sol: (a)Power dissipated = 𝑖 2 𝑅 = (𝑅+𝑟) 𝑅
𝐸 2 𝐸 2
∴ (𝑅 ) 𝑅1 = (𝑅 ) 𝑅2
1 +𝑟 2 +𝑟
⇒ 𝑅1 (𝑅22 + 𝑟2 + 2𝑅2 𝑟) = 𝑅2 (𝑅12 + 𝑟 2 + 2𝑅1 𝑟)
⇒ 𝑅22 𝑅1 + 𝑅1 𝑟 2 + 2𝑅2 𝑟 = 𝑅12 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑟 2 + 2𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑟
⇒ (𝑅1 − 𝑅2 )𝑟 2 = (𝑅1 − 𝑅2 )𝑟 2 = (𝑅1 − 𝑅2 )𝑅1 𝑅2
⇒ 𝑟 = √𝑅1 𝑅2

Illustration 4:
Two sources of equal emf are connected to an external resistance R. The internal
resistances of the two sources are 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 (𝑅2 > 𝑅1 ).If the potential difference
across the source having internal resistance 𝑅2 is zero, then
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 (𝑅 +𝑅 )
a)𝑅 = (𝑅 1+𝑅2 ) b)𝑅 = (𝑅 1−𝑅2 ) c)𝑅 = 𝑅2 × (𝑅1−𝑅2) d) 𝑅 = 𝑅2 − 𝑅1
1 2 2 1 2 1
2𝐸
Sol: (d) 𝑖 = 𝑅+𝑅
1 +𝑅2

From cell (2) 𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝑖𝑅2 = 0 + 𝑖𝑅2

2𝐸
⇒𝐸= × 𝑅2 ⇒ 𝑅 = 𝑅2 − 𝑅1
𝑅 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
166 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Illustration 5:
The internal resistance of a cell of e.m.f. 12Vis 5 × 10−2 𝛺. It is connected across an
unknown resistance. Voltage across the cell, when a current of 60 A is drawn from it,
is
a) 15 V b) 12 V c) 9 V d) 6 V
Sol: (c) 𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝑖𝑟 = 12 − 60 × 5 × 10−2 = 9𝑉.

Illustration 6:The current in the given circuit is

a)0.1 A b)0.2 A c)0.3 A d)0.4 A

Sol: (a) Applying Kirchoff's voltage law in the loop

10𝑖 + 5 − 2𝑖 − 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑖 = 0.1𝐴

Illustration7:In a series grouping of N cells current in the external circuit is I. How may
1
cells should be reversed their polarity that the current becomes 𝑟𝑑 the earlier
3
value.
𝑁𝐸
Sol: Before reversing the cells current is 𝐼 = 𝑅+𝑁𝑟
Let n cells be reversed in their polarity
 Net e.m.f. ⇒ 2𝑛 cells get nullified
= (𝑁 − 2𝑛)𝐸
Total resistance 𝑁𝑟 + 𝑅
(𝑁−2𝑛)𝐸
⇒ 𝑖′ = 𝑁𝑟+𝑅
𝐼′ 1 (𝑁−2𝑛)𝐸 𝑁
But, =3= ⇒𝑛=
𝐼 𝑁𝑟+𝑅 3
167 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

CLASS EXERCISE:
1. A battery has e.m.f. 4 𝑉 and internal resistance 𝑟. When this battery is connected to
an external resistance of 2ohms, a current of 1𝑎𝑚𝑝. flows in the circuit. How much
current will flow if the terminals of the battery are connected directly
a)1 amp b)2 amp c)4 amp d)Infinite
𝐸 4
Sol: (b) 𝑖 = 𝑅+𝑟 ⇒ 1 = 𝑅+𝑟 = 𝑟 = 2𝛺
Short circuit when terminals of battery connected directly then current flows which
is
𝐸 4
𝑖𝑠𝑐 = = 2 = 2𝐴.
𝑟
2. Two batteries A and B each of e.m.f. 2 𝑉 are connected in series to an external
resistance R = 1 ohm. If the internal resistance of battery A is 1.9 ohms and that of B
is 0.9 𝑜ℎ𝑚, what is the potential difference between the terminals of battery A

a) 2 V b)3.8 V c)Zero d)None of the above

2+2 4
Sol: (c) 𝑖 = = 𝐴
1+1.9+0.9 3.8
4
For cell A 𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝑖𝑟 ⇒ 𝑉 = 2 − 3.8 × 1.9 = 0.
3. When a resistor of 11 𝛺 is connected in series with an electric cell, the current
flowing in it is 0.5 𝐴. Instead, when a resistor of 5 𝜔 is connected to the same electric
cell in series, the current increases by 0.4 𝐴. The internal resistance of the cell is
a) 1.5  b)2  c)2.5  d) 3.5 
𝐸
Sol: (c) By using 𝑖 = 𝑅+𝑟
𝐸
⇒ 0.5 = 11+𝑟 ⇒ 𝐸 = 5.5 + 0.5 𝑟 ..…(i)
𝐸
And 0.9 = 5+𝑟 ⇒ 𝐸 = 4.5 + 0.9𝑟 ..…(ii)
On solving these equation, we have 𝑟 = 2.5𝛺
4. A current of two amperes is flowing through a cell of e.m.f. 5 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠and internal
resistance 0.5 𝑜ℎ𝑚 from negative to positive electrode. If the potential of negative
electrode is 10V, the potential of positive electrode will be
a) 5 V b) 14 V c) 15 V d) 16 V
Sol: (b) 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = 𝐸 − 𝑖𝑟 = 5 − 2 × 0.5 = 4 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
⇒ 𝑉2 = 4 + 𝑉1 = 4 + 10 = 14 𝑣 𝑜𝑙𝑡
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5. 100cells each of e.m.f. 5 V and internal resistance 1 𝑜ℎ𝑚are to be arranged so as to

