MET$1$–$THE$ATMOSPHERE$

CONVERSION$FACTORS$ LAPSE$RATES$ TROPOPAUSE$

$ $ $
• 1!nm!=!6080!ft!=!1.852!km$ • Normal! +ve! lapse! rate.! (Decreases! approx! • Separates!troposphere!from!stratosphere$
• 1!m!=!3.28!ft!(x3,!+!10%)$ 20C!/!1000ft)$ • Marks! the! point! where! temperature! stops!
• Surface!inversion,!Zve!lapse!rate.$ falling!(average!Z56.5!/!11km!(36,000ft).$
• Inversion!aloft,!+ve!lapse!rate$ • Height!varies!with!temperature.$
COMPOSITION$ • Isothermal!(no!change!with!altitude)$ • At!poles:!25,000!ft!/!7.5!km!/!Surface!Z100C!/!
$ Tropo!Temp!Z450C$
• Atmosphere!has!no!specific!upper!limit.$ • Equator:!55,000ft!/!17!km!/!Surface!+400C!/!
• Nitrogen!(N2)!! ! 78%$ Tropo!Temp!Z750C$
• Oxygen!(O2)!! ! 21%$ • The! ‘steps’! in! the! tropopause! give! rise! to!
• Argon!(A)!! ! ! 0.93%$ strong!upper!winds!(jet!sreams)$
• Carbon!Dioxide!(CO2)! 0.03%$ • Higher!in!summer!compared!to!winter.$
$
• Hydrogen!(H)! Trace$ STRATOSPHERE$
• Ozone!(O3)!! Filters!and!absorbs!UV$ $
• Water!Vap!(H2O)! Gas!state!of!water$ • Isothermal! then! an! increase! with! height! due! to!
• Solid!particles! Pollution*$ Ozone!layer!heating.$
$ • Only! contains! about! 1%! of! atmospheres! water!
vapour! so! is! absolutely! stable! with! very! little!
• Concentration! %! of! gases! remains! constant!!
weather.$
with! the! exception! of! water! vapour! which!
• Stratosphere! extends! from! 11! km! –! 50! km! at!
decreases!with!altitude.$ mid!latitudes.$
TRPOPOSPHERE$ • Reaches!00C!at!stratopause.$
VARIATIONS$WITH$HEIGHT$ $
$ • Almost! all! water! vapour! within! the!
• Pressure!decreases!with!height.$ atmosphere! is! contained! here! and! hence!
• Density!decreases!with!height.$ this!is!where!most!of!the!weather!occurs.$
• Temperature!varies!with!height.$ • +ve!lapse!rate$

ATMOSPHERIC$PROPERTIES$
$
• Air!is!a!poor!conductor!of!heat.$
• The!! gases! within! the! atmosphere! obey! the!
gas!laws.$
 MET$3$–$HEAT$&$TEMPERATURE$
!

