ANIMAL FORM AND

FUNCTION I
LECTURE 5+6+7
Chap 23: Protection, Support and Movement
iii). Movement: Non-muscular Movement And Muscular
Systems
Movement
• Movement is a characteristic of certain cells,
protists and animals
Non-muscular movements:
• Amoeboid
• Ciliary
• Flagellar
Muscular movements:
• Smooth
• Skeletal
• Cardiac
Non-Muscular Movement
Nearly all cells have some capacity to move and change shape due
to their cytoskeleton .
It is from this basic framework of the cell that specialized contractile
mechanisms emerged.
For example, protozoan (protists) move by means of specific
Non-muscular structures (pseudopodia, flagella, or cilia) that
involve the contractile proteins, actin and myosin
a). Amoeboid Movements
•Pseudopodia as cytoplasmic extensions for locomotion in Amoeba
•Adhesive properties of plasma membrane
•Plasma membrane slide over the cytoplasm as amoeba moves
•Ectoplasm and plasma membranes contain a thin fluid in-between to facilitate rolling of plasma membrane over
it
•Endoplasm flows into the fountain zone of advancing pseudopodium once it is extended & converts into
ectoplasm
•Recruitment zone ectoplasm(gel) converts into endoplasm (sol)
Amoeboid movement also occurs in embryonic tissue movements,
in wound healing, and in many cell types growing in tissue
b). Ciliary & Flagellar Movement
• Cilia & Flagella occur in every phyla except arthropods.
• Structurally similar but size varies
Ciliary movements:
• Coordinated as rows of pairs of cilia in ciliates beat slightly
out of phase to conduct ciliary waves
They don’t move at a time wave starts from front and extends backward
• Direction of ciliary waves can be reversed
• Ciliated epidermis of turbellarians & nemertines
• Ciliary creeping in larger turbellarians such as Triclads & Polyclads and in Nemertines. Ciliary creeping is
the principal mean of locomotion in flatworms and nemertimes. The epidermis of free living flatworms
(e.g. turbellarians) and nemertines is abundantly ciliated. Turbellarians are primarily bottom dwellers that
glide over the substrate. As they move, they lay down a sheet of mucus that aids in adhesion and helps the
cilia gain traction. The densely ciliated ventral surface and a flattened body enhances the effectiveness of
this locomotion.)
• Effective stroke: During effective stroke, the cilium bends and beats against
water thus bringing the body forward and sending the water backwards.
• Recovery stroke: During recovery stroke, the cilium comes back to original
position by its backward movement without any resistance.
• Energy provided in the form of ATP
Ciliary Movement. A metachronal (coordinated) wave
passing along a row of cilia.
*A metachronal rhythm or metachronal wave refers to wavy
movements produced by the sequential action of structures such
as cilia, segments of worms or legs. These movements produce
the appearance of a travelling wave.
• Muscular Movements of Flatworms & Nemertines
• Pedal locomotion, Peristalsis & looping movements with anterior &
posterior points of attachments
Animal Muscles
The contractile cells of tissues called as muscle fibers.
Contractility is basic property
• Excitability (irritability): the capacity to respond to a stimulus
• Extensibility: ability to be stretched
• Elasticity: the ability to return to its original shape
• Smooth Muscles:
• Involuntary control
• Single nucleus, spindle shaped
• Parallel arrangement to form sheets
• Can contract without stimulation
• Contracts slowly & sustain prolong contraction does not fatigue easily
• Predominant in invertebrates
• Adductor muscle of bivalve to “clam up”
• Smooth muscles are commonly found in blood vessels, digestive tract and
other organs.
• Cardiac Muscles:
• In adult vertebrate hearts / pumping vessels
• With single nuclei common in invertebrates
• Involuntary in control
• Single nucleus, striated & branched
• Branches allow interlocking for greater strength
• Do not fatigue as cardiac fibers relax between contractions
• Skeletal Muscles:
• Voluntary in control
• Multinucleate, stripped, striated show alternate light and dark
bands
• Attached to skeleton
• Each end of muscle attached to bone by bundle of collagen,
non-elastic fibers called tendons
• Shorten on contraction & pull
• Antagonistic pair
• Flexor: bends a joint
• Extensor: straighten a joint and extends the limb
The Muscular System of Invertebrates
• Two motor neurons innervate invertebrate muscles for slow & fast
contraction.
• Fast contraction by α-motor neuronal stimulation
• Slow contraction by ϒ-motor neuronal stimulation
• Asynchronous muscles are muscles in which there is no one-to-one
relationship between electrical stimulation and mechanical contraction.
These muscles are found in 75% of flying insects and have
evolved 7-10 times.
Locomotion of Soft-Bodied Invertebrates
• Pedal locomtion
• Flatworms, cnidarians & gastropods
• Waves of activity in the muscular system applied to substrate known as pedal
locomotion
• In pedal locomotion, which is a slow, continuous gliding that is superficially
indistinguishable from ciliary locomotion, propulsion along the bottom is
generated by the passage of contraction waves through the ventral musculature,
• Propulsion is generated by the passage of contraction waves through the ventral
musculature, which is in contact with the bottom surface, when a direct wave
reaches a muscle, the muscle contracts and lifts a small part of the body, the
body is carried forward and set down anterior to its original position.
• Several waves cross the length of the foot simultaneously in same direction in
Helix
Pedal locomotion in snail
Pedal disc in Sea anemone
• Looping Movement
• Looping movements of leeches with the help of anterior & posterior suckers
• Suckers act as points of attachment
• Lepidopteran caterpillar exhibit arching movements in which contraction
of longitudinal muscles facilitate movements
• Caterpillar arching and stretching its posterior region.
• It is creeping front leg forward at this time
• Muscular Movement
• Large flatworms and nemertine worms peristaltic waves by alternating
contraction and relaxation of longitudinal and circular muscles are generated
to facilitate locomotion.
• Coelomate such as earthworm show an excellent example of peristaltic
waves.
• Parapodia
• Polychaeate worms move with the help of multiple limbs, parapodia
• Parapodia are moved alternatively in backward direction, thus pushing
animal ahead
• Polychaete worms anchor their tips to the ground and body moves forward
with the help of parapodia