produce maximum current in a 25 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 resistance. Each row is to contain equal number
of cells. The number of rows should be
a) 2 b)4 c)5 d)10
Sol: (a)If 𝑚 = Number of rows
and𝑛 = Number of cells in a row
Then 𝑚 × 𝑛 = 100 .....(i)
𝑛𝑟
Also condition of maximum current is 𝑅 = 𝑚
1×𝑛
⇒ 25 = ⇒ 𝑛 = 25 𝑚.....(ii)
𝑚
On solving (i) and (ii) m = 2
6. Two identical cells send the same current in 2 resistance, whether connected in
series or in parallel. The internal resistance of the cell should be
1
a) 1𝛺 b) 2𝛺 c)2 𝛺 d) 2.5𝛺
2𝐸
Sol: (b) In series ,𝑖1 = 2+2𝑟
𝐸 2𝐸
In parallel, 𝑖2 = 𝑟 = 4+𝑟
2+
2
2𝐸 2𝐸
Since 𝑖1 = 𝑖2 ⇒ 4+𝑟 = 2+2𝑟 ⇒ 𝑟 = 2𝛺
7. The internal resistances of two cells shown are 0.1𝛺and 0.3𝛺. If 𝑅 = 0.2𝛺 ,the
potential difference across the cell

a) B will be zero b) A will be zero

c)A and B will be 2V d)A will be > 2𝑉 and 𝐵 will
be < 2𝑉
Sol: (a) Applying Kirchhoff law
20
(2 + 2) = (0.1 + 0.3 + 0.2)𝑖 ⇒ 𝑖 = 𝐴
3
20 4
Hence potential difference across A= 2 − 0.1 × = 3 𝑉 (𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 2𝑉)
3
20
Potential difference across 𝐵 = 2 − 0.3 × =0
3
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8] A torch battery consisting of two cells of 1.45volts and an internal resistance 0.15𝛺,
each cell sending currents through the filament of the lamps having resistance
1.5𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠. The value of current will be
a) 16.11 amp b) 1.611 amp c) 0.1611 amp d)2.6 amp
Sol: (b)Here two cells are in series.
Therefore total emf = 2E.
Total resistance = R + 2r
2𝐸 2×1.45 2.9 29
∴ 𝑖 = 𝑅+2𝑟 = 1.5+2×0.15 = 1.8 = = 1.611𝑎𝑚𝑝
18
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SESSION – 9
AIM
✓ To introduce the concept of power and heat developed in the resistor and
introducethe concept of maximum power transfer theorem.
✓ To introduce problems where bulbs are involved which are common in exams like
AIEEE. It is a simple concept based on power developed in the resistor.

HEATING EFFECT OF CURRENT:

Joule Effect: Heat developed in resistor R in time t. H = VIt = I2Rt = 𝑅 t
𝑉2

𝐻 𝑉2
So electrical power dissipated: 𝑃 = = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 =
𝑡 𝑅

* When a number of resistor are connected in series

I = const., So P = I2R  P  R. Power dissipated among resistors are in the ratio of
resistances.
* When a number of resistors are connected in parallel, V = constant.
𝑉2 1
So P =  𝑃 𝑅. Power dissipated among resistors are in the reciprocal ratio of
𝑅
resistances.
Power:
The rate work done in an electrical circuit is called the power and is dissipated in the
form of heat
Power dispatched in the form of heat
Power dispatched
𝑑𝑊 𝑉𝐼𝑡
𝑃= = = 𝑉𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝑡
𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 =
𝑅
The S−I unit of power is wait (W)
1𝑊 = 1𝑗𝑠 −1
Electric energy:
The usual unit of energy is joulesbut for conveniences electrical energy is measured in
kilowatt hour (KWh)
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1kwh = p(on kilowatt)× (t in hour)

1kwh = 100 × 3600 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
1kwh =3.6 × 106 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
In houses the electrical appliances (eg; bulb, TV, computer, refrigerator etc)
Are connected in parallel and electrical energy consume is measured in kilowatt hour
(kwh)
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡×ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
Number of units consumed = 1000
(𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒) × (𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
=
1000
Specification of Bulb or other Electric Appliance:
When a bulb as specified voltage and power p, then resistance R and maximum allowed
current I may be determined
𝑝
Power (P) =voltage (V)× currenbt (I)⇒Maximum allowed current in bulb is 𝐼 = 𝑉
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉2
Resistance of its filament 𝑅 = = 𝑃 =
𝐼 𝑃
𝑉

The more the current flowing through a bulb the more its glow.
The bulbs and a other a electric appliances are manufactured for parallel combination
.if they are connected in series the effect is reversed.
For example if two bulbs of 50W, 200W are given, then in parallel 200W bulb glows
more bright but in series the 50W bulb would go more brightly as more current flows
through it.

Electric bulb:
A bulb is represented by (W, Vs) W and Vs are specified wattage and voltage
respectively.
𝑉𝑠2 1
So resistance of bulb R = . If Vs = const. R 𝑊Let the applied voltage across the
𝑊

bulb is VA.
* If VA = VS then power delivered by bulb, P = W.
* If VA> VS then bulb will get damaged. (as current through the bulb will be more than
its current capacity)
𝑉 2
* If VA< VS, then P = ( 𝑉𝐴 ) 𝑊 𝑃 < 𝑊
𝑠
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* If bulbs of different wattage W1, W2, W3 ....... but of some specified voltage VS are
connected in series across a supply of voltage VS then net power dissipated P is given
by
1 1 1 1 1 −1
= 𝑊 + 𝑊 + 𝑊 + … . .  𝑃 = (𝛴 𝑊 )
𝑃 1 2 3 𝑖

POWER TRANSFORMATION RULE:

* Bulbs of same specified voltage and different wattage are in series:
I = const., So voltage across each bulb, V = IR  V R and power dissipated by each
bulb, P = I2R
1 1
P R. but as R ∝ 𝑊 So P  V R  𝑊. The low wattage bulb will give more illumination.
* Bulbs of same specified voltage and different wattage are in parallel:
𝑉𝐴 1
VA = const., so current through each bulb, I =  𝐼 𝑅 and power dissipated by each
𝑅

bulb,
𝑉𝐴2 1 1 1
P =  𝑃 𝑅 But as R  𝑊 So P I  𝑅 . So the high wattage bulb will give more
𝑅
illumination.