TEMPERATURE$SCALES$ SOLAR$RADIATION$ HEAT$TRANSFER$

$ $ $
• Celsius!:!Freeze!0! C!/!Boil!100!0!C$
0! • Short$wave!radiation$ • Conduction$
• Farenheight:!Freeze!32!0!F!/!Boil!212!0!F$ • Only!occurs!during!daytime$ • Convection$(due!density!changes)$
• Kelvin:!Freeze!273!K!/!Boil!373!K$ • Only! about! 45%! of! the! radiation! actually! • Advection$(horizontal!movement!of!air)$
$ reaches!the!surface!of!the!earth:$ • Latent$heat$(absorbed!if!melt!/!evaporate)$
!
• C!!!F:!!!!!! !! + 32! o Absorbed!by!atmosphere!and!clouds$ !
o Scattered!by!atmosphere$ • Irregular! mixing! of! convection! and!
• C!!!K:!+273!(Approx!double,!add!30)$
o Scattered!and!reflected!by!clouds$ advection!gives!rise!to!turbulence.$
$ o Reflected! by! earth! (albedo! effect! –!
• Celsius!is!used!for!meteorological!purposes$ greatest!snow!/!smallest!rainforest)$
• Heats! the!surface$ of$ the$ earth$ which!then! DIURNAL$VARIATION$
REPORTING$TEMPERATURE$ heats!the!air!through!conduction!etc.$ $
$
• Daily!changes!of!temperature!=!DV$
• Temperature!is!rounded$when!reported.$
INSOLATION$ • Max!temp!=!Noon$+$2$Hrs$
• 2.2!becomes!2$
$ • Min!temp!=!Sunrise$+$30$mins$
• 2.5!becomes!3$
• The!amount!of!solar!radiation! incident!on!a! • Factors!affecting!DV:$
• Z2.5!becomes!M2$
unit$area$of!the!earth’s!surface.$ o Wind!–!Strong!wind!reduces!max!+!min$
• Z0.5!becomes!M0$
• Affected!by:$ o Cloud!–!Clouds!reduces!max!+!min$
o Angle!of!incidence!(wider!at!poles)$ o Surface! –! Oceans! have! very! small! DV,!
MEASURING$TEMPERATURE$ o Nature!of!surface!(sand!vs!water)$ deserts!have!the!max!DV.$
$ o Transparency!of!atmos.!(cloud,!dust)$ • Max!DV!occurs!(inversion!also!likely)!with:$
• Measured!with!a!Stevenson$Screen.$ o Calm!winds$
• Measured! at! a! height! of! 4ft$ AGL$ (avoids! o Clear!conditions$
ground!heating).$ RADIATION$FROM$EARTH$ o Over!land!(especially!dry!ground)!
$
• Long$wave$radiation$
NOCTURNAL$/$TERRESTRIAL$ • Occurs!24$Hrs$
RADIATION$INVERSION$ • Negligible!during!day!due!to!solar!radiation.$
$ • Net$outflow$of!heat!at!night!=!surface$cools$
• Occurs! with! weak$ winds$ and! • Too! high! concentrations! of! carbon! dioxide! and!
clear$skies$at!night.! water! vapour! (greenhouse$ gases)! act! like! a!
• Creates!a!large!outbound!radiation! blanket!and!can!leading!to!warming.$
and!surface!is!cooled.! • A! calm! and! clear! night! will! be! cooler! than! a!
! cloudy!night!as!radiation!from!Earth’s!surface!is!
• Warmer! air! above! leads! to! an! allowed!to!slip!into!space.$
inversion.!
 ! MET$2$–$INTERNATIONAL$STANDARD$ATMOSPHERE$

LATENT$HEAT$ ISA$TEMPERATURE$ ISA$PRESSURE$

$ ! !
Water!Vapour$ • MSL!Temp!=!+15!0C! • MSL!Pressure!=!1013.25!hPa!/!29.92!in!Hg!
Liquid$ • +!ve!Lapse!Rate!(MSL!–!11km)! • Lapse!Rate!(MSL!–!5.5!km)!
$ Solid! o 1.980C!/!1000!ft!||!6.50C!/!1!km! o 27!ft/!hPa!||!8!m!/!hPa!
! • Lapse!Rate!(11!–!20!km):!Z56.5!0C! • Lapse!Rate!(5.5!km!+):!
• Going!up!the!steps!requires!energy!so!latent! • +!ve!Lapse!Rate!(20!–!32km)! o 50!ft/!hPa!||!15!m!/!hPa!
heat!is!absorbed.! o 0.30C!/!1000!ft!||!10C!/!1!km! • Half!Pressure!=!5.5!km!/!18,000!ft!
• Substance! stays! the! same! temperature! but! o A.K.A!Inversion! o =>!Half!the!mass!of!the!atmosphere!can!
the! temperature! of! the! surroundings! is! ! be!found!in!the!lowest!5.5!km!(EASA!use!
changed.! 5km!sometimes)!
• Convection! and! condensation! contribute!
most!to!atmospheric!waraming.!

