GEN ZOO REVIEWER their comb-like structure and as usual,

oxygen is necessary for them to live.

(Groups 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12) ● Terrestrial molluscs exchange gasses
with the surrounding air.
● Aquatic molluscs “breathe” underwater
GROUP 1: MOLLUCS with gills.
MOLLUSCS CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
MOLLUSCS ● All molluscs have an open circulatory
● Encompassing nearly 23% of all system except the class Cephalopoda.
recognized marine creatures, it is the Molluscs have a well-developed
largest marine phylum. circulatory system with a chambered
● Mostly found in marine and freshwater, (one or two) heart/s for pumping blood.
only a few can be found in moist soil. Open circulation: the blood is not
MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS enclosed in the blood vessels and is pumped into
● Body is divided into: head, visceral a cavity called hemocoel.
mass, muscular foot and mantle. Closed circulation: the blood is pumped
Head: comprises tentacles and
through the vessels separated from the
compound eyes.
interstitial fluid.
Body: covered by a calcareous shell.
Visceral mass: present above the foot, MOLLUSCS EXCRETORY SYSTEM
in the visceral hump, includes many of the ● They have a pair of metanephridia
organs such as the stomach, the heart, the (kidneys) that helps in excretion.
nephridia, and the gonads. ● They have a nephridia that filters the
Muscular foot: helps in locomotion, is waste from the interstitial body fluids.
retractable and extendable. The ventral-most MOLLUSCS NERVOUS SYSTEM
organ. ● Consists of the number of paired ganglia
Mantle: covers the visceral mass and is and nerves.
itself covered by the shell, in many species, the ● The three pairs of ganglia that make up
mantle produces a hard shell but not all species the central nervous system: cerebral,
of molluscs have shells. The limiting dorsal pedal and pleural ganglia.
organ. MOLLUSCS DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Ganglia: clusters of nerve cell bodies
● Has a coelom and complete and well- found throughout the body.
developed digestive system. The ● The tentacles, eyes, osphradium, and
digestive system is similar to humans in statocysts act as the sensory organs.
that it contains a mouth, esophagus, MOLLUSCS REPRODUCTION SYSTEM
stomach and anus. Most species use a ● Molluscs reproduce sexually. It is
tongue-like organ called radula for achieved by the formation and fusion of
feeding. gametes: sperm and eggs.
Coelom: the main body cavity located ● The sexes are separated in most of the
in the body to envelop and contain the internal molluscs but some species are
organs, digestive tract, etc., it is a hollow, fluid- hermaphrodites.
filled cavity serving as a skeleton. ● Fertilization may be external or internal.
Radula: a hard ribbon-shaped structure Internal fertilization: takes place when
covered in rows of teeth. the male transfers sperm into the female when
MOLLUSCS RESPIRATORY SYSTEM mating.
● Occurs through the general body
surface, gills (ctenida) or pulmonary sac.
All molluscs breathe by gills that are
called ctenidia (comb gills) because of
 External fertilization: takes place when completely lost the shell, e.g.,
the female lays eggs and they are then fertilized shipworms.
by the male sperm outside of the female’s body. ● Can be both hermaphroditic or have
● They are generally oviparous with separate sexes.
indirect development. ● Reproduction occurs through external
reproduction.
CLASS BIVALVIA ● Bivalves make their own shells through
● Also known as Lamellibranchia or the calcium carbonate that is secreted by
Pelecypoda, one of the most important their mantle and as they grow, their shell
members of freshwater ecosystems. becomes bigger.
● Found in marine and freshwater
habitats, can also be found both in UNIQUE DIFFERENCES OF BIVALVE
tropical and arctic waters, both shallow ORGANISMS
and deep waters. Clams/Scallops: they swim and move
● Two symmetrical, laterally compressed around by snapping their shell open and shut.
shells that are connected by a flexible Razor Clams: they bury themselves in
ligament. the sediment and extend their two (2) siphons
Examples: clams, mussels, oysters and onto the surface to suck up water.
scallops. Mussels: they have byssal threads that
anchor the adults to hard surfaces.
● The giant clam is the largest bivalve, Oysters: they permanently cement
reaching over three (3) feet wide and themselves to a substrate.
can live up to 100 years or more. The
algae living inside it makes it produce DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
bright colors. ● Most bivalves are filter feeders, some
are scavengers and some are predators.
ANATOMY OF BIVALVES ● Have the ability to collect food from
External: consists of umbo, growth filtered water through their gills
ring, and ligament. (ctenidia). These gills filter food from
Internal: on the anterior side: the the water and direct it to the labial palps,
umbo, cardinal teeth, adductor muscle scar, which surround the mouth.
pallial line, and serrations, on the posterior side: Pseudofaeces: are rejected boluses of
pallial sinus and the adductor muscle scar. food, bound with mucus that are passed to the
mouth by the palps and are discarded.
Inner structure: coelom, heart,
● Their digestive tract is made up of
adductor muscle, anus, excurrent siphon,
esophagus, stomach and intestine.
incurrent siphon, gill, gonad, mantle cavity, foot,
Short esophagus: leads from the mouth
palp, shell, mouth, digestive gland, mantle,
to the stomach which is a hollow, chambered sac
hinge area, and gut.
with several openings.
CHARACTERISTICS
Digestive diverticulum (gland): a dark
● Not cephalized, they do not have a head,
mass of tissue that is frequently called the
a radula or jaws and they breathe
“liver” surrounds the stomach.
through their gills,
● Most species have a retractable foot. Crystalline style: is a clear, gelatinous
● Not all bivalves still have a shell, some rod that can be up to 8 cm in length in some
have evolved a reduced shell or have species, it is round at one end and pointed at the
other that is believed to assist in the mixing of
food in the stomach and releases enzymes that deserts, mountains, backyards, and
help in digestion. beaches.
● If bivalves are held out of water for a ● Their shells range in size from almost a
few hours, the crystalline style becomes meter to less than a millimeter.
much reduced and may disappear but it ● Some are algae-eating herbivores, some
is reconstituted quickly when placed eat detritus (detritivory), some are
back in water. parasites, and others are carnivorous
predators, including fish.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ● Some species have separate sexes, some
● Bivalve mollusks breathe through their are hermaphrodites, and others like
gills. Crepidula switch sex during their lives.
● Animals in this class have well- Torsion: the 180° rotation of the velum
developed gills or ctenidia that are both and the foot of the developing larval body
specialized for breathing and for relative to the larval shell and visceral mass.
feeding.
WHAT ARE BIVALVES FOR? GASTROPOD MORPHOLOGY,
● Bivalves are important in keeping the ANATOMY AND LIFE
waters clean. HISTORY
● Helps in bioaccumulation, contaminants ● Shells are frequently found at the shore
like metals and naturally occurring algal and collectors have coveted them for
toxins concentrate in their bodies as they centuries.
filter food, this does not hurt the ● Shells are very useful for investigating
bivalves but eating a bivalve that has the relationship between evolution and
filtered too many toxic substances development, as well as paleoecology.
canbe harmful. Most descriptions of extant (living)
● Bivalves are a food source. shelled gastropods, particularly those
made decades or centuries ago are based
CLASS GASTROPODA only upon shell morphology.
● The name “Gastropoda” comes from the ● Shells of gastropods are also important
Greek roots “gastro” (= stomach) and for taxonomy and classification.
“pod” (= foot), “stomach foot”. Snails
were given this name because many SOFT-PART ANATOMY
have the appearance of crawling around External Anatomy: all gastropods have
on their stomachs. a head, which has a mouth, sensory structures
● One of the most diverse groups of such as tentacles or siphons, and eyes (are
animals, both in form, habit, and habitat sometimes found at the end of stalks).
and by far the largest group of molluscs, DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
with more than 62,000 described living ● Food enters the gastropod’s body
species, and they comprise about 80% of through the mouth, which may be
living molluscs. positioned at the end of an extended
structure called the rostrum or proboscis
CHARACTERISTICS/EATING in carnivorous marine gastropods.
PROCESSES ● All gastropods have a radula.
● They live in the oceans, freshwater lakes
and streams, and terrestrial ecosystems:
RESPIRATION SYSTEM and the giant squid has a huge eye. Like human eyes,
● Respiration in marine gastropods is most cephalopod eyes have an iris, pupil, lens, and
usually achieved with one or two gills, occasionally a cornea
called ctenidia.
● Respiration in terrestrial gastropods is
achieved using a portion of the mantle
cavity that is highly vascularized,
essentially serving as a lungs.
CLASS CEPHALOPODA
● A class of highly-developed molluscs
that includes octopuses, squids,
cuttlefishes, and the mysterious
nautilus.
● Greek roots “cephalo” (= head) and
“pod” (= foot), “head foot”. A reference
to the connection between the
cephalopod's head and its numerous
arms.
CHARACTERISTICS
● Two eyes, a mantle, a funnel (also
known as a siphon), and at least eight
limbs make up the classic cephalopod
body design. Some have hard, internal
structures that developed from their
hard, external shells of progenitors,
such as the cuttlebone in the cuttlefish
and the pen in the squid, but in many
octopuses the hard structure is
completely lost. The only nautiluses
with an exterior shell are the chambered
ones.
Arms, Tentacles and Suckers: Squid
and cuttlefish both have eight arms in addition
to two extra, specialized arms known as
tentacles, while an octopus has eight arms. The
ability of the tentacles to expand and retract
allows them to snare prey from a greater
distance. Strong suckers that can act as suction
cups are present on the arms and tentacles.
Some squids' suckers are changed into razor-
sharp hooks to better capture their food, making
them fearsome undersea predators. Squid sucker
rings are made of "suckerin" proteins, which
resemble spider silk in both structure and tensile
strength.
● Cephalopods are famous for their eyes.
Eyesight: The eyes of some
cephalopods are as intricate as those of humans,
 the predator's view, allowing the
cephalopod to quickly escape.

