Sand casting

Sand casting, also known as sand

molded casting, is a metal casting
process characterized by using sand as
the mold material. The term "sand
casting" can also refer to an object
produced via the sand casting process.
Sand castings are produced in
specialized factories called foundries.
Over 60% of all metal castings are
produced via sand casting process.[1]

Molds made of sand are relatively cheap,

and sufficiently refractory even for steel
foundry use. In addition to the sand, a
suitable bonding agent (usually clay) is
mixed or occurs with the sand. The Cope & drag (top and bottom halves of a sand mold), with cores in
mixture is moistened, typically with place on the drag
water, but sometimes with other
substances, to develop the strength and
plasticity of the clay and to make the
aggregate suitable for molding. The sand
is typically contained in a system of
frames or mold boxes known as a flask.
The mold cavities and gate system are
created by compacting the sand around
models called patterns, by carving
directly into the sand, or by 3D printing.

Contents
Basic process Two sets of castings (bronze and aluminium) from the above sand
Components mold
Patterns
Tools
Molding box and
materials
Chills
Cores
Design requirements
Processes
Green sand
"Air set" method
Cold box
No-bake molds
 Vacuum molding
Fast mold making processes
Mechanized sand molding
Automatic high pressure sand molding lines
Horizontal sand flask molding
Vertical sand flaskless molding
Matchplate sand molding
Safety standards
Canada
European Union
United States

Mold materials
Molding sands
Types of base sands
Silica sand
Olivine sand
Chromite sand
Zircon sand
Chamotte sand
Other materials
Binders
Clay and water
Oil
Resin
Sodium silicate
Additives
Parting compounds
History
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links

Basic process
There are six steps in this process:

1. Place a pattern in sand to create a mold.

2. Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system. Remove the pattern.
3. Fill the mold cavity with molten metal.
4. Allow the metal to cool.
5. Break away the sand mold and remove the casting.
Components

Patterns

From the design, provided by a designer, a skilled pattern maker builds a pattern of the object to be
produced, using wood, metal, or a plastic such as expanded polystyrene. Sand can be ground, swept or
strickled into shape. The metal to be cast will contract during solidification, and this may be non-uniform due
to uneven cooling. Therefore, the pattern must be slightly larger than the finished product, a difference known
as contraction allowance. Different scaled rules are used for different metals, because each metal and alloy
contracts by an amount distinct from all others. Patterns also have core prints that create registers within the
molds into which are placed sand cores. Such cores, sometimes reinforced by wires, are used to create under-
cut profiles and cavities which cannot be molded with the cope and drag, such as the interior passages of
valves or cooling passages in engine blocks.

Paths for the entrance of metal into the mold cavity constitute the runner system and include the sprue,
various feeders which maintain a good metal 'feed', and in-gates which attach the runner system to the casting
cavity. Gas and steam generated during casting exit through the permeable sand or via risers,[note 1] which are
added either in the pattern itself, or as separate pieces.

Tools

In addition to patterns, the sand molder could also use tools to create the holes.

Molding box and materials

A multi-part molding box (known as a casting flask, the top and bottom halves of which are known
respectively as the cope and drag) is prepared to receive the pattern. Molding boxes are made in segments that
may be latched to each other and to end closures. For a simple object—flat on one side—the lower portion of
the box, closed at the bottom, will be filled with a molding sand. The sand is packed in through a vibratory
process called ramming, and in this case, periodically screeded level. The surface of the sand may then be
stabilized with a sizing compound. The pattern is placed on the sand and another molding box segment is
added. Additional sand is rammed over and around the pattern. Finally a cover is placed on the box and it is
turned and unlatched, so that the halves of the mold may be parted and the pattern with its sprue and vent
patterns removed. Additional sizing may be added and any defects
introduced by the removal of the pattern are corrected. The box is
closed again. This forms a "green" mold which must be dried to
receive the hot metal. If the mold is not sufficiently dried a steam
explosion can occur that can throw molten metal about. In some
cases, the sand may be oiled instead of moistened, which makes
casting possible without waiting for the sand to dry. Sand may also be
bonded by chemical binders, such as furane resins or amine-hardened Sand molding tools and books used
resins. in Auckland and Nelson New Zealand
between approximately 1946 and
Additive manufacturing (AM) can be used in the sand mold 1960
preparation, so that instead of the sand mold being formed via
packing sand around a pattern, it is 3D-printed. This can reduce lead
times for casting by obviating patternmaking.[3] Besides replacing older methods, additive can also
complement them in hybrid models, such as making a variety of AM-printed cores for a cavity derived from a
traditional pattern.[3]

Chills

To control the solidification structure of the metal, it is possible to place metal plates, chills, in the mold. The
associated rapid local cooling will form a finer-grained structure and may form a somewhat harder metal at
these locations. In ferrous castings, the effect is similar to quenching metals in forge work. The inner diameter
of an engine cylinder is made hard by a chilling core. In other metals, chills may be used to promote
directional solidification of the casting. In controlling the way a casting freezes, it is possible to prevent
internal voids or porosity inside castings.