• Polar!00!isotherm:!0!ft!
• Temperate!00!isotherm:!6,000!–!10,000!ft!
• Tropical!00C!isotherm:!16,000!–!18,000!ft! ISA$PRESSURE$VALUES$
!
JSA$ • 30,000!ft! ! 300!hPa!
! ! • 18,000!ft! ! 500!hPa!
• Jet!Standard!Atmosphere! • 10,000!ft! ! 700!hPa!
WHY$ISA?$ • 5,000!ft! ! 850!hPa!
• Constant!20C!/!1000!ft!for!planning!
! • 0!ft! ! ! 1013.25!hPa!
• International!Standard!
• Relate!performance!of!a/c!to!know!values! ISA$DENSITY$
• Calibration!of!pressure!instruments! ! ISA$DEVIATION$
• Manufacture!and!testing!of!a/c! • MSL!Density!=!1.225!kg!/!m3! !
!
• Half!Density!=!20,000!ft! • ISA!Deviation!=!Ambient!(OAT)!Z!ISA!
 ! MET$4$–$ATMOSPHERIC$PRESSURE$

VARIATION$OF$PRESSURE$WITH$HEIGHT$ APLR$ DIURNAL$VARIATION$

! ! !
• The!rate$of$pressure$decrease$will!reduce$ • Ambient$Pressure$Lapse$Rate$ • Amplitude!greatest!at!equator!(~!3!hPa)$
as!height!increases.! !"#
• !"#$ = ! $ • Mid!Latitudes:!~!0.5!–!1!hPa$
• As! altitude! increases,! the! weight! of! the! • Poles:!Negligible$
• K!=!Mean!temperature!in!Kelvin$
atmosphere!above!you!will!decrease.!
• P!=!Mean!pressure$
$
• Pressure&at&MSL&is&1000&hPa&and&temperature&
PRESSURE$VARIATION$WITH$ is&+20& 0C.&An&aircraft&is&flying&at&the&910&hPa&
TEMPERATURE$ level&where&temperature&is&A6& 0C.&What&height&
! is&it&flying&at?!
• Cold$ air! is! more! dense! so! more! rapid! • Mean!pressure!=!(1000Z910)/2!=!955!hPa$
decrease!in!pressure!with!height.! • Mean! temperature! =! [(20)+(Z6)]/2! =! +7! =!
• Warm$ air$ is! less! dense! so! slower! decrease! 280!K$ PRESSURE$MEASUREMENTS$
in!pressure!with!height!(compared!to!ISA).! • APLR!=![(96x280)/955]!=!28.15!ft!/!hPa$ !
• When! flying! from! ISA! to! colder! air,! aircraft! • Pressure!difference!is!(1000!–!910)!=!90!hPa$ • QFE:$ Pressure! observed! at! a! specific!
will!descend!but!still!show!18,000ft.!High$to$ • 90!x!28.15!=!2533.5!ft!AMSL$ location!with!a!datum!of!0!ft.$
low,$watch$out$below!! $ • QFF:$ QFE! changed! to! MSL! pressure! using!
• The! pressure! in! a! column! of! warm! air! is! • An!APLR!<$27’$/$hPa$=$Cold$Air$ APLR.$Used!on!synoptic!chart.$
likely!to!be!greater!than!the!pressure!at!the! • An!APLR!>$27’$/$hPa$=$Warm$Air$ !"#$"%&'!!"#$!!
o +/!−!!"# = !""!
same!height!in!a!cold!column!of!air.! $
!"#$
o !dd!if!airfield!is!above!MSL!
• Shortest! distance! between! two! pressure! • QNH:$ QFE! changed! to! MSL! pressure! using!
levels! occurs! when! pressure! increases! and! ISA$lapse!rates.$
temperature!decreases.$ !"#$"%&'!!"#$!!
o !"
+/!−!!"# = !"#!
!! o !dd!if!airfield!is!above!MSL!