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

E, r
𝐸2
Net power dissipated by the cell: 𝑃′ = 𝐼 2 (𝑅 + 𝑟) = (𝑅+𝑟)
𝐸2
When the cell is short circuited (R = 0), 𝑃′ will maximum and 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
′
= 𝑟

But power dissipated by the cell across the external resistor is P = I2R = (𝑅+𝑟)2
𝐸2 𝑅

Whether the cell is short circuited (R = 0) or in open circuit (R →), P is zero.

P will be maximum when R = r. This is known as maximum power theorem and
𝐸2 𝑟 𝐸2
𝑃𝑚𝑥/𝑅=𝑟 = (𝑟+𝑟)2 = 4𝑟
Characteristics of a Fuse:
Fuse is used with main electrical circuit for the safety of electrical appliances
⇒A fuse wires must have high resistance and low melting point
⇒ It is tin lead alloy let R be the resistance
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𝜌 → resistivity
𝑙 →length of the wire
𝑎 → area of cross− section
𝐼 →current carrying capacity
when the fuse is shape, then for its steady state temperature
heat produced per second must be equal to heat radiated by it per second
𝑄 𝜌𝑙
heat produced in fuse wire per second 𝐻 = = 𝐼2𝑅 = 𝐼2 ( 𝐴 )
𝑡
𝐼 2 𝜌𝑙
𝐻= 2
𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1
𝜋𝑟
Newtons’law of cooling
The energy radiated per second 𝐻 = 𝑒(2𝜋𝑟𝑙)𝑇
e→ ennesivity , r→ radius of fuse wire 𝑇 → excess safe temperature
for steady state
𝐼 2 𝜌𝑙
𝑒(2𝜋𝑟𝑙)𝑇 =
𝜋𝑟𝑙
𝐼2𝜌
𝑇=
2𝜋 2 𝑒𝑟 2
so, we observe that the steady state temperature of a fuse is independent of its
length
hence length is immaterial for an electric fuse
for a given material of fuse wire
𝐼2 ∝ 𝑟 3

Illustration 1: How many electrons flow per sec through the filament of a 220V and 110 W
electric bulb.
Sol: As, watt = volt x ampere
W 110 1
I= = = A
V 220 2
Now if n electrons are flowing through the filament of the bulb in time t.
ne n 1
I= i.e., =
t t e

So,
n
=
(1 / 2) = 1  1019 = 3.125  1018
t 1.6  10 −19 3.2
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Illustration 2:An electric bulb rated 220V and 60 W is connected in series with another
electric bulb rated 220v and 40 W. The combination is connected across 220 volt
source of e.m.fWhich bulb will glow more?
V2
Sol: R=
P
V2
 Resistance of first bulb is R1 =
P1

V2
And resistance of the second bulb is R 2 =
P2
In series same current will pass through each bulb
v2 v2
 Power developed across first is P1 ' = I 2 and that across second is P1 = I 2
P1 P1
P1 P2 P P
 = as P2  P1  2  1  1  1  P1  P2
P2 P1 P1 P2
The bulb rated 220 V & 40 W will glow more.

Illustration 3:A torch bulb rated as 4.5 W, 1.5 V is connected as shown in the figure. The
e.m.f. of the cell needed to make the bulb glow at full intensity is
a) 4.5 V b)1.5 V c)2.67 V d)13.5 V

Sol: (d)Current in the bulb =

P 4 .5
= = 3A
V 1 .5

Current in 1  resistance =
1 .5
= 1 .5 A
1

Hence total current from the cell i = 3 + 1 .5 = 4 .5 A

By using E = V + ir  E = 1.5 + 4.5  (2.67 ) = 13 .5 V

Illustration 4:In the following circuit, bulb rated as 1.5 V, 0.45 W. If bulbs glows with full
intensity then what will be the equivalent resistance between X and Y
a)0.45  b)1  c)3  d)5 
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Sol: (b)When bulb glows with full intensity, then voltage across it will be 1.5 V and voltage
across 3  resistance will be 4.5 V.

Current through 3  resistance i = 4 .5 = 1 .5 A

3

Same current will flow between X and Y

So VXY = iRXY  1.5 = 1.5 RXY  RXY = 1

Illustration 5:
An electric kettle has two heating coils. When one coil is used, water in the kettle boils
in 5 minutes, while when second coil is used, same water boils in 10 minutes. If the two
coils, connected in parallel are used simultaneously, the same water will boil in time a)3
min 20 sec b)5 min c)7 min 30 sec d)2 min 30 sec
Sol: (a)In parallel 1
=
1
+
1
tp t1 t 2

t1 t 2 5  10 50
 tp = = = = 3 .33 min = 3 min. 20 sec
t1 + t 2 5 + 10 15

Illustration 6:A piece of fuse wire melts when a current of 15 ampere flows through it.
With this current, if it dissipates 22.5 W, the resistance of fuse wire will be
a) Zero b) 10  c) 1 d) 0.10 

Sol: (d) P = i2 R  22 .5 = (15 )  R  R = 0.10 

2
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CLASS EXERCISE:
1. For driving a current of 2 A for 6 minutes in a circuit, 1000 J of work is to be done.
The e.m.f. of the source in the circuit is
a)1.38 V b)1.68 V c)2.04 V d)3.10 V
Sol: (a) P=
W
= Vi  V =
W
=
1000
= 1 .38 V
t it 2  6  60

2. The electric bulbs have tungsten filaments of same length. If one of them gives 60
watt and other 100 watt, then
a)100 watt bulb has thicker filament
b)60 watt bulb has thicker filament
c) Both filaments are of same thickness
d) It is possible to get different wattage unless the lengths are different
1
Sol: (a) PRated  and R
1
R (Thickness of filament) 2