Beaks: Since cephalopods are

invertebrates, they lack jaw
bones. Instead, soft tissues and
strong muscles support their
beaks. Because of how tough
their beaks are, they are almost
inedible and are frequently
discovered on the stomachs of
their predators, such as seals
andwhales.

BEHAVIOR AND CHARACTERISTICS

● Cephalopods are the most
intelligent, most mobile, and
the largest of all molluscs.
Intelligence: A tool user and mimicker.

● Cephalopods conceal
themselves by producing
color patterns that closely
resemble the seafloor using
their keen eyesight and
chromatophores. Masters of
Disguise: camouflage.

● The host cephalopod can

sense the light emitted by the
bacterial symbionts that
provide the bioluminescence.
Additionally, some species
employ colored displays to
attract mates, frighten away
predators, or even
communicate with one
another. Bioluminescence
can also be used to lure food.
Inking: All cephalopods
have the abilityto emit ink to fool
predators, with the exception of the
Cirrina and the Nautilidae.
● They can use their siphon to
spout copious amounts of ink
into the water when they feel
threatened. This ink produces
a dense cloud that can block
GROUP 3: ECHINODERMATA ·Many crinoids resemble flowers, with their
cluster of waving arms atop a longstem,
ECHINODERMATA they are sometimes called sea lilies.
SUMMARY
But crinoids are not plants.
 starlike, spherical, or elongated ·Like their relatives—starfishes, sea urchins,
 exhibit organ system level of sea cucumbers, and brittle stars—crinoids
organization are echinoderms, animals with rough, spiny
 have an open circulatory system surfaces and a special kind of radial
 they respire through gills or cloacal symmetry based on five or multiples of five.
respiratory tree. The tentacles have open grooves, along
 have a simple radial nervous system which cilia (minute, hairlike projections)
and excretory system are absent. sweep food particles toward the mouth.
 body is unsegmented with no distinct
head All crinoids are filter feeders.
 reproduce sexually through gametic Free swimming crinoids like this one are
fusion and asexually through called feather stars.
regeneration.
Class of Asteroidea
Class Crinoidea
The class Asteroidea belongs to the phylum
TAXANOMIC CLASSIFICATION Echinodermata. As well as the starfish, the
echinoderms include sea urchins, sand
: Crinoids belong to the Kingdom dollars, brittle and basket stars, sea
Animalia, Phylum Echinodermata, cucumbers and [Link] is
Subphylum Crinozoa, Class Crinoidea the best known of the Echinoderms and
contains 1500 knownspecies. The asteroid
·Crinoidea is a small class of echinoderms
body is composed of a central disk
with around 600 species. Many crinoids
surrounded by its radiating arms.
live in the deep sea, butothers are common
on coral reefs. The characteristics of class Asteroidea
Two Body Regions: Major Attributes:
·Calyx 1. Generally a flattened body shape.
·Rays
2. Adult is radially symetrical while
Anatomy of Crinoids the young is bilateral. usually it is 5 to
The only surviving subclass of crinoids 40 arms
is the Articulata.
·Although crinoids are sometimes
amazingly abundant, they appear
tohave little commercial impact and
hardly affect humans in any way.
  Growth is related to temperature
3. Freely mobile. and very dependent on diet.
4. Tube feet for locomotion.
Anatomy of echinoidea
[Link] abilities.
 pentaradially symmetrical
Example of the class Asteroidea?
 most echinoids have five
Asteroidea includes the sea stars, conspicuous gonads
commonly called starfish. With about
1,800 known species, sea stars are a  have a water-vascular system
variety of sizes, colors and are a wide-
 contains a powerful chewing
ranging marine invertebrate
apparatus called the Aristotle's
Where are Asteroidea found? lantern.
The Asteroidea are among the most diverse
and familiar of the living Echinodermata,  urchins have longer spines; sand
including over 1800 species from every dollars have shorter spines
ocean basin in the world, including the
Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific as well as the  pincers located between spines
Arctic and the Southern Ocean. Interesting facts about Echinoidea
fun facts about the Sea Stars! They  The maximum age of echinoids
have no brain and no blood. isabout 10 years.
Starfish use filtered sea water to pump  The relative abundance of
nutrients through their nervous echinoid fossils gives the taxon a
system. complete fossil history.