!
 ! MET$4$–$ATMOSPHERIC$PRESSURE$

SURFACE$PRESSURE$CHART$ • H$=$High$(Anticyclone)$ CONSTANT$PRESSURE$CHART$

! • R$=$Ridge$ !
• QFE’s!measured!at!each!airfield.! $ • Isohypses$ join!points!of!equal!pressure!and!
• Converted!to!QFF’s.! • C$=$ Col$ (Uniform!pressure!between!two!highs! true!height!AMSL!
• Isobars$join!points!of!equal!pressure.! and!two!lows)$ o They! indicate! the! true! altitude! of! a!
• A!high!/!low!pressure!area!is!determined!by! o Winter!=!Fog$ pressure!level.!
comparing!the!pressure!of!an! area!to! that!of! o Summer!=!Thunderstorms$ • The!heights!are!based!on!where!the!pressure!
the!horizontal!environments!(surroundings)! • F$=$Flat$(No!real!pressure!gradient)$ level!is!that!the!chart!is!using.!
! o Same!seasonal!wx!as!col$
• Barometric$Tendency$is!the!way!and!rate!at! !$
which!pressure!is!changing.$ $
• Isallobars$ are! lines! showing! equal! change! $
over!a!three!hour!period.$ $
$ !
• L$=$Low$(Depression!/!Cylone)$
• S$=$Secondary$Depression$
• T$=$Trough$
!!!

!
 ! MET$5$–$DENSITY$

DEFINITION$ VARIATION$WITH$LATITUDE$ DIURNAL$VARIATION$

! ! !
• Density$=$Mass$/$Volume$ • Due! to! higher! pressure! and! lower! • Opposite!of!temperature!variation.!
temperature,! surface$ density$ is$ higher$ at$ • Best!(highest)!density!=!Sunrise!+!30!mins!
poles!relative!to!equator.! • Worst!(lowest)!density!=!Noon!+!2!Hrs!
• This! ‘head! start’! is! quickly! diminished! as!
DENSITY$RELATIONSHIPS$
pressure!reduces!quicker!in!cold!air.!
!
• By!26,000ft$(8$ km)$ density$is$constant!at! DENSITY$AND$PERFORMANCE$
• Density!∝!Pressure!
poles!and!equator.! !
o Higher!Pressure!=!Higher!Density!
• As! this! is! the! tropo! height! at! the! poles,! the! • Worst!performance!(highest!density)!occurs!
• Density!∝!1!/!Temperature!
isothermal! layer! removes! the! effect! of! when!hot,$high$and!humid.!
o Lower!Temperature!=!Higher!Density!
temperature!changes!on!the!density.!
• Density!∝!1!/!Humidity!
• Density!therefore!decreases!at!a!faster$rate!
o Humid!air!=!Less!Dense! at!the!poles!above!8!km.! DENSITY$ALTITUDE$
• By!50,000ft$(15$km)$density$is$lower$over$ !
the$poles!compared!with!the!tropics.! • “Height$ in$ ISA$ which$ has$ a$ density$
WITH$INCREASING$HEIGHT…$ corresponding$ to$ the$ actual$ ambient$
! !
density.”!
• Pressure!Decrease!=!Density!Decreases! • Relative!Density!=!Density!Alt!–!Pressure!Alt!
• Temperature!Decrease!=!Density!Increase! • A!high!density!altitude!=!lower!density!
! !
P
• Proportional!effects:! !T!H! • Density$ Alt$ =$ Pressure$ Alt$ +$ (120$ x$ ISA$
• To!change!density!by!1%!! Deviation)!$
o 10!hPa!Change!=!270!ft!
o 3!0C!Change!=!1500!ft!
• Pressure!therefore!has!the!biggest!effect!and!
density$decreases$with$altitude.!

!!!!

!
 ! MET$6$–$ALTIMETRY$

TERMINOLOGY$ WHY$QNH$VS$QFF$ OVER$/$UNDER$READ$$

! $ $
• QFF! only! used! in! the! creation! of! synoptic! • Over!reads!in!cold!air.$
charts.$ • Under!reads!in!warm!air.$
• QNH!used!as!the!altimeter$is$calibrated!to! $
27’!/!hPa.$ • Can! result! in! aircraft! being! at! correct! true!
• Using! the! QFF! would! display! incorrect! altitude! on! ILS! whilst! the! altimeter! reads!
readings!at!touchdown.$ something!else.$