So PRated  (Thickness of filament) 2

3. Three equal resistors connected in series across a source of e.m.f. together dissipate
10 watt. If the same resistors are connected in parallel across the same e.m.f., then
the power dissipated will be
a)10 watt b)30 watt c)10/3 watt d)90 watt
Sol: (d)In series PS =
P
 10 = P  P = 30 W
n 3

In parallel PP = nP = 3  30 = 90 W
4. How much energy in kilowatt hour is consumed in operating ten 50 watt bulbs for 10
hours per day in a month (30 days).
a) 1500 b) 5,000 c) 15 d)150
Watt  hour
Sol: (d)Energy consumed in kWh =
1000
10  50  10
 For 30 days, P=  30 = 150 kWh
1000

5. A 25 watt, 220 volt bulb and a 100 watt, 220 volt bulb are connected in series across
a 220 volt lines. Which electric bulb will glow more brightly
a)25 watt bulb b)100 watt bulb
c)First 25 watt and then 100 watt d)Both with same brightness
Sol: (a)The resistance of 25 Wbulb is greater than 100 W bulb. So for the same current,
heat produced will be more in 25 Wbulb. So it will glow more brightly.
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6. The heating coils rating at 220 volt and producing 50 cal/sec heat are available with
the resistances 55 , 110 , 220  and 440  . The heater of maximum power will be of
a) 440  b) 220  c) 110  d) 55 
V2
Sol: (d) H = H 
1
t R t R

7. A heating coil can heat the water of a vessel from 20 C to 60 C in 30 minutes. Two
such heating coils are put in series and then used to heat the same amount of water
through the same temperature range. The time taken now will be (neglecting thermal
capacity of the coils)
(a) 60 minutes (b)30 minutes
(c)15 minutes (d)7.5 minutes
Sol: (a) tS = t1 + t2 = 30 + 30 = 60 minutes

8. Two wires ‘A’ and ‘B’ of the same material have their lengths in the ratio 1 : 2 and radii
in the ratio 2 : 1. The two wires are connected in parallel across a battery. The ratio
of the heat produced in ‘A’ to the heat produced in ‘B’ for the same time is
a) 1 : 2 b) 2 : 1 c) 1 : 8 d) 8 : 1
2
 r2 
Sol: (d) R1 = 
l1
and R2 = 
l2
 R1 l1 A2 l1
= . = 
r


A1 A2 R 2 l2 A1 l2  1 

Given l1 1
= and r1
=
2
or r2 1
=  R1 =
1
l2 2 r2 1 r1 2 R2 8
2
Ratio of heats
H1 V / R1 R 2 8
 = 2 = =
H 2 V / R2 R1 1

9. A hot electric iron has a resistance of 80  and is used on a 200 V source. The
electrical energy spent, if it is used for two hours, will be
a) 8000 Wh b)2000 Wh c)1000 Wh d)800 Wh
V2 200  200  2
Sol: (c)Energy t= = 1000 Wh
R 80
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SESSION - 10 AND 11

ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT OF MEASUREMENT

AIM
✓ To study about whetstone bridge network
✓ Electrical instrument of measurement
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE NETWORK
This is an arrangement of 4 resistors (out of which one is unknown) and a
galvanometer to calculate the unknown resistance.
𝑃 𝑅
 = then VB = VD So Ig = 0
𝑄 𝑆

The Wheatstone bridge is said to be balanced. In this case equivalent resistance of

structure is
B

P Ig Q

A C
G

I R S
I
D
V
(𝑃+𝑄)(𝑅+𝑆)
(Req)AC = (P+Q) || (R+S) = 𝑃+𝑄+𝑅+𝑆
𝑃 𝑅
 If ≠ 𝑆 then VB≠VD So, Ig≠ 0. The Bridge is said to unbalanced.
𝑄
𝑃 𝑅 𝑃 𝑅
Remember if𝑄 > then VB< VD, So Ig flows from D to B, and if < VB> VD, so Ig
𝑆 𝑄 𝑆

flows from B to D. In this case using Kirchoff’s law, equivalent resistance is

𝑃𝑄(𝑅+𝑆)+(𝑃+𝑄)𝑅𝑆+𝐺(𝑃+𝑄)(𝑅+𝑆)
(Req)AC = 𝐺(𝑃+𝑄+𝑅+𝑆)+(𝑃+𝑅)(𝑄+𝑆)
2𝑃𝑄+𝐺(𝑃+𝑄)
if P = S and Q = R, then (Req)AC = 2𝐺+𝑃+𝑄

METER BRIDGE
It is a device based on wheatstone bridge. It consists of one meter long straight and
uniform wire AC. The wire is made of manganin in or constant on because they have
low temperature coefficient and large resistivity. The wires and soldered to two thick
L shaped copper strips with binding terminals. Between these there is a third copper
strip. There are two fixed gaps ab and cd.
179 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

E K
()

RB
R D S
a b c d

P B O
A L 100 L
C
G

𝑃 𝐿
Resistance P L and Q  100 - L So 𝑄 = 100−𝐿
𝑃 𝑅 𝑅𝑄 (100−𝐿)
Since = so S = =R
𝑄 𝑆 𝑃 𝐿

GALVANOMETER
This is a device used to detect very small current. If I-current flowing through
𝐼
galvanometer and q is the deflection shown by it. Then I 𝜃I = K𝜃, 𝐾 = 𝜃→
Galvanometer constant.
𝜃 1
Current sensitivity = = 𝐾.
𝐼
AMMETER
This is a device connected in series with any circuit element to measure current
through it. To cover a galvanometer of full scale deflection current (Range) Ig and
resistance G to an ammeter of, range I, a low resistance (shunt) should be connected
in parallel with it.
I Ig
G

I-Ig S

IgG = (I _Ig) S S =
𝐼𝑔
𝐺
𝐼−𝐼𝑔

→Less is the internal resistance of the ammeter, more accurate will be its reading.
Hence an ideal ammeter has zero internal resistance.
VOLTMETER
This is a device connected in parallel with any circuit element to measure the potential
difference across it. To convert a galvanometer of range I g and resistance G to a
voltmeter of range V, a high resistance (R) should be connected in series with it.
Ig R
G

V
𝑉
V = Ig (G + R)  R =𝐼 -G
𝑔
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POTENTIOMETER
A potentiometer is a linear conductor of uniform cross -section with a
steady current set up in it. This maintains a uniform potential gradient along
the length of the wire. Any potential difference which is less then the
potential difference maintained acr oss the potentiometer wire can be
measured using this.