Cores

Cores are apparatus used to generate hollow cavities or internal features which cannot be formed using
pattern alone in moulding, cores are usually made using sand, but some processes also use permanent cores
made of metal.[4]

To produce cavities within the casting—such as for liquid cooling in engine blocks and cylinder heads—
negative forms are used to produce cores. Usually sand-molded, cores are inserted into the casting box after
removal of the pattern. Whenever possible, designs are made that avoid the use of cores, due to the additional
set-up time, mass and thus greater cost.

With a completed mold at the appropriate moisture content, the box containing the sand mold is then
positioned for filling with molten metal—typically iron, steel, bronze, brass, aluminium, magnesium alloys, or
various pot metal alloys, which often include lead, tin, and zinc. After being filled with liquid metal the box is
set aside until the metal is sufficiently cool to be strong. The sand is then removed, revealing a rough casting
that, in the case of iron or steel, may still be glowing red. In the case of metals that are significantly heavier
than the casting sand, such as iron or lead, the casting flask is often covered with a heavy plate to prevent a
problem known as floating the mold. Floating the mold occurs when the pressure of the metal pushes the
sand above the mold cavity out of shape, causing the casting to fail.

After casting, the cores are broken up by rods or shot and removed from the casting. The metal from the
sprue and risers is cut from the rough casting. Various heat treatments may be applied to relieve stresses from
the initial cooling and to add hardness—in the case of steel or iron, by quenching in water or oil. The casting
may be further strengthened by surface compression treatment—like shot peening—that adds resistance to
tensile cracking and smooths the rough surface. And
when high precision is required, various machining
operations (such as milling or boring) are made to finish
critical areas of the casting. Examples of this would
include the boring of cylinders and milling of the deck
on a cast engine block.

Design requirements

The part to be made and its pattern must be designed to

accommodate each stage of the process, as it must be
possible to remove the pattern without disturbing the Left: Corebox, with resulting (wire reinforced) cores
molding sand and to have proper locations to receive and directly below. Right:- Pattern (used with the core)
position the cores. A slight taper, known as draft, must be and the resulting casting below (the wires are from
used on surfaces perpendicular to the parting line, in the remains of the core)
order to be able to remove the pattern from the mold.
This requirement also applies to cores, as they must be
removed from the core box in which they are formed. The sprue and risers must be arranged to allow a
proper flow of metal and gasses within the mold in order to avoid an incomplete casting. Should a piece of
core or mold become dislodged it may be embedded in the final casting, forming a sand pit, which may
render the casting unusable. Gas pockets can cause internal voids. These may be immediately visible or may
only be revealed after extensive machining has been performed. For critical applications, or where the cost of
wasted effort is a factor, non-destructive testing methods may be applied before further work is performed.

Processes
In general, we can distinguish between two methods of sand casting; the first one using green sand and the
second being the air set method.

Green sand

These castings are made using sand molds formed from "wet" sand which contains water and organic
bonding compounds, typically referred to as clay.[5] The name "green sand" comes from the fact that the sand
mold is not "set", it is still in the "green" or uncured state even when the metal is poured in the mould. Green
sand is not green in color, but "green" in the sense that it is used in a wet state (akin to green wood). Contrary
to what the name suggests, "green sand" is not a type of sand on its own (that is, not greensand in the
geologic sense), but is rather a mixture of:

silica sand (SiO2), chromite sand (FeCr2O4), or zircon sand (ZrSiO4), 75 to 85%, sometimes
with a proportion of olivine, staurolite, or graphite.
bentonite (clay), 5 to 11%
water, 2 to 4%
inert sludge 3 to 5%
anthracite (0 to 1%)

There are many recipes for the proportion of clay, but they all strike different balances between moldability,
surface finish, and ability of the hot molten metal to degas. Coal, typically referred to in foundries as sea-coal,
which is present at a ratio of less than 5%, partially combusts in the presence of the molten metal, leading to
offgassing of organic vapors. Green sand casting for non-ferrous metals does not use coal additives, since the
CO created does not prevent oxidation. Green sand for aluminum typically uses olivine sand (a mixture of the
minerals forsterite and fayalite, which is made by crushing dunite rock).