Class echinoidea  Few species have yolky eggs

withdirect development
 The body does not have arms
Class Ophiuroidea
 All are benthic.
 Aka as brittle stars
 Members of this class are food for
crabs, sea stars, fish, birds, otters,  Has a scientific name in
and other mammals. Greek, “ophis” which mean
snake and “oura” means tail
 Development is via an echinopluteus
larva in most species.  most speciose living echinoderm
class
 Commonly grouped as regular
or irregular  also tolerate brackish water
environments
  tend to rely less on their water Bioluminescence
vascular system than other
echinoderms  common characteristics
of ophiuroids
 also have a specialized
endoskeleton with vertebral ossicles  useful in anti-predatory tactics

 Both the radial canal and the nerve  specialized cells called photocytes
cord are entirely housed within the that helps emit these
closed ambulacrum biolumiesecent displays
 Holothuroidea, Crinoidea,
 brittle star's internal organs are Asteroidea
housed in a clearly defined core
disk CLASS HOLOTHUROIDEA
 can sever its own tissues
anywhere along its own arm then  "Sea Cucumbers"
regenerate like sea stars  Bilaterally symmetrical
 Self-amputation is called autotomy
 can asexually reproduce via  Lack arms
fission of their central disk
 Almost worm-like
 opportunistic eaters with a one-way  Body wall is leathery
digestive system
anddermomuscular
 take advantage of floating particles
and plankton, which they capture  Most holothurians are black,
with their large branched arms, brown, and olive green
others sense out decaying
organisms  Sedentary and/or slow moving
How Sea Cucumbers Defend Themselves?
Basket stars (Euryalida)

 The largest of the Ophiuroidea are  To protect itself from predators, it

the basket stars, which usually have shoots out a toxic deterrent out of
five arms that can be more than a its butt.
some interesting facts about sea
meter wide.
cucumbers!
 Basket stars typically anchor
 The mouth is surrounded by
themselves with four arms
modified tube feet that form a
while extending their fifth into
ring of tentacles.
strong currents to capture food.
 They don't have bones.
 One of the most recent to originate
and has a fossil record that begins  Sea cucumbers can live from 5-10
in the Mesozoic. years.

 They are found in all seas at all

depths. Some ocean trenches
contain more than 90% of the total
biomass.
GROUP 5: ARTHROPODS

Major characteristics
ARTHROPODS
➢ Arthropoda is the largest phylum in the kingdom animalia. Under this phylum are more
than one million known invertebrate species in four subphyla: Uniramia (five classes, including
insects), Chelicerata (three classes, including arachnids and horseshoe crabs), Crustacea
(crustaceans), and Trilobita (trilobites).

HISTORY

➢ The first fossil arthropods appear in the Cambrian Period, around 541.0 million to 485.4 million
years ago and are represented by trilobites, merostomes, and crustaceans. Also, present are some
enigmatic arthropods that do not fit into any of the existing subphyla.

MAJOR PARTS

➢ In size, most arthropods are small animals. Aquatic forms are able to attain substantial sizes
because their bodies are supported in part by the surrounding water. The extinct chelicerate
Eurypterida, for example, reached 1.8 meters in length and some modern spider crab weighs up to
6.4 kilograms and span 3.8 meters or more.

HABITAT AND DIVERSITY

➢ Arthropods are found in almost all the habitats that cover the Earth’s surface. Minute copepods
are among the most abundant animals on Earth, especially in marine surface waters. Many other
crustaceans live in the sea at depths exceeding 4k km, while the insect collembolans and jumping
spiders have found on Mount Everest at heights exceeding 6.7K meters. Brine shrimps are found
in some saltwater lakes, while beetles, mites, and various crustaceans have been taken from hot
springs.

The numbers and diversity of arthropods are enormous. A bag filled with leaf mold from a forest
floor, for example, will contain hundreds of arthropods, including mites, spiders, false scorpions,
myriapods, a great variety of insects, and crustacean pill bugs. In the spring a temporary pool
often teems with minute crustaceans.

IMPORTANCE

➢ Arthropods are of great direct and indirect importance to humans. The larger crustaceans—
shrimps, lobsters, and crabs—are used as food throughout the world. Small planktonic
crustaceans are a major link in the food chain between the photosynthetic phytoplankton and the
larger carnivores, such as many fish and whales. Although many species of insects and mites
attack food crops and timber, arthropods
➢ are of enormous benefit to human agriculture. Two-thirds of all flowering plants are pollinated by
insects and the stings and bites of arthropods may be irritating or painful, but very few inject
dangerous toxins.
 Insects

CLASS INSECTA/ HEXAPODA

- a class of six-legged arthropods that comprises the insects.
- Insect body is divided into 3 regions : head, thorax, and abdomen.
- Insects don't have spines; they are invertebrates.
- One of the most diverse groups of animals on earth.

INSECT ANATOMY
- The three main insect body parts are head, thorax, and abdomen.
- An insect also normally has a pair of antennae, two pairs of wings, eyes and mouthparts
adapted especially for its specific lifestyle

FEEDING & NUTRITION

-phytophagous
-saprophagous
-predaceous
-parasitic

RESPIRATION
-an insect's blood does not carry much oxygen because they don’t have large gas filled sacs taking up a larger
part of their body for breathing.
-oxygen is delivered directly to body cells through a system of tubes and passageways.

SENSE ORGANS
1. VISION
-most important sense for most insects
-simple eyes
-compound eyes
2. TOUCH
-most sense organs that respond to touch aresmall hairs on
epidermal setae.
-most touching involves antennae and mouthparts
3. HEARING AND SOUND
-insects have many different kinds of organs forhearing.
- insects with the best developed hearing
arethose that communicate using sound
4. TASTE AND SMELL
-smell - if the chemical is volatile and travels somedistance
-taste - if the insect is in direct contact with the source

reproduction and development

-Mating is an important part of an insects behavior setto find
mates.
-Internal fertilization
Metamorphosis :
-complete metamorphosis (egg-larva-pupa-adult)
-incomplete metamorphosis (egg-nymph-adult)

CLASSIFICATION
Subclass Apterygota
-order zygentoma(silverfish, fishmoths,firebrats)
-Order Archaeognatha or Microcoryphia (jumping bristletails)

Subclass Paleoptera
-Order Ephemeroptera (mayflies)
-Order Odonata (dragonflies, damselflies)

Subclass Polyneoptera
-Order Orthoptera(Grasshoppers, crickets and bush-crickets)
-Order Phasmida(Stick-insects)
-Order Plecoptera(Stoneflies)
-Order Dermaptera(Earwigs)
-Order Dictyoptera(Cockroaches, termites and mantids)
-Order Embioptera(Webspinners)
-Order Grylloblattaria(Rock crawlers)
-Order Mantophasmatodea(Heelwalkers)
-Order Zoraptera(Zorapterans)