The wire should have high resistivity and low expansion coefficient for
example. Manganin or, Constantine wire etc.
𝜀
I = 𝑟+𝑅
𝜀
VA – VB = .R
𝑅+𝑟

Potential gradient (x) ® Potential difference per unit length of wire

𝑉𝐴 −𝑉𝐵 𝑠 𝑅
x = = 𝑅+𝑟 . 𝐿
𝐿
Circuit Diagram :
The specific resistance (𝜌) of potentiometer wire be high but its
temperature coefficient of resistance 𝛼must be low.

→𝒆<𝐸
→ 𝐽 → 𝑗𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑦
𝑅ℎ → 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅 → 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
𝐿 → 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
→ 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Potential Gradient:
Potential difference per unit length wire is called potential gradient 𝑥 =
𝑣
𝑙
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡/𝑚
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𝑒
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = ( )𝑅
𝑅 + 𝑅ℎ + 𝑟
𝑉 𝐼𝑅 𝐼𝜌 𝑒 𝑅
𝑥= = = = ( )
𝐿 𝐿 𝐴 𝑅 + 𝑅ℎ + 𝑟 𝐿
The potential gradient depends upon is
𝑅
i)resistance per unit length 𝐿
ii) radius of the wire
iii) specific resistance
iv) current following

Working:
The potential difference between A and j

𝑉
will be 𝑉 = 𝑥𝑙 = ( 𝐿 ) 𝑙
→ if𝑉 > 𝐸 current flow in galvanometer is one direction
→ 𝑖𝑓 𝑉 < 𝐸current is galvanometer is opposite direction
→ 𝐼𝑓 𝑉 = 𝐸then no current will flow
This is null deflection position , length l is known as balancing length
In balanced condition 𝐸 = 𝑥𝑙
𝑉
𝐸 = 𝑥𝑙 = 𝑙
𝐿
𝐸∝𝐿
Sensitivity of Potentiometer:
A Potentiometer is said to be more sensitive, if it measures a small
potential difference more accurately.
182 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

a) The sensitivity of potentiometer is assessed by its potential gradient. The

sensitivity is inversely proportional to the potential gradient
b) In order to increased the sensitivity of potentiometer, the
1) resistance in primary current will have to be decre ased
2) length of potentiometer wire will have to be increased
Ex: How to measure an unknown voltage using potentiometer.

Sol. The unknown voltage V is connected across the potentiometer wire as shown
in figure. The positive terminal of the unknown voltage is kept on the same
side as of the source of the top most battery. When reading of
galvanometer is zero then we say that the meter is balanced. In that
condition V = x l.

Application of potentiometer :

(a)To find emf of unknown cell and compare emf of two cells.
In case I,
In figure (3) is joint to (1) then balance length = l 1
e 1 = xl 1 ....(1)

In case II,
In figure (3) is joint to (2) then balance length = l 2
e 2 = xl 2 ....(2)
𝜀1 ℓ
= ℓ1
𝜀2 2

If any one of e 1 ore 2 is known the other can be found. If x is known then
both e 1 and e 2 can be found
(b)To find current if resistance is known
183 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

V A – V C = xl 1
IR 1 = xl 1
𝑥ℓ1
I = 𝑅1
Similarly, we can find the value of R 2 also.
Potentiometer is ideal voltmeter because it does not draw any current from
circuit, at the balance point.
(c)To find the internal resistance of cell.
I st arrangement 2 nd arrangement

by first arrangement e’ = xl 1 ...(1)

by second arrangement IR = xl 2
𝑥ℓ2 𝜀′ 𝜀′ 𝑥ℓ2
I = , also I = ; = ;
𝑅 𝑟 ′ +𝑅 𝑟 ′ +𝑅 𝑅
𝑥ℓ1 𝑥ℓ2 ℓ1 −ℓ2
= r’ = [ ]
𝑟′+ 𝑅 𝑅 ℓ2
MEASUREMENT OF UNKNOWN RESISTANCE USING A POST OFFICE BOX
A post office box is a compact form of Wheatstone bridge. It is a device to measure
unknown resistance consists of three adjustable resistance arms P, Q and R fixed in a
box. Each of the arms P and Q contains resistance of 10, 100, 1000 ohm, which may be
inserted or, taken out by removing or plugging in keys. R at a full resistance box
containing resistances from 1 to 5000 ohms as shown in the figure.
X
B
A P B Q C
P Q
R
A C +
D
X
K1 K2
A’
D B’

G
184 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

The ends A and B of ratio arms P and Q respectively are connected to terminals A’ and
B’ through tapping keys k1 and k2. The unknown resistance X is connected between C
and D, a cell is connected between A’ and C, and a galvanometer between B’ and D.
The ratio of resistance arms P : Q can be 10 : 10; 100 : 10 or, 1000 : 10. For a
particular ratio, the value of R is so adjusted that on pressing the key k1 first and k2
afterwards, the galvanometer shows no deflection.
𝑃 𝑅 𝑄
=𝑋 X = 𝑃.𝑅
𝑄

KEY POINTS
* Conventional current is taken in the direction of movement of positive charges.
* Resistance converts electrical energy of heat energy.
* Potentiometer does not draw current, and hence can give accurate reading of e.m.f. of
a cell
* A capacitor never gets fully charged / discharged through an external resistor.

KIRCHOFF’S LAW TO FIND EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE

Find equivalent resistance between two points, we apply a potential difference (say V)
between the two points. Using Kirchoff’s law, we determine the current through the
𝑉
circuit. The equivalent resistance of the circuit is Req= .
𝐼

We are to find the equivalent resistance between A and B.