The choice of sand has a lot to do with the temperature at which the metal is poured. At the temperatures that
copper and iron are poured, the clay is inactivated by the heat, in that the montmorillonite is converted to
illite, which is a non-expanding clay. Most foundries do not have the very expensive equipment to remove the
burned out clay and substitute new clay, so instead, those that pour iron typically work with silica sand that is
inexpensive compared to the other sands. As the clay is burned out, newly mixed sand is added and some of
the old sand is discarded or recycled into other uses. Silica is the least desirable of the sands, since
metamorphic grains of silica sand have a tendency to explode to form sub-micron sized particles when
thermally shocked during pouring of the molds. These particles enter the air of the work area and can lead to
silicosis in the workers. Iron foundries expend considerable effort on aggressive dust collection to capture this
fine silica. Various types of respiratory-protective equipment are also used in foundries.[6][7]

The sand also has the dimensional instability associated with the conversion of quartz from alpha quartz to
beta quartz at 680 °C (1250 °F). Often, combustible additives such as wood flour are added to create spaces
for the grains to expand without deforming the mold. Olivine, chromite, etc. are therefore used because they
do not have a phase transition that causes rapid expansion of the grains. Olivine and chromite also offer
greater density, which cools the metal faster, thereby producing finer grain structures in the metal. Since they
are not metamorphic minerals, they do not have the polycrystals found in silica, and subsequently they do not
form hazardous sub-micron sized particles.

"Air set" method

The air set method uses dry sand bonded with materials other than clay, using a fast curing adhesive. The
latter may also be referred to as no bake mold casting. When these are used, they are collectively called "air
set" sand castings to distinguish them from "green sand" castings. Two types of molding sand are natural
bonded (bank sand) and synthetic (lake sand); the latter is generally preferred due to its more consistent
composition.

With both methods, the sand mixture is packed around a pattern, forming a mold cavity. If necessary, a
temporary plug is placed in the sand and touching the pattern in order to later form a channel into which the
casting fluid can be poured. Air-set molds are often formed with the help of a casting flask having a top and
bottom part, termed the cope and drag. The sand mixture is tamped down as it is added around the pattern,
and the final mold assembly is sometimes vibrated to compact the sand and fill any unwanted voids in the
mold. Then the pattern is removed along with the channel plug, leaving the mold cavity. The casting liquid
(typically molten metal) is then poured into the mold cavity. After the metal has solidified and cooled, the
casting is separated from the sand mold. There is typically no mold release agent, and the mold is generally
destroyed in the removal process.[8]

The accuracy of the casting is limited by the type of sand and the molding process. Sand castings made from
coarse green sand impart a rough texture to the surface, and this makes them easy to identify. Castings made
from fine green sand can shine as cast but are limited by the depth to width ratio of pockets in the pattern. Air-
set molds can produce castings with smoother surfaces than coarse green sand but this method is primarily
chosen when deep narrow pockets in the pattern are necessary, due to the expense of the plastic used in the
process. Air-set castings can typically be easily identified by the burnt color on the surface. The castings are
typically shot blasted to remove that burnt color. Surfaces can also be later ground and polished, for example
when making a large bell. After molding, the casting is covered with a residue of oxides, silicates and other
compounds. This residue can be removed by various means, such as grinding, or shot blasting.
During casting, some of the components of the sand mixture are lost in the thermal casting process. Green
sand can be reused after adjusting its composition to replenish the lost moisture and additives. The pattern
itself can be reused indefinitely to produce new sand molds. The sand molding process has been used for
many centuries to produce castings manually. Since 1950, partially automated casting processes have been
developed for production lines.

Cold box

Cold box uses organic and inorganic binders that strengthen the mold by chemically adhering to the sand.
This type of mold gets its name from not being baked in an oven like other sand mold types. This type of
mold is more accurate dimensionally than green-sand molds but is more expensive. Thus it is used only in
applications that necessitate it.

No-bake molds

No-bake molds are expendable sand molds, similar to typical sand molds, except they also contain a quick-
setting liquid resin and catalyst. Rather than being rammed, the molding sand is poured into the flask and held
until the resin solidifies, which occurs at room temperature. This type of molding also produces a better
surface finish than other types of sand molds.[9] Because no heat is involved it is called a cold-setting process.
Common flask materials that are used are wood, metal, and plastic. Common metals cast into no-bake molds
are brass, iron (ferrous), and aluminum alloys.

Vacuum molding

Vacuum molding (V-process) is a variation of the sand casting process for most ferrous and non-ferrous
metals,[10] in which unbonded sand is held in the flask with a vacuum. The pattern is specially vented so that
a vacuum can be pulled through it. A heat-softened thin sheet (0.003 to 0.008  in (0.076 to 0.203  mm)) of
plastic film is draped over the pattern and a vacuum is drawn (200 to 400 mmHg (27 to 53 kPa)). A special
vacuum forming flask is placed over the plastic pattern and is filled with a free-flowing sand. The sand is
vibrated to compact the sand and a sprue and pouring cup are formed in the cope. Another sheet of plastic is
placed over the top of the sand in the flask and a vacuum is drawn through the special flask; this hardens and
strengthens the unbonded sand. The vacuum is then released on the pattern and the cope is removed. The
drag is made in the same way (without the sprue and pouring cup). Any cores are set in place and the mold is
closed. The molten metal is poured while the cope and drag are still under a vacuum, because the plastic
vaporizes but the vacuum keeps the shape of the sand while the metal solidifies. When the metal has
solidified, the vacuum is turned off and the sand runs out freely, releasing the casting.[11][12]