Subclass Paraneoptera
-Order Hemiptera(True bugs)
-Order Phthiraptera(Sucking and biting lice)
-Order Psocoptera(Booklice and barklice)
-Order Thysanoptera(Thrips)

Subclass Endopterygota
-Order Coleoptera(Beetles)
-Order Diptera(True flies)
-Order Hymenoptera(Ants, bees, and wasps)
-Order Lepidoptera(Butterflies and moths)
-Order Mecoptera(Scorpion flies)
-Order Megaloptera(Alderflies)
-Order Neuroptera(Lacewings)
-Order Siphonaptera(Fleas)
-Order Raphidioptera(Snakeflies)
-Order Strepsiptera(Twisted wing flies)
-Order Trichoptera(Caddisflies or sedge flies)

Chelicerates
HISTORY
· 420 M years ago (Silurian)

· good fossil record

HABITAT

· terrestrial

· Aquatic - marine horseshoe crabs

ANATOMY

· Exoskeleton

Two body segments

o Cephalothorax

o abdomen

· have no antennae

· six pairs of appendages

o chelicerae

o pedipalps

o posterior four pairs –

walking

Feeding and Digestion

· Chelicerae (either pincher like or fang like)

· Pedipalps (usually larger and may also have “pinchers”)

Respiration
· Aquatic species – have book gills

· Terrestrial species – have book lungs

Senses

1. Vision

· Aquatic Species – have simple and compound eyes

· Terrestrial species – have several pairs of simple eyes or ocelli

2. Mechanoreceptors

· “touch” – have sensory hairs and bristles, some also can detect sounds they used for “hearing”

Circulation

· Has open circulatory system

· Haemocoel – body cavity

Excretion

· Malpighian tubules

· Coxal glands

Reproduction

· Dioecious

· Males use pedipalps to transfer sperm from their genital pore to that of the female. Eggs are
laid in silken cocoons and maternal care is common

· Fertilization tends to be external in marine species and internal in terrestrial

CLASSIFICATION

· Class Merostomata – horseshoe crabs

· Class Pycnogonida – sea spiders

· Class Arachnida - spiders, scorpions, mites, ticks, “daddy long-legs”

 Crustaceans

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF CRUSTACEA

1. Hard skeleton
2. Jointed appendages
3. Antennae
4. Tails and claws
5. Carapace
6. Biramous appendages
7. Segmented body
8. Gills
9. Compound eyes

BODY FORM
- in most crustaceans today, the body is usually divided into a cephalothorax, abdomen and tail (telson).

● cephalothorax
feeding and sensory appendages5 or more
pairs of walking legs
including chelipeds (pinchers) on 1st pair
● abdomen
segmentation is most apparent in the abdomen
abdomen usually with pairs of jointed appendages on most segments
● telson (tail)
has its own paired appendages
= uropods that with the telson form a finliketail

RESPIRATION
● Gills

REPRODUCTION
- most are separate sexed (dioecious)but a few are hermaphrodites including barnacles
- some have courtship rituals involving chemical, visual and auditory cues

eg. fiddler & ghost crabs

male attract females during the day by waving its claws and both day & night by producing distinctive drumming
sounds

CLASSIFICATION OF CRUSTACEA
 * 4 Major Classes
Class Malacostraca (40,000 sp.) Class
Maxillipoda (10,000 sp.) Class
Branchipoda (1000 sp.)
Class Ostracoda (13,000 sp. (70,000 fossil sp.))

Myriapods

Greek word (muríos) which means 'ten thousand', and (poús) means 'foot')

HISTORY

● Late Silurian period (443 -417 million years ago)

● 13,000 species, All terrestrial.

ECOLOGY N HABITAT

● Live in humid environment (moist soils, leaf litters, or under stones andwood)
● Fulfill an important role in breaking down decaying plant material.
● Only small percentage is Littoral (found along the seashore)

ANATOMY

● Exoskeleton (strengthened with calcium salts)

● Two body segments. (Homonomous which is identical portion)
- Head (Short)
- Trunk (Long)
● Homonomous segment which is identical portion
● Trunk segments
- two pairs of legs
- two pairs of spiracles
● Head
- pair of antennae
- pair of mandibles
- eyes, labrum and mouth.
● All bilateral symmetry
 CLASSIFICATION

● Class Chilopoda (Centipede)

- Carnivores and eat insects.
- active at night, fast, poisonous, and aggressive.
- All of them are flat
segmented bodies w/ pair of
legs each segment.
● Class Diplopoda (Millipedes)
- Slower than centipedes,
- Scavengers or herbivores
- Has two pairs of legs on each
body segment.
- Don't have poison claws
like centipedes.
● Class Pauropoda - Very pale and blind
- Live in the soil on all
continents except Antarctica
- They are very pale and have a
pair of branched antennae
- They are also Terrestrial
invertebrates
● Class Symphyla (Garden Centipede)
- Has 6 to 12 pairs of legs, depending
on their life stage.
- Similar looks to centipede but pale
and very tiny
- They are blind, fast running and use
their long antennae to locate food.
● Class Arthropleuridea
- They are the Extinct relative
of millipede
- About 2.6 meters or 8’5 feet
- It is the Largest arthropod
ever known based on fossils
- due to High atmospheric
oxygen [O2] during the
Carboniferousperiod this
allowed Arthropods to grow
huge.
GROUP 7: MAMMALIA

Mammalia FOOD HABITS:

They are Omnivores, Insectivores,
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS Carnivores, and Herbivores.
-They are covered with hair or fur.
-They are warm-blooded. Placentals
-Most mammals are born alive.
-The young are fed with milk produced by mam-mary DESCRIPTION
gland. -The largest subclass of mammals. Additionally, animals
-They have a more complex brain than other an-imals. that give birth to anatomically completeoffspring are
included in this category. And we have here Tom and
Marsupials Jerry, as an example.
-A placental mammal is any member of the
DESCRIPTION mammalian group characterized by the pres-ence
-The name marsupial comes from the word mar- of a placenta.
supium or pouch. -Placenta facilitates exchange of nutrients, oxy- gen, and
-Marsupials are a group of mammals that wastes between the blood of the moth-er and that of
are known for carrying their young in a the fetus. And there are about 4000 species that
pouch. possess this characteristic, mostly rodents and bats.
-Marsupials have very short gestation periods. -They all share many traits with other placental
-Marsupials are not fully developed at birth andthey mammals, such as they have a placenta duringthe
must continue developing in the mother’s pouch. gestation period that provides nourishment
-The most popular mammal among marsupialsis the and gas exchange to the mammal offspring afterthey give
kangaroo. birth.
-Some marsupials do not have pouches and inthese -There 3 major subdivisions or lineages of pla- cental
species, the young simply cling to their mother. mammals: Boreoeutheria, Xenarthra, andAfrotheria
-Most marsupials are night creatures. -Xenarthrans are found in most habitats of Cen-tral and
South America.
- Afrotheria originated in Africa.
LOCATION - Boreoeutheria found in northern continentswhich is
Some 200 species of marsupials are found in Eurasia or North America.
the dry scrub or desert habitat in Australia, New
Guinea, and neighbouring islands. Some 70
species live in the forests or tropical forests in LOCATION
America, mainly in South and Central. -They can be easily found on all continents.
-They are terrestrial, aquatic, and aerial species.