Potential difference V is applied between A and B. Let a total current of x + y flows
through the circuit. The current distribution is as shown.
𝑉
Req = 𝑥+𝑦 .....(i)

loop AEFBA, _yR_yR_(y + z) R + V = 0 or V = (3y + z)R .....(ii)

loop ACFEA, _xR_zR + yR + yR = 0  x + z = 2y .....(iii)
loop ACDBFEA, _xR_ (x - z) R _ (x _ z) R + (y + z) R + 2yR = 0  z = x _ y .....(iv)
𝑦
From (iii) & (iv) z= ......(v)
2
x+y A x R x C R x-z
D
z

R R R
y+z
E y R y F R B x+y

V
x+y x+y

3𝑦+𝑧
From (i) & (ii) Req = ( 𝑥+𝑦 ) 𝑅 R
185 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

3(2𝑧)+𝑧 7𝑅
From (v), y = 2z, from (iii), x = 3z Req = ( 3𝑧+2𝑧 ) 𝑅 = 5

Note: Here, we calculated z = x - y. This value of z could be predicted on the basis of

symmetry in the circuit.

Illustration 1:Find the equivalent of the network shown in the figure.

𝑃 𝑘𝑟 1
Sol: = 𝑘2𝑟 = 𝑘
𝑄
𝑅 𝑟 1
= =
𝑆 𝑘𝑟 𝑘
𝑅1 = 𝑘𝑟 + 𝑘 2 𝑟 = 𝑘𝑟(𝑘 + 1)
𝑟 𝑟
𝑅2 = + 𝑟 = (𝑘 + 1)
𝑘 𝑘
𝑟
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑘𝑟(𝑘 + 1). 𝑘 (𝑘 + 1) 𝑘𝑟(𝑘 + 1)
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = = 𝑟 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑘𝑟(𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1) (𝑘 2 + 1)
𝑘

Illustration 2:In the figure given the value of X resistance will be, when the potential
difference between B and D is zero
a) 4 ohm b)6 ohm c)8 ohm d)9 ohm

Sol: (c)Potential difference between B and D is zero, it means Wheatstone bridge is in

balanced condition

So
P R 21 18
=  8X
=  X = 8
Q S 3+ 6
(8 + X )
186 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Illustration 3:AB is a wire of uniform resistance. The galvanometer G shows no current when
the length AC = 20cm and CB = 80 cm. The resistance R is equal to

a) 2  b) 8  c) 20  d) 40 
Sol: (c)By Wheatstone bridge, R
=
AC 20
=  R = 20 
80 BC 80

Illustration 4:The circuit shown here is used to compare the e.m.f. of two cells E1 and

E2 (E1  E2 ) . The null point is at C when the galvanometer is connected to E1 . When the
galvanometer is connected to E2 , the null point will be

a) To the left of C b)To the right of C

c)At C itself d)Nowhere on AB
Sol: (a) E  l (balancing length)

Illustration 5:In an experiment to measure the internal resistance of a cell by

potentiometer, it is found that the balance point is at a length of 2m when the cell is
shunted by a 5 resistance; and is at a length of 3m when the cell is shunted by a 10 

resistance. The internal resistance of the cell is, then

a) 1.5  b) 10  c) 15  d) 1 
l −l  l −2
Sol: (b) r =  1 2   R ' =  1 5 ... (i)
  2 
 l2 

and r =  l1 − 3   10 ... (ii)

 3 

On solving (i) and (ii) r = 10 

187 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Illustration 6:A resistance of 4 and a wire of length 5 metresand resistance 5 are

joined in series and connected to a cell of e.m.f. 10 V and internal resistance 1 . A
parallel combination of two identical cells is balanced across 300 cm of the wire. The
e.m.f. E of each cell is

a) 1.5 V b)3.0 V c)0.67 V d)1.33 V

Sol: (b) E = x l = V =
iR
l  E =
e R
 l
l L (R + Rh + r) L

E= 10 5
 3 = 3 V
(5 + 4 + 1) 5

Illustration 7:An ammeter whose resistance is 180  gives full scale deflection when current
is 2 mA. The shunt required to convert it into an ammeter reading 20 mA (in ohms) is
a)18 b)20 c)0.1 d)10
Sol: (b)Given ig = 2mA , i = 20 mA , G = 180 

ig S
=  180 + S = 10 S S =
180
= 20 
i G+S 9

CLASS EXCERSISE:
1. In Wheatstone's bridge P=9 ohm, Q = 11 ohm, R = 4 ohm and S =6 ohm. How much
resistance must be put in parallel to the resistance S to balance the bridge
a)24 ohm b) 44 ohm c)26.4 ohm d)18.7 ohm
9
188 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Sol: (c) P
=
R
(For balancing bridge)
Q S

 S  = 4  11 =
44
 1 1 1
= +  9
− = r =
1 1 132
= 26 .4 
9 9 S r 6 44 6 r 5

2. In a meter bridge, the balancing length from the left end (standard resistance of one
ohm is in the right gap) is found to be 20 cm. The value of the unknown resistance is
a) 0.8  b) 0.5  c) 0.4  d) 0.25 
Sol: (d) X 20
=  X = 1  = 0.25  .
1 80 4

3. A galvanometer having a resistance of 8 ohm is shunted by a wire of resistance 2 ohm.

If the total current is 1 amp, the part of it passing through the shunt will be
a) 0.25 amp b)0.8 amp c)0.2 amp d)0.5 amp
Sol: (b) ig S = (i − ig )G  ig (S + G) = iG 
ig G 8
= = = 0 .8
i S +G 2+8

4. A voltmeter of resistance 1000  gives full scale deflection when a current of 100 mA
flow through it. The shunt resistance required across it to enable it to be used as an
ammeter reading 1 A at full scale deflection is
a) 10000  b) 9000  c) 222  d) 111 