The V-process is known for not requiring a draft because the plastic film has a certain degree of lubricity and
it expands slightly when the vacuum is drawn in the flask. The process has high dimensional accuracy, with a
tolerance of ±0.010  in for the first inch and ±0.002  in/in thereafter. Cross-sections as small as 0.090  in
(2.3 mm) are possible. The surface finish is very good, usually between 150 and 125 rms. Other advantages
include no moisture related defects, no cost for binders, excellent sand permeability, and no toxic fumes from
burning the binders. Finally, the pattern does not wear out because the sand does not touch it. The main
disadvantage is that the process is slower than traditional sand casting so it is only suitable for low to medium
production volumes; approximately 10 to 15,000 pieces a year. However, this makes it perfect for prototype
work, because the pattern can be easily modified as it is made from plastic.[11][12][13]

Fast mold making processes

With the fast development of the car and machine building industry the casting consuming areas called for
steady higher productivity. The basic process stages of the mechanical molding and casting process are
similar to those described under the manual sand casting process. The technical and mental development
however was so rapid and profound that the character of the sand casting process changed radically.

Mechanized sand molding

The first mechanized molding lines consisted of sand slingers and/or jolt-squeeze devices that compacted the
sand in the flasks. Subsequent mold handling was mechanical using cranes, hoists and straps. After core
setting the copes and drags were coupled using guide pins and clamped for closer accuracy. The molds were
manually pushed off on a roller conveyor for casting and cooling.

Automatic high pressure sand molding lines

Increasing quality requirements made it necessary to increase the mold stability by applying steadily higher
squeeze pressure and modern compaction methods for the sand in the flasks. In early fifties the high pressure
molding was developed and applied in mechanical and later automatic flask lines. The first lines were using
jolting and vibrations to pre-compact the sand in the flasks and compressed air powered pistons to compact
the molds.

Horizontal sand flask molding

In the first automatic horizontal flask lines the sand was shot or slung down on the pattern in a flask and
squeezed with hydraulic pressure of up to 140 bars. The subsequent mold handling including turn-over,
assembling, pushing-out on a conveyor were accomplished either manually or automatically. In the late fifties
hydraulically powered pistons or multi-piston systems were used for the sand compaction in the flasks. This
method produced much more stable and accurate molds than it was possible manually or pneumatically. In
the late sixties mold compaction by fast air pressure or gas pressure drop over the pre-compacted sand mold
was developed (sand-impulse and gas-impact). The general working principle for most of the horizontal flask
line systems is shown on the sketch below.

Today there are many manufacturers of the automatic horizontal flask molding lines. The major disadvantages
of these systems is high spare parts consumption due to multitude of movable parts, need of storing,
transporting and maintaining the flasks and productivity limited to approximately 90–120 molds per hour.

Vertical sand flaskless molding

In 1962, Dansk Industri Syndikat A/S (DISA-DISAMATIC) invented a flask-less molding process by using
vertically parted and poured molds. The first line could produce up to 240 complete sand molds per hour.
Today molding lines can achieve a molding rate of 550 sand molds per hour and requires only one
monitoring operator. Maximum mismatch of two mold halves is 0.1  mm (0.0039  in). Although very fast,
vertically parted molds are not typically used by jobbing foundries due to the specialized tooling needed to
run on these machines. Cores need to be set with a core mask as opposed to by hand and must hang in the
mold as opposed to being set on parting surface.

Matchplate sand molding

The principle of the matchplate, meaning pattern plates with two patterns on each side of the same plate, was
developed and patented in 1910, fostering the perspectives for future sand molding improvements. However,
first in the early sixties the American company Hunter Automated Machinery Corporation launched its first
automatic flaskless, horizontal molding line applying the matchplate technology.

The method alike to the DISA's (DISAMATIC) vertical molding is flaskless, however horizontal. The
matchplate molding technology is today used widely. Its great advantage is inexpensive pattern tooling,
easiness of changing the molding tooling, thus suitability for manufacturing castings in short series so typical
for the jobbing foundries. Modern matchplate molding machine is capable of high molding quality, less
casting shift due to machine-mold mismatch (in some cases less than 0.15 mm (0.0059 in)), consistently stable
molds for less grinding and improved parting line definition. In addition, the machines are enclosed for a
cleaner, quieter working environment with reduced operator exposure to safety risks or service-related
problems.
Safety standards

With automated mold manufacturing came additional workplace safety requirements. Different voluntary
technical standards apply depending on the geopolitical jurisdiction where the machinery is to be used.