QFE$/$QNH$/$QFF$SIMILARITIES$ CALCULATING$QNH$LEVEL$VS$QFF$
$ $
• QFE!=!QNH!=!QFF!at!sea$level$only.$ • The! QNH! level! compared! to! the! QFF! level!
QNE$ • QFE!=!QNH!at!sea$level!or!when!perfect!ISA$ will!depend!on!temperature.$
$ conditions!exist.$ • Draw!either!a!small!column!of!air!(cold!air)!
• The$height$indicated$on$touchdown$at$an$ or! large! one! (warm!air)!extending! from! the!
airfield$using$the$1013$datum.$ airfield!to!decide!the!QNH!level.$
• Used!when!operating!at!very!high!airfields! TRUE$ALTITUDE$VS$ALTIMETER$ • Remember,! lower! on! the! diagram! is! a!
and!altimeter!cannot!go!below!950!hPa.$ $ higher$pressure$as!you!descend!!$
• The! difference! in! true! altitude! vs! altimeter!
reading! (due! to! temperature! difference)!
SPS$ gets$larger$with$an$increase$in$altitude.$
$ • At! high! altitude,! this! is! not! a! problem! as!
• Standard$Pressure$Setting! everyone! uses! the! same! datum! with! the!
• 1013!hPa!Datum! same!error!so!are!separated.$
• “Flight!Level”! • On! landing,! the! difference! reduces! to! zero!
and!so!correct!airfield!elevation!is!obtained.$
!!!!!
RQNH$
$
• Regional$QNH$
• Lowest!forecast!QNH!within!an!ASR.$
• Valid!for!1!Hour.$
!
 ! MET$6$–$ALTIMETRY$

DITCHING$ PRESSURE$QUESTIONS$ OVERNIGHT$PRESSURE$DROP$

! $ $
• Colder! than! ISA:! Altimeter! reads! 0! ft! when! • Always! make! a! sketch! with! the! pressure! • Land!at!an!airfield!on!QFE!1010$
above!the!water.$ levels!drawn!on!to!visualise!the!changes.$ • Pressure!drops!to!QFE!1000!overnight$
• Warmer! than! ISA:! Altimeter! still! reading! • EG/!An!aircraft!flies!from!B!to!C!and!passed! • On!returning!to!aircraft,!altimeter!still!reads!
positive!when!at!sea!level.$ overhead!B!at!7,000!ft.!B!is!at!sea!level!and!C! from! the! old! 1010! datum! and! shows! an!
$ is!640!ft!above!sea!level.!The!QNH!is!975!hPa! increase!in!height.$
at!B!and!1010!hPa!at!C.!What!height!will!the!
aircraft!be!over!C?!(Assume!1hPa!=!30ft)$
TRANSITION$ALT$/$LEVEL$
$
• Set! SPS! passing! transition$ altitude$ when!
climbing.$
• Set! QNH! passing! transition$ level$ when!
!!!!!! descending.$
TEMPERATURE$ERROR$CORRECTION$ • Transition$layer$ at!least!500’!and!not!used!
! for!level!flight.$
!"#$#%&' • The!lowest! flight!level! (from! MSA)!depends!
!""#" = !!×! ! ×!!"#!!"#$%&$'($
!, !!! on! lowest$ QNH$ and$ lowest$ temperature$
$ below$ISA.$
• Altitude:!30,000!ft!/!OAT:!Z500C$
1. ISA!Temp!=!15!+!(Z2!x!30)!=!Z45!
2. ISA!Deviation!=!Z5!
3. Error!=!4!x!30!x!(Z5)!=!Z600!ft!
4. True!Altitude!=!30,000!–!600!=!29,400!ft!
5. Check!=!altimeter!over!reads!