Sol: (d) By using i

=1+
G
 i
−3
=1+
1000
 S = 1000 = 111 
ig S 100  10 S 9

5. For a cell of e.m.f. 2V, a balance is obtained for 50 cm of the potentiometer wire. If
the cell is shunted by a 2 resistor and the balance is obtained across 40 cm of the
wire, then the internal resistance of the cell is a) 0.25  b) 0 .50  c)
0.80  d) 1.00 
l −l 
Sol: (b) r =  1 2  R = 0 .5  .

 l1 

6. A galvanometer has 30 divisions and a sensitivity 16 A / div. It can be converted into a

voltmeter to read 3 V by connecting
a)Resistance nearly 6 k  in series b) 6 k  in parallel
c) 500  in series d) It cannot be converted
Sol: (a) (R + G) ig = V  (R + G) =
V
ig

3
= = 6.25 k 
30  16  10 − 6
189 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

 Value of R is nearly equal to 6k 

This is connected in series in a voltmeter.
7. A potentiometer having the potential gradient of 2 mV/cm is used to measure the
difference of potential across a resistance of 10 ohm. If a length of 50 cm of the
potentiometer wire is required to get the null point, the current passing through the
10 ohm resistor is (in mA)
a)1 b)2 c)5 d)10
Sol: (d) V = xl  iR = xl
 2  10 −3 
 i  10 =  −2
  50  10 − 2 = 0 . 1

 10 

 i = 10  10 −3 A = 10 mA .

SESSION -12 AND 13

AIM
✓ To introduce charging condition in RC circuits.
✓ To introduce discharging condition in RC circuits.
✓ To solve various problems regarding the concepts of RC circuits learned in the
previous session.

THEORY
RC Circuit:Here, we shall discuss how the charging of a capacitor takes place by a
battery. Consider an uncharged capacitor C connected to a battery of emf𝜀 and a
resistance R. The resistance R includes all kinds of resistances in the circuit, (i.e., lead
wires and internal resistance of the battery).
The switch is closed at t = 0. Battery starts the transfer of charge.
190 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

C
R

At any instant of time t, let charge on positive plate of the capacitor is q and the
𝑑𝑞
current is i, such that i = 𝑑𝑡
𝑞 𝑞
In loop ABCDA, by KVL, − 𝐶 − 𝑖𝑅 + 𝜀 = 0or𝜀 = 𝑖𝑅 + 𝐶
𝜀𝐶−𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡
 = ( 𝑑𝑡 )or = 𝑅𝐶
𝑅𝐶 𝜀𝐶−𝑞
C
A i +q -q R i
B

D i i C
𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑡
Integrating within proper limits,∫0 𝜀𝐶−𝑞 = ∫0 𝑅𝐶 − [𝑙𝑛(𝜀𝐶 − 𝑞)]𝑞0 = 𝑅𝐶
−𝑡 −𝑡
𝜀𝐶−𝑞 𝑡 𝜀𝐶−𝑞
𝑙𝑛 ( ) = − 𝑅𝐶  = 𝑒 𝑅𝐶  𝑞 = 𝜀𝐶[1 − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 ]
𝜀𝐶 𝜀𝐶
The above equation represents the growth of charge on the capacitor with time.
i
q
i0
q0 −t

0.632 q0 i = i0 e RC , where i0 =
 −t  R
q = q0  t − e 
RC

  0.368 i0
 
q0 = C
t t
 = RC  = RC

Similarly the variation of current in any RC circuit is given by

𝐼
𝑑𝑞 +𝜀𝐶 −𝑡
𝐼= = 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 = 𝐼0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (𝑅𝐶)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
Discussion of the Results:
1] At t = 0, q = 0
2] At t = , q = 𝜀𝐶 [∵ 𝑒 − = 0]
1 1
3] At t = RC, q = 𝜀𝐶 [1 − 𝑒] = 𝑞0 [1 − 𝑒] = 0.632q0 (where q =𝜀𝐶). RC is called time constant.
It is represented by 𝜏.
𝑑𝑞 𝜀
4] Current i =  i = 𝑅 [𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 ]
𝑑𝑡
𝜀
5] At t = 0, i= = 𝑖0 . This shows, that at the instant of closing the switch, capacitor
𝑅
behaves like a closed switch.
6] At t =, i = 0. This shows that after long time of closing the switch, the capacitor
blocks current or behaves like an open switch.
191 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

𝜀 1 𝜀 𝜀
7] At t = RC (𝜏), i =𝑅  𝑒= 0.368 𝑅  0.37𝑅
8] At steady state, no current flows through a capacitor.

Discharging of a Capacitor through Resistance

Assuming that initially capacitor has charge Q0. Hence, potential difference across its
𝑄0
plates is𝑉0 = 𝐶
+Q0 -Q0 R

The switch S is closed at time t = 0. Let i be the current in the circuit and Q be the
charge on the capacitor at any time t.
𝑄
Using KVL, − 𝑖𝑅 = 0
𝐶
+Q -Q R

i i
i

Since as time t increases, Q decreases,

𝑑𝑄 𝑄 −𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄 𝑄 𝑑𝑄 1
𝑖= 𝐶 − ( ) 𝑅 = 0 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑅𝐶  = − 𝑅𝐶 . 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑄

Integrating,
𝑄 𝑑𝑄 1 𝑡 𝑄 𝑡
∫𝑄0 = − 𝑅𝐶 . ∫0 𝑑𝑡 ln(𝑄 ) = − 𝑅𝐶  𝑄 = 𝑄0 . 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
𝑄 0

Discharging current,
𝑡
𝑑𝑄 𝑑 𝑄 𝑄 𝐶𝑉0 𝑉0
𝐼 = − 𝑑𝑡 = −𝑄0 𝑑𝑡 (𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 ) = 𝑅𝐶0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 ; I = I0e-t/RC where 𝐼0 = 𝑅𝐶0 = =
𝑅𝐶 𝑅
Q
I V
Q0 I0 V0

Q0 0.368 I0 0.368 V0
0.37 t t t
O t O t O t

Graphs for Discharging Circuit

192 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Discussion of the Results:

a) Q0 : charge on the capacitor before discharging starts.
𝑄0
V0 = = initial potential difference across the capacitor.
𝐶
𝑉0
I0= : Initial discharging current.
𝑅

b) During discharging Q, I and V all three decrease exponentially.