ANIMALS INCLUDED IN ANIMALS

THECLASSIFICATION INCLUDED IN THE
There are more than 250 species belonging tothe
infraclass metatheria.
CLASSIFICATION
-The placental mammals include such diverse
-kangaroo
forms as whales, elephants, shrews, and arma-dillos.
-opossum
-Included are domesticated animals like dogs and cats as
-koala well as numerous farm and working animals like
sheep, cattle, and horses.
REPRODUCTION
- They are (vayviparus) viviparous. REPRODUCTION
- They are solitary throughout the year, They are viviparous .
only coming together to mate.
- They have Promiscuous mating systems. LONGETIVITY
They can live for a year or even decades. Just like
LONGETIVITY Bowhead whales that may live for more than200
Live only 1 to a few years. Some have lived upto 26 years.
years in captivity
 FOOD HABITS LONGETIVITY
They are Herbivores, Carnivores, and
Omni- vores They can live up to 50

years. FOOD HABITS:

Monotremes
Prototherians are carnivorous, with their dietsconsisting
DESCRIPTION of various invertebrates.
-The subclass Prototheria includes egg-laying mammals,
and they are the most primitive typesof mammals in
the class Mammalia. GROUP 8: CLASS AVES
-They have highly modified snouts or beaks,
andmodern adult monotremes have no teeth. Like
Aves

other mammals, however, monotremes have Definition: the class where birds belong.
asingle bone in their lower jaw, three middle
earbones, high metabolic rates, and hair.  Kingdom Animalia, Phylum Chordata and
Subphylum Vertebrata.
 Evolved from reptiles, not mammals.
 Warm-blooded species with scales on their
LOCATION
feet.
-They can be found in Australia & New Guinea
Evolution/Origin of Class Aves
-They are eiither terrestrial (Tachyglossidae)
orprimarily aquatic (Ornithorhynchidae).  From Avian Dinosaurs, warm blooded
dinosaurs. More specifically, Theropods
which are bipedal meat-eating dinosaurs.
ANIMALS INCLUDED IN THECLASSIFICATION
Archaeopteryx (Urvogel) transitional species
-There are actually only five species of Mono-tremes between birds and dinosaurs, The “first bird”.
living today. The duck-billed platypus and four species
of echidna (also known as spiny anteaters). - Characteristics of Urvogel, toothed beak, claw on
its hand, long tail with many vertebrae, airfoil wing
-Duck-billed platypus are amphibious Australian
with contour feathers like modern birds.
mammal that are known for their primitive fea-tures
- existed 150 million years ago in the Latter part of
and the Jurassic period under the Mesozoic era.
their flat bill. Active during dusk to dawn, and they
shelter during the day in bur- rows dug into stream banks  Major Advancement
 1. Feathers, used for
-Short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus acule-atus), -Sir
insulation/thermoregulation, displays, or
David’s long-beaked echidna (Zaglossus
waterproofing.
attenboroughi)
 Major Types of Feathers
-Eastern long-beaked echidna (Zaglossus barto-ni), 1. Contour Feathers
- Western long beaked echidna (Zaglossus bruijinii). - Large and most important feathers, such as
flight and tail feathers.
- Integument or the protective layer of birds
REPRODUCTION for physical objects, debris, wind, rain, etc.,
gives bird color
-They are oviparous 2. Down Feathers
-They are solitary for most of the year, - Soft and Fluffy
comingtogether only to mate. - Under the Contour Feathers, and provide
insulation
-They are also seasonal breeders.
 3. Filoplume
Modifications in Class Aves
- Much smaller - only have few barbs at
the tip
- Believed to have a sensory function, The flying ability of Aves is improved due to
allowing birds to keep their feathers in modifications in the bird’s anatomy:
order.  Some organs are absent to reduce the
 2, Endothermy weight of the bird during flying.
- Thermoregulation by metabolic means  Development of a wing.
- Decreased vulnerability to external  Some have evolved for swimming. [Ex.
temperature, more active at night time. waterbirds]
They are characterized by having the following *Birds are important members of several ecosystems
features: because...
 wings and feathers
 laying eggs with a hard shell - Birds provide meat and eggs.
 being bipedal - They help in the pollination process.
 having the ability to swim, walk, and perch, - They are used in the manufacturing and
 having a light and strong skeleton production of food materials.
 a heart consisting of four chambers
 flattened and large breastbone *Birds are social species. Here's why?
 toothless lower jaw
 Aves have sharp eyes. - They communicate through calls, songs, signals
 All Aves have a gizzard and crop in their and signs.
alimentary canal to crush and soften the - They participate in many activities including
food. hunting, breeding, flocking, and identifying
 The circulatory system of birds has a heart predators.
composed of four chambers and elastic
spongy lungs. Reproduction of Aves
 Fingers of Aves are flat or lifting according
to their point of attachment with hallux. *Aves reproduction usually takes place for one
 Their kidney is the excretory organ; they do season or for years.
not have a urinary bladder. The excreted
urine is semisolid.  Rarely breed for life.
 They have wide mouths and jaws.  Lay eggs in a nest that is incubated by
 They do not have teeth in their mouth so parents.
food is not masticated.  Eggs being fertilized through sexual
 Their head is round and small connected to a reproduction to produce offspring.
flexible, long, and movable neck.  Extends parental care for a period of time.
 Birds develop directly through internal
fertilization 