!
 ! MET$7$–$LOW$LEVEL$WINDS$

WHAT$IS$WIND?$ WIND$MEASUREMENT$ PRESSURE$GRADIENT$FORCE$(PGF)$

! ! !
• The$ sustained$ horizontal$ movement$ of$ • Speed!measured!with!anemometer$ • The! force! that! moves! air! from! high! to! low!
air.$ • Direction!measured!with!wind$vane$ pressure.$
• Wind!is!caused!by!variations$in$pressure.$ • Measurement!taken!from!10m$/$30$ft$AGL$ • A! pressure! gradient! is! said! to! exist! when!
• Wind!is!a!vector$and!has!both!direction!and! two!points!at!the!same!level!have!a!different!
speed.$ atmospheric!pressure.$
GUST$/$LULL$ • Size!of!force!depends!on!isobar!spacing.$
! o Closely!spaced!=!Steep!PGF$
WIND$DIRECTION$ o Widely!spaced!=!Slack!PGF$
• Gust!=!Increase!in!prevailing!wind!speed$
! o Spacing!also!referred!to!as!inclination$
• Lull!=!Decrease!in!prevailing!wind!speed$
• Direction!from$which!wind!is!blowing.$
• Measured!in!seconds$
• Met!Man!gives!true$direction.$ !!!!!!!
• ATC!/!ATIS!give!magnetic$direction.$
• Rounded!to!nearest$100$
SQUALL$ GEOSTROPHIC$FORCE$(GF)$
! !
WIND$SPEED$ • An$increase$by$16$kts$or$more$to$become$ • A.K.A!Coriolis!Effect$
! 22$kts$or$more$for$at$least$1$minute.$ • Due! to! different! rotational! speeds! of! the!
• 1!KT!=!1.85!KMH!=!0.52!MPS$ earth!at!different!latitudes.$
o Faster!rotation!at!Equator$
VEER$/$BACK$ • Deflection!to$the$right$within!the!NH.$
WIND$SYMBOLS$ ! • !" = !!!!!!! !"# ∅$
! • Veer!=!Clockwise!change!(270!to!310)$ o Ω!=!Rotational!Speed!
• Wind!blows!from!the!feather!to!the!tip.$ • Back!=!AntiZclockwise!change!(310!to!270)$ o !!=!Air!Density!
• Feathers! will! be! on! the! side! with! low! • Same!in!each!hemisphere.$ o V!=!Wind!Speed!
pressure.$ o ∅!=!Latitude!
• GF!increases!with!wind!speed$
• GF!increases!towards!the!poles$
• GF!acts!perpendicular$to$wind$direction$
• Negligible!between!15$N$and$15$S$

!
 ! MET$7$–$LOW$LEVEL$WINDS$

GEOSTROPHIC$WIND$ BUY$BALLOTS$LAW$ GRADIENT$WIND$–$AROUND$HP$(NH)$

! ! !
• PGF! increases! velocity! of! the! wind! and! GF! • Back$to$the$wind,$low$pressure$on$the$left$ • Around!an!antiZcyclone!(HP)!in!the!NH!wind!
begins! to! increase! (acting! perpendicular! to! • Opposite!in!the!southern!hemisphere$ flows!clockwise.$
wind!direction).$ • Geostrophic$force$increases$to!provide!CF.$
• Geostrophic! Wind! is! when! PGF$ and$ GF$ • Velocity$therefore$increases$
balance$and!wind!blows!parallel!to!isobars.$ GRADIENT$WIND$ • SuperoGeostrophic$Flow$(Gradient!Wind!>!
• Conditions$required!for!Geostrophic!Wind:$ ! Geostrophic!Wind)$
o Straight!Isobars$ • In!reality,!isobars!are!curved!and!there!must!
o Constant! Pressure! (equally! spaced! be!a!centripetal$force$(CF)!that!gives!wind!
isobars)$ its!curved!flow!around!LP!/!HP.$
o Above!friction!layer!(2000’)$ • Note!that!questions!may!sometime!refer!to!
o Above!15!N!/!S$ centrifugal!force.!This!acts!in!the!opposite!
• PGF! increases! velocity! of! the! wind! and! GF! direction!to!centripetal!force!(away!from!
begins! to! increase! (acting! perpendicular! to! centre!of!pressure!system)$
wind!direction).$ • Gradient!wind!will!blow!parallel!to!curved!
isobars.$