Canada

Canada does not have a machine-specific voluntary technical standard for sand-mold making machinery. This
type of machinery is covered by:

Safeguarding of machinery, CSA Z432. Canadian Standards Association. 2016. (https://store.csagroup.org/cc

rz__ProductDetails?viewState=DetailView&cartID=&portalUser=&store=&cclcl=en_US&sku=Z432-16)

In addition, the electrical safety requirements are covered by:

Industrial Electrical Machinery, CSA C22.2 No. 301. 2016. (https://store.csagroup.org/ccrz__ProductDetails?

viewState=DetailView&cartID=&portalUser=&store=&cclcl=en_US&sku=C22.2%20NO.%20301-16)

European Union

The primary standard for sand-mold manufacturing equipment in the EU is: Safety requirements for foundry
moulding and coremaking machinery and plant associated equipment, EN 710. European Committee for
Standardization (CEN). (https://standards.cen.eu/dyn/www/f?p=204:110:0::::FSP_PROJECT,FSP_ORG_ID:
38822,6183&cs=187F082E35537138F42BC892EB6E6F41B)
EN 710 will need to be used in conjunction with EN 60204-1 (https://www.cenelec.eu/dyn/www/f?p=104:11
0:1254549426375101::::FSP_ORG_ID,FSP_PROJECT,FSP_LANG_ID:1257239,58483,25) for electrical
safety, and EN ISO 13849-1 (https://standards.cen.eu/dyn/www/f?p=204:110:0::::FSP_PROJECT,FSP_OR
G_ID:39285,6096&cs=1269268F03116BF7319D76D5A120E771A) and EN ISO 13849-2 (https://standard
s.cen.eu/dyn/www/f?p=204:110:0::::FSP_PROJECT,FSP_ORG_ID:32684,6096&cs=14A2AF9B02A956F
EEFFE273E56BFE6C04) or EN 62061 (https://www.cenelec.eu/dyn/www/f?p=104:110:47649411626090
1::::FSP_ORG_ID,FSP_PROJECT,FSP_LANG_ID:1257239,58972,25) for functional safety. Additional
type C standards may also be necessary for conveyors, robotics or other equipment that may be needed to
support the operation of the mold-making equipment.

United States

There is no machine-specific standard for sand-mold manufacturing equipment. The ANSI B11 family of
standards includes some generic machine-tool standards that could be applied to this type of machinery,
including:

Safety of Machinery, ANSI B11.0. American National Standards Institute (ANSI). 2020.[14]
Performance Requirements for Risk Reduction Measures: Safeguarding and other Means of
Reducing Risk, ANSI B11.19. American National Standards Institute (ANSI). 2019.
Safety Requirements for the Integration of Machinery into a System, ANSI B11.20. American
National Standards Institute (ANSI). 2017.
Safety Requirements for Transfer Machines, ANSI B11.24. American National Standards
Institute (ANSI). 2002 (R2020).
Functional Safety for Equipment (Electrical/Fluid Power Control Systems) General Principles
for the Design of Safety Control Systems Using ISO 13849-1, ANSI B11.26. American
National Standards Institute (ANSI). 2018.
Sound Level Measurement Guidelines, ANSI B11.TR5. American National Standards Institute
(ANSI). 2006 (R2017).

Mold materials
There are four main components for making a sand casting mold: base sand, a binder, additives, and a
parting compound.

Molding sands

Molding sands, also known as foundry sands, are defined by eight characteristics: refractoriness, chemical
inertness, permeability, surface finish, cohesiveness, flowability, collapsibility, and availability/cost.[15]

Refractoriness — This refers to the sand's ability to withstand the temperature of the liquid metal being cast
without breaking down. For example, some sands only need to withstand 650  °C (1,202  °F) if casting
aluminum alloys, whereas steel needs a sand that will withstand 1,500  °C (2,730  °F). Sand with too low
refractoriness will melt and fuse to the casting.[15]

Chemical inertness — The sand must not react with the metal being cast. This is especially important with
highly reactive metals, such as magnesium and titanium.[15]

Permeability — This refers to the sand's ability to exhaust gases. This is important because during the
pouring process many gases are produced, such as hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and steam, which
must leave the mold otherwise casting defects, such as blow holes and gas holes, occur in the casting. Note
that for each cubic centimeter (cc) of water added to the mold 1600 cc of steam is produced.[15]

Surface finish — The size and shape of the sand particles defines the best surface finish achievable, with
finer particles producing a better finish. However, as the particles become finer (and surface finish improves)
the permeability becomes worse.[15]

Cohesiveness (or bond) — This is the ability of the sand to retain a given shape after the pattern is
removed.[16]

Flowability – The ability for the sand to flow into intricate details and tight corners without special processes
or equipment.[17]

Collapsibility — This is the ability of the sand to be easily stripped off the casting after it has solidified.
Sands with poor collapsibility will adhere strongly to the casting. When casting metals that contract a lot
during cooling or with long freezing temperature ranges a sand with poor collapsibility will cause cracking
and hot tears in the casting. Special additives can be used to improve collapsibility.[17]

Availability/cost — The availability and cost of the sand is very important because for every ton of metal
poured, three to six tons of sand is required.[17] Although sand can be screened and reused, the particles
eventually become too fine and require periodic replacement with fresh sand.[18]