Locomotion in a Polychaete. When a polychaete (e.g., Nereis) crawls

slowly, the tips of the multiple limbs (parapodia) move backward
relative to the body. Since the tips of the parapodia touch the ground,
this moves the body forward. In addition, a coordinated wave of activity
in the parapodia passes forward from the tail to the head, with the left
and right parapodia being exactly one-half wavelength out of phase.
This ensures that each parapodium executes its power stroke without
interfering with the parapodium immediately posterior.
• Water-vascular system of echinoderms
• Five arms with ampullae and tube feet of Star fish
• Muscular contraction drives water from ampullae & extends tube feet
• Tube feet perform step like motion
• Contraction of the muscles comprising the ampullae drives water into the tube feet,
whereas contraction of the tube feet moves water into the ampullae. Thus, the tube feet
extend by hydraulic pressure and can perform simple steplike motions

Water-Vascular System of Echinoderms. (a) General

arrangement of the water-vascular system. (b) Cross section of
an arm, showing the radial canal, ampullae, and tube feet of
the water-vascular system.
(c) Stepping cycle of a single tube foot.
• Walking
• Denser invertebrates in terrestrial environment than air
• Need to support themselves
• Appendages / rigid skeletal elements interact with ground
• Flexible joints, tendons, and muscles attached with cuticle
• Walking limbs in arthropods
• Proximal bulky & massive while distal is pointed
• Extension & flexion
• Rotation at the basal joint
• Slung body between laterally extended limbs
• Crabs walk in sideways fashion by extension and retraction of lower limb joint
• Different trajectories of limbs
• Other arthropods, such as lobster, spider, and insects, have non-overlapping limb
trajectories and move forward by rotating the basal joint of the limb relative to
their body.
• Flight
• Strengthening the cuticle of insects 200million years ago lead to the
evolution of flight
• The mechanism of flight is modified & insects show variety of structural
adaptations

Synchronous flight mechanism Asynchronous flight mechanism

• Jumping
• Fleas, grasshoppers, leafhoppers jump in escape reaction
• Must exert force against ground exceeding its body weight
• Longer legs increase advantage of extensor muscles

Jump of Flea. A flea has a jointed exoskeleton. (a) When a flea is resting, the femur (black arrow) of
the leg (for simplicity, only one leg is shown) is raised, the joints are locked, and energy is stored in the
deformed elastic protein (“animal rubber’’ or resilin) of the cuticle. (b) As a flea begins to jump,
the relaxation of muscles unlocks the joints. (c) The force exerted against the ground by the tibia gives
the flea a specific velocity that determines the height of the jump. The jump is the result of the
explosive release of the energy stored in the resilin of the cuticle.
The Muscular System of Vertebrates
• The vertebrate endoskeleton provides sites for skeletal muscles to
• attach.
• Tendons, which are tough, fibrous bands or cords, attach skeletal
muscles to the skeleton. (muscles to bones)
Musculature of Fish
• Myomeres are fish segmental muscles.
• Lateral undulations result from contraction & relaxation of myomeres
• Myomere contraction cause rotation of the body segments.
• Alternate bends of the tail end propel the fish forward.
• They are commonly zig-zag or "W"– shaped muscle fibers. The
myomeres are separated from adjacent myomere by connective tissues
Fish Musculature. (a) Skeletal muscles of a bony fish, showing
mainly the large muscles of the trunk and tail. These muscles
occur in blocks called myomeres separated by connective tissue
sheaths. Notice that the myomeres are flexed so that they
resemble the letter W. The different colors (red, orange, blue)
represent different myomeres. (b) Fish movements based on
myomere contractions.
(1) Muscular forces cause the myomere segments to rotate
rather than constrict. (2) The rotation of cranial and caudal
myomere segments bends the fish’s body about a point midway
between the two segments. (3) Alternate bends of the caudal end
of the body propel the fish
forward.
Aquatic to Terrestrial Transition
• Segmental muscles become less adaptive
• Limbs evolved & limb musculature become powerful
• Muscle fiber appears as alternating dark and light bands (striations).
• Each muscle fiber contains numerous myofibrils.
• The striations observed result from the placement of the muscle
proteins actin and myosin within the myofibrils.
• Lightest regions (I-band) contains only actin
• Darkest regions (A-band) contains myosin + actin
• Sarcomere is functional unit of myofibril and extends from Z to Z line
• Actin filaments slide past the myosin filaments
• Slide past of actin over myosin filaments reduce the length of sacromere
• Sliding filament model is the movement of actin in relation to myosin
• Globular projections on myosin attaches to active binding sites to form
cross-bridges
• Control of Muscle Contraction
• Nerve stimulation releases synaptic vesicles from nerve ending
• Acetylcholine a neurotransmitter is released into the neuromuscular cleft
• It binds with the receptors on sarcolemma
• Outside is positive while inside of sarcolemma is negative
• Once neurotransmitter binds the polarity is altered
• It flows in a wavelike progression into the muscle fiber by Transverse tubules
• Transverse tubules are associated with sarcoplasmic reticulum reservoirs of
Calcium ions
• Calcium ions diffuse into the cytoplasm & binds with the troponin lying on
another tropomyosin protein
• Calcium binding on troponin exposes binding sites on actin proteins
• Myosin heads establish cross-bridges with the exposed binding sites
• Filament sliding results in muscle contraction