GRADIENT$WIND$–$AROUND$LP$(NH)$
! GRADIENT$WIND$–$LATITUDE$VARIATION$
• Around!a!depression!(LP)!in!the!NH!wind! !
flows!antioclockwise.$ • For!the!same!pressure,!the!geostrophic!wind!
• Geostrophic$force$reduces$to!provide!CF.$ and!hence!gradient!wind,!will!be!greater!at!
• Velocity$therefore$decreases$ lower!latitude.$
• SuboGeostrophic$Flow$(Gradient!Wind!<! • In!the!NH,!a!high!above!a!low!can!therefore!
Geostrophic!Wind)$ have!the!same!gradient!wind!speed.$
GEOSTROPHIC$WIND$(LATITUDE$
VARIATION)$
!!!!!!!!
!
• !"# = !!" = !!!!!!!" !"# ∅$
• GW!∞!1!/!!sin ∅!
• For! the! same! pressure! gradient,! GW!
!
increases!towards!the!equator.$
 ! MET$7$–$LOW$LEVEL$WINDS$

AIRFLOW$AROUND$PRESSURE$SYSTEMS$ FRICTION$FORCE$ SURFACE$WIND$AROUND$HP$/$LP$

! ! $
• Any! pressure! system! passing! north! of! you! • The!friction!force!acts!opposite$to$the$wind$ $
will!cause!the!wind!to!veer.$ • It!causes!the!wind!to!slow$down!initially.$
• Any! pressure! system! passing! south! of! you! • Geostrophic$Force$reduces!as!a!result.$
will!cause!the!wind!to!back.$ • Unbalance!of!force$ now!created!and!surface!
• Same!in!both!hemispheres.$ wind!(SW)!turns$towards$low$pressure.$
o Backs!in!northern!hemisphere$
o Veers!in!southern!hemisphere$
FRICTION$LAYER$
!
• Between!1,500!ft!–!3,000!ft!AGL!(AVG!2K)$
• Exceptionally!can!be!up!to!6,000!ft!AGL$
COVERGENCE$/$DIVERGENGE$
• Within! this! layer! there! is! a! friction$ force$ !
that! causes! wind! to! change! speed! and!
• Caused!by!frictional!force!at!the!surface.$
direction!near!the!surface.$
• A!thinner!layer!is!more!effective.$
ISOHYPSES$
!
CAUSES$
• Wind! tends! to! follow! isohypses! above! the!
!
friction! layer! because! the!geostrophic! force!
• The! friction! force! is! due! to! turbulence! VALUES$OF$CHANGE$ (coriolis! force)! tends! to! balance! with! the!
present!within!the!friction!layer.$ ! horizontal!PGF.$
• This!turbulence!is!caused!by!mechanical!and! • Over$Land$
thermal!effects.$ o Backs!300!$
• Mechanical$ –$ Due! to! roughness! of! surface! o Speed!Decreases!50%$ EYE$OF$PRESSURE$SYSTEM$
and!obstructions.!(Day!+!Night)$ • Over$Sea$ !
• Thermal$ –! Surface! heating! makes! air! less! o Backs!100!$ • Conditions!in! the! centre! of!a! high!/! low!are!
dense!and!more!easily!deflected.!(Day!Only)$ o Speed!Decreases!30%$ relatively!calm.$
!
!!!!!!!!! • Veers!in!SH!rather!than!backs.!

!
 ! MET$7$–$LOW$LEVEL$WINDS$

!!!!!!!!!!
DIURNAL$VARIATION$ FACTORS$AFFECTING$DV$
$ $
• Thinner$at$night!(more!effective)!as!its!just! • At$ sea$ /$ roughness$ of$ surface,! the!
mechanical!effects!acting.$ mechanical! effect! is! negligible! so! the! layers!
• Day!to!Night!(NH):!Backs!and!slows$ will!be!thinner.$
• Night!to!Day!(NH):!Veers!and!speeds!up$ • Cloud$cover!will!reduce!surface!heating!and!
• Surface!winds!speeds!are!therefore!likely!to! thermal!effect!so!the!layer!is!thinner.$
be!highest!during!mid!afternoon.$ • Strong$ winds$ decrease! the! thermal! effect!
$ but!increase!the!mechanical!effect.$
o Night! layer! becomes! thicker! and! day!
becomes!thinner.$
o Less!of!a!change!from!day!to!night.$
• Stability$of!the!air$
o Unstable! leads! to! more! mixing! so!
frictional!layer!is!thicker.$

1,500$FT$WIND$
$
• Day!to!Night!(NH):!Veers!and!increases$
• Night!to!Day!(NH):!Back!and!decrease$