In large castings it is economical to use two different sands, because the majority of the sand will not be in
contact with the casting, so it does not need any special properties. The sand that is in contact with the casting
is called facing sand, and is designed for the casting on hand. This sand will be built up around the pattern to
a thickness of 30 to 100 mm (1.2 to 3.9 in). The sand that fills in around the facing sand is called backing
sand. This sand is simply silica sand with only a small amount of binder and no special additives.[19]

Types of base sands

Base sand is the type used to make the mold or core without any binder. Because it does not have a binder it
will not bond together and is not usable in this state.[17]

Silica sand

Silica (SiO2 ) sand is the sand found on a beach and is also the most commonly
used sand. It is either made by crushing sandstone or taken from natural
occurring locations, such as beaches and river beds. The fusion point of pure
silica is 1,760 °C (3,200 °F), however the sands used have a lower melting point
due to impurities. For high melting point casting, such as steels, a minimum of
98% pure silica sand must be used; however for lower melting point metals, such
as cast iron and non-ferrous metals, a lower purity sand can be used (between 94
and 98% pure).[17]

Silica sand is the most commonly used sand because of its great abundance, and,
thus, low cost (therein being its greatest advantage). Its disadvantages are high
thermal expansion, which can cause casting defects with high melting point
metals, and low thermal conductivity, which can lead to unsound casting. It also Silica sand at Panavally
cannot be used with certain basic metals because it will chemically interact with the metal, forming surface
defects. Finally, it releases silica particulates during the pour, risking silicosis in foundry workers.[20]

Olivine sand

Olivine is a mixture of orthosilicates of iron and magnesium from the mineral dunite. Its main advantage is
that it is free from silica, therefore it can be used with basic metals, such as manganese steels. Other
advantages include a low thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity, and high fusion point. Finally, it is
safer to use than silica, therefore it is popular in Europe.[20]

Chromite sand

Chromite sand is a solid solution of spinels. Its advantages are a low percentage of silica, a very high fusion
point (1,850 °C (3,360 °F)), and a very high thermal conductivity. Its disadvantage is its costliness, therefore
it is only used with expensive alloy steel casting and to make cores.[20]

Zircon sand

Zircon sand is a compound of approximately two-thirds zirconium oxide (Zr2 O) and one-third silica. It has
the highest fusion point of all the base sands at 2,600 °C (4,710 °F), a very low thermal expansion, and a high
thermal conductivity. Because of these good properties it is commonly used when casting alloy steels and
other expensive alloys. It is also used as a mold wash (a coating applied to the molding cavity) to improve
surface finish. However, it is expensive and not readily available.[20]

Chamotte sand

Chamotte is made by calcining fire clay (Al2 O3 -SiO2 ) above 1,100  °C (2,010  °F). Its fusion point is
1,750 °C (3,180 °F) and has low thermal expansion. It is the second cheapest sand, however it is still twice as
expensive as silica. Its disadvantages are very coarse grains, which result in a poor surface finish, and it is
limited to dry sand molding. Mold washes are used to overcome the surface finish problems. This sand is
usually used when casting large steel workpieces.[20][21]

Other materials

Modern casting production methods can manufacture thin and accurate molds—of a material superficially
resembling papier-mâché, such as is used in egg cartons, but that is refractory in nature—that are then
supported by some means, such as dry sand surrounded by a box, during the casting process. Due to the
higher accuracy it is possible to make thinner and hence lighter castings, because extra metal need not be
present to allow for variations in the molds. These thin-mold casting methods have been used since the 1960s
in the manufacture of cast-iron engine blocks and cylinder heads for automotive applications.

Binders

Binders are added to a base sand to bond the sand particles together (i.e. it is the glue that holds the mold
together).

Clay and water

A mixture of clay and water is the most commonly used binder. There are two types of clay commonly used:
bentonite and kaolinite, with the former being the most common.[22]

Oil

Oils, such as linseed oil, other vegetable oils and marine oils, used to be used as a binder, however due to
their increasing cost, they have been mostly phased out. The oil also required careful baking at 100 to 200 °C
(212 to 392 °F) to cure (if overheated, the oil becomes brittle, wasting the mold).[23]

Resin

Resin binders are natural or synthetic high melting point gums. The two common types used are urea
formaldehyde (UF) and phenol formaldehyde (PF) resins. PF resins have a higher heat resistance than UF
resins and cost less. There are also cold-set resins, which use a catalyst instead of a heat to cure the binder.
Resin binders are quite popular because different properties can be achieved by mixing with various
additives. Other advantages include good collapsibility, low gassing, and they leave a good surface finish on
the casting.[23]

MDI (methylene diphenyl diisocyanate) is also a commonly used binder resin in the foundry core process.