*They can build their nest, show courtship, have GROUP 10: PHYLUM ANNELIDA
territorial behavior, and display parental care. PHYLUM ANNELIDA: SEGMENTED WORMS
*Wide variety of sizes ranging from a few ● Annelids have metamerism (repeating body
centimeters [Ex. bee hummingbird] to meters [Ex. segments).
Ostrich]. ● Also called "bristle worms" because of their tiny
chitinous bristles called setae.
● Three major classes of annelida are Polychaeta,
Hirudinea, Oligochaeta
 ● Metamerism or segmentation allows them to CHARACTERISTICS OF OLIGOCHAETA
move with extra protection.
● Have many chaetae from each segment called o Mostly terrestrial and found in freshwater.
parapodia in some annelids. o Have few chaetae.
● Annelids are triploblastic (have three germ o Oligo (few) and chaetae (small hairlike
bristles)
layers).
● Possess a true coelom.
OTHER CHARACTERISTICS
ECOLOGY, ANATOMY, AND LOCOMOTION
- Movement
Annelids, or segmented worms, are segmented Peristalsis - common mode of locomotion of
invertebrates that are very important to a variety many soft-bodied animals.
of marine and terrestrial environments.
• reworking of soil and sediments - Feeding
Mostly deposit feeders.
Annelids vary in structure depending on their class,
Others are herbivores and scavengers
environment, and whether they are freemoving or
sedentary. - Reproduction
• most annelids have segmented bodies, a body Hermaproditic
cavity called a coelom, and setae hairs along the Others also reproduce by exchanging sperm
body. with their clitella.
• also possess bilateral symmetry
• have a complete digestive tract: a mouth at one end, CHARACTERISTICS OF HIRUDINEA
an anus at the other. ● Mostly found in freshwater, others
Segmented worms move by coordinating their are marine.
muscles along the length of their body ● Likes to live in ponds.
• two layers of muscles (longitudinal and circular) ● also called true leeches.
● They have no chaetae.
CHARACTERISTICS OF POLYCHAETA ● Have suckers in each end for
locomotion and feeding.
● Marine worms with well-defined body ● Moves like inchworms with crawling
segmentation. motions or eel-like swimming
● Have a pair of parapodia in most body segments. motion.
● Parapodia - functions in locomotion, breathing,
and sensation.
OTHER CHARACTERISTICS
● Form of reproduction includes budding and self-
fertilization as hermaphroditic. -Feeding:
● Its size ranges from few milimeters to 3 meters. Blood-sucking, ectoparasites - living on the skin of the
host.
TWO GROUPS OF POLYCHAETES Also predators that feeds on other small animals.
1. Errantia - Free-moving forms or active swimmers. Has triangular teeth to slice skin, and proboscis to
2. Sedentaria - Tube-dwelling forms or burrowers. suck blood.
-Reproduction:
IMPORTANCE OF POLYCHAETES They are hermaphroditic, and reproduce eggs through
their clitellum
● Balance to marine ecosystem; playing an
essential ecological roles.
● Also serves as food for human consumption
and as fish baits
 longitudinal nerve cords arranged in a ladder-like
GROUP 11: Phylum Platyhelminthes fashion.

Unique Characteristics of Phylum Platyhelminthes:

Phylum Platyhelminthes 1. Presence of flame cells.
2. Ladder-like nervous system
Also known as flatworms, it belongs to Kingdom Animalia and includes 3. Presence of parenchyma in the body cavity.
13,000 species. These are acoelomates and include many free-living and 4. Self-fertilization
parasitic life forms. These are single-celled organisms around 2-3 feet
long.

They are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical,dorsoventral, Examples of Platyhelminthes:

acoelomate flatworms with organ grade of construction without 1. Dugesia (Planaria)
definite anus, circulatory, skeletal, or respiratory system but with  Found in freshwater ponds or slow
Protonephridia excretorysystem as well as mesenchyme filling the streams. Possesses cilia and has thepower
space between the various organs of the body. regenerating the lost part.
 The head bears a pair of eyes and two
Few species under this phylum cause certain diseases such as lateral lobes.
Schistosomiasis or bilharzia or bilharziasis, a disease caused by 2. Schistosoma
parasitic worms that belong to familySchistosomiasis.  Found in mesenteric blood vessels and
hepatic portal systems of humans and known
Classes of Phylum Platyhelminthes as blood fluke. Shows well-marked sexual
1. Turbellari dimorphism.
2. Trematoda  This causes Schistosomiasis which spreads
3. Cestoda through contaminated water.
 The patient suffers from anemia, pain, fever,
Characteristics of Platyhelminthes: liver, and spleen enlargement, and diarrhea.
1. Triploblastic, acoelomate, and bilaterally 3. Fasciola (Liver Fluke)
symmetrical.  Also known as Liver Fluke since it residesin
2. Free-living or parasites the liver and bile duct of sheep and goats.
3. Has soft body covering with or without cilia.
4. Has dorsoventrally flattened body without
segments and appears like a leaf.  Is a Hermaphrodite but cross-fertilization takes
5. Devoid of anus and circulatory system but have place. Causes fascioliasis in animals.
mouth. 4. Taenia solium
6. Respire by simple diffusion through the body  Also known as Pork Tapeworm and foundin all
surface. countries where pork is consumed.
7. Organ level of organization.  They live as parasites in the smallintestine of
8. Do not have a digestive tract. human beings and their larva are found in the
9. The space between the body wall and organs isfilled muscles of the pigs.
with connective tissue parenchyma that helps in  It is hermaphrodite and undergoes
transporting food material. self- fertilization.
10. They are hermaphrodites, both male and femaleorgans  This causes taeniasis where patientsexperience
are present in the same body. abdominal pain, anemia, indigestion,
11. Reproduce sexually by fusion of gametes and restlessness, and false appetite.
asexually by regeneration and fission. Fertilization is 5. Echinococcus granulosus (Dog Tapeworm)
internal.  Cystic echinococcosis also known ashydatid
12. Their life cycle is complicated with one or more disease caused by infection with the larval stage
larval stages. of Echinococcusgranulosus which is a 2-7-
13. Possess quality of regeneration. millimetre-long tapeworm found in dogs
14. Flame cells help in excretion and osmoregulation. (definitive host) sheep, cattle, goats, and pigs
(intermediate hosts).
15. Nervous system comprises the brain and two
Class Turbellaria Examples of Class Turbellaria
A Taxonomy class belonging to the Phylum Platyhelminthes Polycladida - represents a highly diverse clade of free- living
flatworms) characterized by having a body covered external with marine flatworms. They are known from the littoral to the sublittoral
vibrating cilia. They are free-living Flatworms. zone, and many species are common from coral reefs.
They can be found in many aquatic habitats as well as given Planaria- commonly found in freshwater ponds, crawling around
terrestrial environments. Turbellarians are named for their turbulence. stones live at the bottom.