c) At t = 0, Q = Q0
d) At t = , Q = 0
𝑄0
e) At t = RC, Q = = 0.368 Q0
𝑒

f) At t = 0, I = I0
g) At t = , I = 0
𝐼0
h) At t = RC, I = = 0.368 I0
𝑒

EXAMPLE
1] A capacitor of capacitance C is charged by connecting it to a battery 𝜀. Prove that
1
heat produced in the circuit is 2 𝐶𝜀 2 , during charging.
Sol: Let R be the net resistance of the circuit
During charging, the charge on the capacitor varies as
q = q0 (1 - e-t/RC), where q0 = 𝜀C
𝑑𝑞 𝜀
As i = i = 𝑅 (𝑒 −𝑡 / 𝑅𝐶 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐻 𝜀2 
Thermal power is given by = i2R  H =∫ 𝑖 2 𝑅𝑑𝑡 = 𝑅2R∫0 𝑒 −2𝑡 / 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
−2𝑡 
𝜀2 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 𝐶𝜀 2  1 1
 H = 𝑅2 [ −2 ] = [−𝑒 −2𝑡/𝑅𝐶 ]0 = 2 𝐶𝜀 2 [1 − 0] = 2 𝐶𝜀 2
2
𝑅𝐶 0

2] In the electrical circuit shown, find the reading of ammeter (ideal) just after closing
the switch and long time after closing the switch.
C
R

2R

A
R S
193 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Sol: When the switch is just closed, the capacitor behaves like a closed switch. The circuit
just after closing the switch and long time after closing switch are shown.
Just after closing switch Long time after closing switch
R R

2R 2R

i0 R i0 R is
𝜀 𝜀
𝑖0 = 𝑅+𝑅 = 2𝑅(∵2R is short circuited)
𝜀 𝑞
𝑖𝑠 = 𝑅+2𝑅+𝑅 = 4𝑅 (as capacitor does not conduct at steady state)
3] Find time constants of the following RC circuits.
R2
R2 R3 R2

E R1
C
E R E R1
C C

a) b) R3 c)
Sol: 𝜏 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 . 𝐶
Where Req is the equivalent resistance that can be connected in series with the
capacitor while short circuiting the battery. Replace the battery by a closed path and
find equivalent resistance across the capacitor in each case.
a) t = R2C
b) t = (R2 + R3)C
𝑅 𝑅
c) 𝜏 (𝑅 1+𝑅3 + 𝑅2 )C
1 3

4] Find time constant of the circuit when (a) S is closed, (b) S is open.
E R1
S
R2 C

R3
Sol:
𝑅 𝑅
a) When S is closed𝜏 = [𝑅2 + 𝑅 1+𝑅3 ] 𝐶 b) When S is open 𝜏 = (R2 + R3)C
1 3

5] A charged capacitor C1 is being discharged through a resistance R by putting switch S

in position 1. When the discharging current reduces to i0, switch is suddenly shifted
to position 2. Calculate the amount of heat liberated in R starting from this instant.
Also calculate current i through the circuit as a function of time. (initially C2 is
uncharged)
194 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

B F
1 2

A
C1 C2

C D E

Sol: Just before shifting the switch, current is i0. The left half of the circuit is shown
here at this instant.
Using KVL in ABCDA
B

i0
A
q0  C1

C D
𝑞0 𝑞0
−𝑖0 𝑅 + 𝐶 = 0 q0 = i0RC1 and V0 = = 𝑖0 𝑅
1 𝐶1

The initial potential difference across C1 is V0 = i0R and initial charge is q0 = i0RC1.
a) When the switch is shifted to position 2, sharing of charge takes place between C 1
and C2. Flow of charge takes place till the two capacitors acquire common potential.
During the process, there is a loss of electrostatic potential energy of the capacitor.
This appears as heat in the resistor R.
1 𝐶 𝐶
Heat produced = 𝛥𝑈 = 2 𝐶 1+𝐶2 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2
1 2

where V1 and V2 are initial potential differences across the two capacitors.
1 𝐶 𝐶 𝑖 2 𝑅2𝐶 𝐶
Here V1 =i0R, V2 = 0 Heat produced = 2 𝐶 1+𝐶2 (i0R – 0)2 = 2(𝐶
0 1 2
1 2 1 +𝐶2 )

b) When switch is thrown to position 2, C1 gets discharged while C2 gets charged. Let at
any instant, iis the current through the resistor, q is charge left on C1 and therefore
q0-q is the charge on C2.
Using KVL in ADEF

+ q0 − q + q
c2
c1

R
195 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

𝑑𝑞 𝑞0 −𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑐 +𝑐 𝑑𝑞
𝑖= =+ − 𝑐 − 𝑖𝑅 = 0; 𝑐 0 − ( 𝐶1 𝐶 2 ) − 𝑑𝑡 𝑅 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑐1 2 1 1 2
𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1 𝑞0 𝑞1 (𝑐1 +𝑐2 ) q t
∫0 𝑞0 𝑐1+𝑐2 = ∫0 𝑅 ; − 𝑐1+𝑐2 . 𝑙𝑛 [ 𝑐 − ] =R
−𝑞( ) 1 𝐶1 𝐶2 0
𝑐1 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶1 𝐶2
q0 q1(c1 +c2 ) −t(c1 +c2 ) −t(C1 +C2 )
− q1 (c1 +c2 ) q
c1 C1 C2
[ q0 ]=e RC1 C2 = C0 (1 − e RC1 C2 )
C1 C2 1
c1
−t(c1 +c2 ) −t(c1 +c2 )
q0 c 2 dq q0 c 2 c +c2
q=c (1 − e RC1 C2 )=i = = (RC1 ) (e RC1 C2 )
1 +c2 dt c1 +c2 1 C2
−t(c1 +c2 ) −t(c1 +c2 )
q
=Rc0 e RC1 C2 = i0 e Rc1c2
1