Sodium silicate

Water glass ( sodium silicate [Na2 SiO3 or (Na2 O)(SiO2 )] ) is a high strength binder used with silica molding
sand both for cores and molds.[24]: 6 9–70  To cure a mixture of finely ground sand (e.g. by using a sand
muller) and 3 to 4% of sodium silicate the binder, carbon dioxide (CO2 ) gas is used.[24]: 6 9–70  The mixture is
exposed to the gas at ambient temperature reacting as following:[24]: 6 9–70 

The advantage to this binder is that it can be used at room temperature and is fast. The disadvantage is that its
high strength leads to shakeout difficulties and possibly hot tears in the casting.[23][24]: 7 0  The mixed sodium
silicate and sand may also be heated by a heat gun to achieve better rigideness.

Additives

Additives are added to the molding components to improve: surface finish, dry strength, refractoriness, and
"cushioning properties".

Up to 5% of reducing agents, such as coal powder, pitch, creosote, and fuel oil, may be added to the molding
material to prevent wetting (prevention of liquid metal sticking to sand particles, thus leaving them on the
casting surface), improve surface finish, decrease metal penetration, and burn-on defects. These additives
achieve this by creating gases at the surface of the mold cavity, which prevent the liquid metal from adhering
to the sand. Reducing agents are not used with steel casting, because they can carburize the metal during
casting.[25]

Up to 3% of "cushioning material", such as wood flour, sawdust, powdered husks, peat, and straw, can be
added to reduce scabbing, hot tear, and hot crack casting defects when casting high temperature metals. These
materials are beneficial because burn-off when the metal is poured creates tiny voids in the mold, allowing the
sand particles to expand. They also increase collapsibility and reduce shakeout time.[25]
Up to 2% of cereal binders, such as dextrin, starch, sulphite lye, and molasses, can be used to increase dry
strength (the strength of the mold after curing) and improve surface finish. Cereal binders also improve
collapsibility and reduce shakeout time because they burn off when the metal is poured. The disadvantage to
cereal binders is that they are expensive.[25]

Up to 2% of iron oxide powder can be used to prevent mold cracking and metal penetration, essentially
improving refractoriness. Silica flour (fine silica) and zircon flour also improve refractoriness, especially in
ferrous castings. The disadvantages to these additives is that they greatly reduce permeability.[25]

Parting compounds

To get the pattern out of the mold, prior to casting, a parting compound is applied to the pattern to ease
removal. They can be a liquid or a fine powder (particle diameters between 75 and 150 micrometres (0.0030
and 0.0059 in)). Common powders include talc, graphite, and dry silica; common liquids include mineral oil
and water-based silicon solutions. The latter are more commonly used with metal and large wooden
patterns.[26]

History
Clay molds were used in ancient China since the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 to 1046 BC). The famous
Houmuwu ding (c. 1300 BC) was made using clay molding.

The Assyrian king Sennacherib (704–681 BC) cast massive bronzes of up to 30 tonnes, and claims to have
been the first to have used clay molds rather than the "lost-wax" method:[27]

Whereas in former times the kings my forefathers had created bronze statues imitating real-life
forms to put on display inside their temples, but in their method of work they had exhausted all
the craftsmen, for lack of skill and failure to understand the principles they needed so much oil,
wax and tallow for the work that they caused a shortage in their own countries—I, Sennacherib,
leader of all princes, knowledgeable in all kinds of work, took much advice and deep thought
over doing that work. Great pillars of bronze, colossal striding lions, such as no previous king
had ever constructed before me, with the technical skill that Ninushki brought to perfection in
me, and at the prompting of my intelligence and the desire of my heart I invented a technique for
bronze and made it skillfully. I created clay moulds as if by divine intelligence....twelve fierce
lion-colossi together with twelve mighty bull-colossi which were perfect castings... I poured
copper into them over and over again; I made the castings as skillfully as if they had only
weighed half a shekel each

Sand casting molding method was recorded by Vannoccio Biringuccio in his book published around 1540.

In 1924, the Ford Motor Company set a record by producing 1 million cars, in the process consuming one-
third of the total casting production in the U.S. As the automobile industry grew the need for increased
casting efficiency grew. The increasing demand for castings in the growing car and machine building industry
during and after World War I and World War II, stimulated new inventions in mechanization and later
automation of the sand casting process technology.

There was not one bottleneck to faster casting production but rather several. Improvements were made in
molding speed, molding sand preparation, sand mixing, core manufacturing processes, and the slow metal
melting rate in cupola furnaces. In 1912, the sand slinger was invented by the American company Beardsley
& Piper. In 1912, the first sand mixer with individually mounted revolving plows was marketed by the
Simpson Company. In 1915, the first experiments started with bentonite clay instead of simple fire clay as the
bonding additive to the molding sand. This increased tremendously the green and dry strength of the molds.
In 1918, the first fully automated foundry for fabricating hand grenades for the U.S. Army went into
production. In the 1930s the first high-frequency coreless electric furnace was installed in the U.S. In 1943,
ductile iron was invented by adding magnesium to the widely used grey iron. In 1940, thermal sand
reclamation was applied for molding and core sands. In 1952, the "D-process" was developed for making
shell molds with fine, pre-coated sand. In 1953, the hotbox core sand process in which the cores are thermally
cured was invented. In 1954, a new core binder—water glass (sodium silicate), hardened with CO2 from
ambient air, came out

In the 2010s, additive manufacturing began to be applied to sand mold preparation in commercial production;
instead of the sand mold being formed via packing sand around a pattern, it is 3D-printed.