General Characteristics Class Trematoda

 Mostly small animals under 5 mm in length. Some are Consists of a group of parasitic flatworms known as flukes.
microscopic whereas land planarians may reach a
length of 50 cm. Characteristics of Class Trematoda:
 Most of them are vermiform shape, but the larger forms 1. Dorso-ventrally flattened and leaflike in shape.
are long and slender or leaf-like, 2. Their bodies are covered with tegument, which is
 Translucent or white and other of sober coloration. usually armed with scalelike spines.
 Mouth leads to a stomodeal pharynx 3. They have two suckers: one oral and one ventral.
4. The intestine has no distal opening and bifurcatesinto
Morphological/Structural Characteristics of two ceca.
ClassTurbellaria 5. Hermaphroditic
6. They lack both sensory and respiratory systems.
A. Epidermis – outer body layer
B. Basement membrane – it is present below the Morphological/Structural Characteristics of Class
epidermis and separates the epidermis from Trematoda:
mesodermally derived tissues  Oral suckers - helps to feed nutrients from the
C. Muscular layers – these layers lie beneath the host.
basement membrane. These are present between the  Pharynx - acts as a pump to suck nutrients
dorsal and ventral side fromthe host organism.
D. Parenchyma – loosely organized cells that are  Genital pore - opening of the reproductive system
present between the longitudinal muscles and  Ventral sucker - attachment organ
gastrodermis  Cirrus pouch - penile part
E. Glands – several type of these are present on the  Gastric cecum - digestion takes place
ventral surface of the body wall  Uterus - fertilization occurs
F. Cilia – helps to glide through the water and o0ver the  Vas deferens - seminal receptacle
bottom of a stream or pond  Ovary - leads to a uterus that is filled with eggs.
G. Columnar epithelium - Simple columnar  Ootype - part of the oviduct in which the eggs are
epithelium: This type of epithelium is often furnished with a shell.
specialized for absorption and usually has apical cilia or  Testes - sperm synthesis
microvilli. These cells line your stomach and  Vitelline glands - eggshell formation
intestines.  Excretory pore - excretion of waste products
H. Pharynx – muscular tube that extends out of the mouth
and pumps food into the digestive cavity or gut
I. Gland cell- is secrete mucus which forms a Examples of Class Trematoda:
Eurytrema Pancreaticum
substrate on which the animal can glide.
 Preferentially targets the left pancreatic lobe in
ruminants.
Fasciola hepatica
 The sheep liver fluke, infects cattle, other
ungulates, and occasionally humans.
 Class Cestoda
Commonly known as tapeworms, they can be found in the ● Taenia solium (Pork tapeworm)
gastrointestinal tract of their hosts.  It is a tapeworm that uses
humans as its definitive host and
Examples of Class Cestoda:
1. Taenia sp: pigs as the intermediate or
• Taenia saginata (Beef tapeworm) secondary hosts.
• An intestinal parasite in humans causing taeniasis (a  It is found throughout the world and
type of helminthiasis) and cysticercosis in cattle. is most common in countries
• It is found globally and most prevalently where cattle where pork is eaten
are raised, and beef is consumed. 2. Hymenolepis nana (Dwarf tapeworm)
 Differs from other tapeworms because it
Characteristics of Class Cestoda: requires only one host but can also cycle
1. Long, flat body (ribbon-like) that can grow to over20 through two.
meters in length depending on the species.  H. nana is more frequent in populations,
2. Has segmented body that is covered by tegument. particularly children, living in conditions of
3. Anterior end is a scolex. poverty and poor hygiene, particularly when
4. Has Body segments called proglottids. fleas are present.
5. Endo parasitic 3. Dipylidium caninum (Flea tapeworm, double-
6. Hermaphroditic pored tapeworm, or cucumber tapeworm)
7. They do not have a gut or mouth.  A cyclophyllid cestode that infects
8. They also do not have a digestive system, but organisms afflicted with fleas and canine
theyabsorb nutrients through a skin-like chewing lice, including dogs, cats, and
coveringinstead. sometimes human pet-owners, especially
9. They do not have body cavities and therefore, children.
acoelomate.

Morphological/Structural Characteristics of
ClassCestoda:
 Scolex
 Anterior part of cestodes
 Contains hooks and suckers
 The hooks (which vary in number from one
species to another) protrude from
amuscular structure known as
theRostellum.

 Neck
 Growing region
 Thin segment that is immediately
attached to the scolex
 Influences the fragmentation of
the cestodes
 Proglottid
 Individual segments of the cestodesattached to the
neck region
 Make up the strobila
 A mature proglottid contains both maleand female
reproductive organs
GROUP 12: FISHES

Major Characteristics of Fishes:

1. Fishes are aquatic (it may be fresh or marine), they live in water; they are also cold-blooded vertebrates--
Fact: Fishes are first jawed vertebrates.
2. Fishes are Ectothermic, they cannot regulate their own body, hence, they rely upon their environment to
regulate their temperature.
3. Their body is divisible into head, trunk and tail. On the head a pair of eyes is present – they have no eye
lids. Neck is absent.
4. The body is covered by scales. They are placoid scales, cycloid scales, ctenoid scales, ganoid scales etc.
5. Their Respiration is by gills. Gills are the extensions of the pharynx. In bony fishes the gill slits are
covered by operculum (hard, plate-like flap that covers gills). Gill slits are usually 5 pairs but never
more than 7 pairs
6. Nostrils are paired – for olfactory and not respiratory
7. It has ears But when you look at a fish, you can't see its ears. A fish's ears are located inside its head,
right behind each eye. Each ear is a small, hollow space, lined with nerve hairs and containing three
otoliths — or ear stones — that gently rest on the nerve hairs.
8. Fishes Two-chambered heart (auricle and ventrical)
9. On the lateral sides of the body LATERAL LINE SENSE organs are present through this. they detect
the pressure changes of water current and pressure.
10. The body shows paired and unpaired fins. Pelvic and pectoral fins are paired. Dorsal and ventral fins are
unpaired.
11. The digestive system is well developed. The nervous system contains brain and spinal cord. Brain is
small & it will not occupy the entire cranial cavity.
12. 10 pairs of cranial nerves are present.
13. Kidneys are mesonephric – mesonephros (In general, fish form the first 2 kidneys, called the
pronephros and mesonephros, with the latter being the permanent adult kidney.)
14. Urinary bladder is absent – their urine is semi solid for it is composed of mainly uric acid.
15. The skeleton of some fishes is made by cartilage. They are called cartilage fishes. In some fishes the
skeleton is made by bone. They are called bony fishes.
16. Sexes are separate. Gonads are paired. In male sharks claspers are present.
17. Many fishes are oviparous (laid by eggs). Some fishes are viviparous (birthing offspring)
18. Fertilization – in fishes can take place whether internal or external.
19. In the development of fishes, amnion (a thin, transparent fluid in which the embryo is suspended, this
surrounds the developing embryo and protecting it.) is not developed. Hence these animals are called
anamniotes. (informal group of craniates comprising all fishes and amphibians, which lay their eggs in aquatic
environments. They are distinguished from the amniotes, which can reproduce on dry land either by laying
shelled eggs or by carrying fertilized eggs within the female)

Fishes is under Kingdom Animalia; Phylum Chordata; Subphylum vertebrata , the species of fish found in theworld is
classifies into three groups.
- Class Agnatha
- Class Chondrichthyes and
- Osteichtyes which has two classes that is Class Actinopterygii and Sarcopterygii
-
CLASS AGNATHA
 do not have jaws
 oldest of the vertebrates
 skeleton made of cartilage
Hagfish
 scavenger
 a scaleless fish with soft skin
 almost blind and sometimes called slime eels
 they are all born hermaphroditic, but will change to either male or female as they develop
 has slow metabolism.

Lamprey
 parasitic fish
 sometimes inaccurately called "lamprey eels"
 They use a circular sucking disk to attach to the host.
 Live in fresh and saltwater

CLASS CHONDRICHTHYES
Chondrichthyes is a class of jawed fishes having a cartilaginous skeleton. The class includes a diverse group of fishes
including sharks, rays, skates and chimaeras. They are mostly marine fishes. The other group of fishes arebony fishes,
which are included in the class Osteichthyes.

Some of the prominent examples of cartilaginous fishes are:

 Charcarodon charcharias (Great White Shark)

 Manta Ray
 Leucoraja erinacea (Little skate)
 Pristis clavata (Dwarf Sawfish)
 Callorhinchus milii (Australian ghost shark)

The class is divided into two subclasses:

 · Elasmobranchii (sharks, rays, skates, and sawfish)
 · Holocephali (chimaeras, sometimes called ghost sharks, which are sometimes separated into their
own class).