See also
Casting – Manufacturing process in which a liquid is poured into a mold to solidify
Veining (metallurgy) – Metallurgical casting defect, common sand casting defect
Foundry sand testing
Hand mould
Sand rammer
Juutila Foundry – Finnish bell foundry (Finland), est. 1881, specialized in sand casting
voxeljet (Germany), 3D printing,

i. 'Riser' (UK) is a term for an up-runner, in which the poured metal rises from the casting. In US
practice, a riser is another term for a feeder to the top of a casting.[2]

References

Notes
1. Rao 2003, p. 15.
2. Campbell, John (1993). Castings. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 49. ISBN 0-7506-1696-2.
3. Donaldson, Brent (2017-11-01), "Foundry Says Robotic Sand Printing a "Game Changer" for
Metal Casting" (https://www.additivemanufacturing.media/articles/foundry-says-robotic-sand-p
rinting-a-game-changer-for-metal-casting), Additive Manufacturing, retrieved 2017-11-14.
4. "Core Making Process" (https://www.foundrycorevent.com/core-making-process/). Himalaya
Brass Products. 2021-07-10. Retrieved 2021-07-23.
5. "Sand Casting - The Designers & Buyers Guide" (https://www.manufacturingnetwork.com/kno
wledgebase/view/30). www.manufacturingnetwork.com. Retrieved 2016-03-29.
6. Mayam Saraei, Habibbolah Masoudi, Omid Aminian, and Nazanin Izadi (2018). "Respiratory
Health and Cross-Shift Changes of Foundry Workers in Iran" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pm
c/articles/PMC6534795). Tanaffos Journal of Respiratory Diseases, Thoracic Surgery,
Intensive Care and Tuberculosis. 17 (4): 285–290. PMC 6534795 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
v/pmc/articles/PMC6534795). PMID 31143220 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31143220).
7. "Respirator Use and Practices in Primary Metal Operations" (https://www.foundrymag.com/opi
nion/article/21926109/respirator-use-and-practices-in-primary-metal-operations). Foundry
Management and Technology. Retrieved 2021-04-05.
8. Sand Casting Process Description (http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/SandCasting)
9. Todd, Allen & Alting 1994, pp. 256–257.
10. Metal Casting Techniques - Vacuum ("V") Process Molding (http://www.engineershandbook.c
om/MfgMethods/vacuumprocessmolding.htm), retrieved 2009-11-09.
11. Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 310.
12. The V-Process (http://www.mccannsales.com/book/vprocess.pdf) (PDF), retrieved 2009-11-09.
13. Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 311.
14. B11 Standards (https://www.b11standards.org/standards)
15. Rao 2003, p. 18.
16. Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 300.
17. Rao 2003, p. 19.
18. "Beneficial Reuse Of Spent Foundry Sand" (http://www.cwc.org/industry/ibp951fs.pdf) (PDF).
1996.
19. Rao 2003, p. 22.
20. Rao 2003, p. 20.
21. Rao 2003, p. 21.
22. Rao 2003, p. 23.
23. Rao 2003, p. 24.
24. Asthana, R. (2006). Materials processing and manufacturing science (https://www.worldcat.or
g/oclc/85814321). A. Kumar, Narendra B. Dahotre. Amsterdam: Boston. ISBN 978-0-08-
046488-6. OCLC 85814321 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/85814321).
25. Rao 2003, p. 25.
26. Rao 2003, p. 26.
27. Stephanie Dalley, The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: An Elusive World Wonder
Traced, Oxford University Press (2013). ISBN 978-0-19-966226-5. Translation by the author,
reproduced by permission of Oxford University Press.

Bibliography
Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003), Materials and Processes in
Manufacturing (9th ed.), Wiley, ISBN 0-471-65653-4.
Todd, Robert H.; Allen, Dell K.; Alting, Leo (1994), Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide
(https://books.google.com/books?id=6x1smAf_PAcC), Industrial Press Inc., ISBN 0-8311-
3049-0.
Rao, T. V. (2003), Metal Casting: Principles and Practice, New Age International, ISBN 978-
81-224-0843-0.

External links
Sand Molding at Hopewell Furnace (18th-19th century techniques) - U.S. National Park
Service (YouTube video) (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fs4Q_G7klEg)
Different Types of Metal Casting Processes (https://zapscience.com/types-of-casting-processe
s/)

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