What differentiates Holocephalans and Elasmobranchs?

The structure of their gills and how they develop in the embryo are the primary distinctions between thesetwo
groups. Elasmobranchs have five to seven external gill slits with no gill cover, whereas Holocephali have four gill slits
with a gill cover (an operculum). Elasmobranch basically refers to a naked gill. Additionally, unlikethe Elasmobranchii,
the upper jaw of the Holocephali is fused to the skull.

Morphology:

Skeleton
 Sharks, rays, skates and Chimaeras have a skeleton made of cartilage, unlike all other fish (Class Teleost: Bony
fish), which have skeletons made of bone
 The upper jaw is not attached to the skull, as it is in bony fish, and can move independently of the skull
 The skull is made of only 10 cartilaginous elements, with calcified cartilage in the jaw and inner ear
 The gill slits are exposed and visible

Body Covering
 The skin is made of tiny, hard, tooth-like placoid scales called denticles.
 Shaped like curved teeth, they make the skin a very tough armour, with a sandpaper-like texture
 Skin is so rough that contact with it can be used to injure prey
 All of the spines of the denticles point towards the tail in order to minimise drag and maximise swimming efficiency
  Their streamlined shapes helps decrease the friction of the water flowing along the shark’s body
 Fins are stiff and lack the fine bony spines and muscle control found in Teleosts. This means they are only able
to swim forward

Teeth
 They have polyphyodont teeth, teeth that are continually replaced as they wear out or are lost
 The teeth are arranged in parallel rows situated behind the functional set
 Those teeth waiting to replace lost lie flat against the gum and point back into the mouth where they
may assist in preventing food from escaping but take no part in biting
 When a tooth needs to be replaced the gum moves forward pulling the new teeth forward and erect
 Unlike most animals’ jaws, both the elasmobranchs upper and lower jaws move
 Most species do not chew their food, but gulp it down whole it in large pieces. Their teeth are not able
to chew food, but only to tear it into mouth-sized pieces

Respiratory system
Depending on the species, all chondrichthyans breathe through five to seven pairs of gills. Demersal animals can
actively pump water through their spiracles and out through their gills, but pelagic species often need to keep swimming
to keep oxygenated water flowing through their gills.

Reproduction

Fertilization is internal.

Females have no obvious external reproductive structures, whilst males have two extensions of the pelvic fin
known as claspers. Males use these claspers during reproduction to internally fertilize the females
 Some species of shark and rays and all skates, lay eggs. also known as Mermaid’s purses, on the seabed or
wrapped around seaweed. This is called oviparity and the young develop within the egg cases whilst being
nourished by a ball of yolk
 These egg cases are often found washed up on beaches and are common known as a “mermaid’s purse”
 In all other sharks and rays, the young develop inside the mother. This is known as viviparity, and the young may
stay in the mother for anywhere up to two years, depending on the species

Osteichthyes are the bony fishes. these evolved approx.. 400 mil. Years ago earlier than chrondrichtyes. Theyare
paraphyletic with land vertebrates
In this class, bone material is deposited meaning its endoskeleton is ossified. Its bone is much heavier thancartilage but
is stronger and provides more stability.

Class Actinopterygii
(Greek – aktis (ray) pteryx) fin – ray finned fishes
are the largest and most successful group of fishes and make up half of all living vertebrates. It is so-called ray-finned
because the fins are webs of skins supported by bony spined or soft fin rays

Class Actinopterygii - Key Characteristics

- Single gill opening is present on either side of the head and is covered with operculum
- Has bony, dermal scales – ganoid, cycloid and ctenoid
- Paired fins are supported by dermal rays (their fins lack muscular lobes);Fin musculature lies beneath
the body – it is median and paired with supported fin rays
- Its tail is usually homocercal - symmetrical for maximizing forward thrust
- Usually a terminal mouth with many teeth – some are toothless but they all have their jaws present
- They usually possess swim bladders (gas filled sacs along the body cavity to regulate buoyancy
(Buoyancy is the tendency of an object to float in a fluid.)
- Also, most of them are oviparous; but some are oviviparous (sea horses)
- Their Sexes are separate – and most of them reproduce through external fertilization
Class Actinopterygii 2 subclasses –
1. Chondrostei - Means cartilage bones (paddle fish or sturgeons (caviar-overfished))

2. Neopterygii - new-finned
- Infraclass Holostei (means whole bone) – gars and bowfins
- Infraclass Teleostei (complete bone) 96% modern fish according to Caroll in Helfman “In their great
numbers and degree of anatomical diversity, the modern ray-finned fishes may be considered the most
successful of all vertebrates” this contains the dominant groups of nearly extant marine and freshwater
fishes in the world

CLASS SARCOPTERYGII
 The Sarcopterygii, is a clade containing the coelacanths, lungfishes, tetrapods, and their fossil relatives, including the
osteolepiformes and panderichthyids. They are the sister group to the ray-finned fishes (Actinopterygii), together forming the
bony fishes (Osteichthyes).
 Sarcopterygian fish first appeared 385 million years ago
 Referred as “lobe-finned fish”
 Animals under this class possesses lobulated caudal and pectorals fins. For this reason, they are called legged– fish.
 Of these ancient sarcopterygian fish, only 8 survive today.

THE SARCOPTERYGII’S CHARACTERISTICS

 Their fins, both caudal and pectoral, consist of fleshy muscular lobes.
 The rounded tip of each fin is hardened by bony rays, which open in a fan.
 Fins attached to the pelvic and pectoral girdle by a single basal bone.
 Teeth coated with enamel.

SARCOPTERYGII; LUNGFISH

 The lungfish (Subclass: Dipnoi), unlike other fish, have a pair of functional lungs that are a derivation of the ventral wall at
the end of the pharynx

 Australian Lungfish (Genus Neoceratodus)

 They are also known as “Queensland Lungfish”, “Barramunda” or “Burnett Salmon”.
 Its scientific name is Neoceratodus forsteri.
 The fossil records of this group date back to 380 million years ago
 Native only to the Mary and Burnett River systems in southeast Queensland.
 They live in small groups under submerged trunks, in dense banks of aquatic macrophytes or in
underwater caves.
 A sedentary species which spends its life within a single area
 Carnivorous

SARCOPTERYGII; TIKTAALIK ROSEAE

Tiktaalik Roseae
 A fish of late Devonian
 It can be considered a transitional form between fish and terrestrial vertebratesHad gills, scales and fins.
 He also had lungs and rib bones
 His head had movement independent of the rest of the body; that is, it had a neck, an element that does
not exist in fish.
 Pectoral Fins
SARCOPTERYGII; LATIMERIA CHALUMNAE

 Extinct on the time of the dinosaurs

 Nicknamed as the “most important zoological discovery of the century”
 Existed for more than 360 million years
 Has an articulated joint in the skull
 Has muscular fins on the limbs, lobed and pelvic pectorals
 Trilobed tail
 Their scaly body is dark blue or brown with white spots

BIOLOGY

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