!
 ! MET$8$–$UPPER$WINDS$

CAUSE$OF$PRESSURE$DIFFERENTIAL$ TROPOSPHERE$UPPER$WINDS$ WINDS$EXPERIENCED$DURING$FLIGHT$

$ $ $
• Temperature! differences! will! create! a! • Mainly$ westerlies$ in$ troposphere! except! • UK$ to$ NY:$ Westerlies! /! Easterlies!
pressure! differential! at! altitude.! For! between! 150! N/S! where! no! gradient! force! (Stratosphere)!/!Westerlies$
example! at! 18,000! ft,! pressure! drops! from! exists.$ • UK$ to$ Brazil:$ Westerlies! /! Easterlies!
600!hPa!to!200!hPa.$ • The!latitudes!of!this!‘no!gradient!force!area’! (Troposphere)!/!Westerlies$
• As!the!equator!is!hotter!than!the!poles,!there! vary!in!winter!compared!with!summer.$
is!a!pressure!differential!setZup.$ • In!this!area,!weak$easterlies!predominate.$
$ EFFECTS$DURING$WINTER$
$
• A!greater!pressure!gradient!exists!in!Winter!
so!winds$are$stronger.$

JET$STREAMS$
$
• At! about! 60N! and! 30N! there! are! ‘steps’! in!
the!tropopause.$
• The! rapid! horizontal! temperature! gradient!
STRONGEST$WINDS$ at!these!points!gives!rise!to!strong!winds.$
$
• Located!just!below!the!tropopause$ !!!!!!!!!!!
STRATOSPHERE$UPPER$WINDS$
$
JET$STREAM$DEFINITION$
• Lower! temperature! now! $
exists! at! equator!
• A!strong!narrow!current!concentrated!along!
compared!with!poles.$
a!quasiohorizontal$axis$…$
• Easterly$ winds$
• In! the! upper$ troposphere! or! lower$
predominate.$
stratosphere$…$
• Featuring! strong! vertical! and! lateral!
windshears$featuring!one!or!more!velocity$
maxima.$
• Wind!speed!must!exceed$60$kts$
!
 ! MET$8$–$UPPER$WINDS$

JET$STREAM$DIMENSIONS$ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^! JET$STREAM$HEIGHTS$

$ • Polar$Night$Jet! $
• Ratio!of!horizontal!to!vertical!is!100:1$ o FL700!! • Artic$Jet$(AJ):!20,000!ft!/!400!hPa!
• EASA:$1000$nm$/$150$nm$/$18,000$ft$ o High! Lats! during! permanent! • Polar$Front$Jet$(PFJ):!30,000!ft!/!300!hPa!
darkness! • Subtropical$Jet$(STJ):!40,000!ft!/!200!hPa!
• Low$Level$Jets! • Eq$Easterly$Jet$(EEJ):!45,000!ft!/!150!hPa!
o As!low!as!5000!ft!
o Mountainous!Regions!
o At! night! a! PGF! exists! due! to! large! WIND$VARIATIONS$
temperature! differences! at! the! 850! $
hPa!level.! • SH! upper! winds! are! generally! weaker! than!
o 25!–!70!kts! those!in!the!north!hemisphere!(land!mass).!
• Strongest$winds$occurs$in$winter:!
JET$STREAM$SPEEDS$ o NH!=!January!
$ LOCATIONS$OF$JET$STREAMS$ o SH!=!July!
• Minimum:!60!–!80!kts$ $
• Frequent:!100!–!150!kts$ • Polar! jet! front! moves$ more! than!
• Less$Frequent:!150!–!200!kts$ subtropical!jet!front.!(More!lands!mass)! JETSTREAM$AIR$MASS$
• Rare:!>!200!kts!(can!be!up!to!350!kts)$ $
• Speeds!are!greatest$at$the!core$ • Jetstreams! are! located! in! the! subtropical$
air$mass.!
• Appears!to!be!in!polar!air!mass!on!charts.!
JET$STREAMS$
$
• Polar$Jet$Front! JETSTREAM$&$FRONTS$
• Subtropical$Jet$Front! $
• Equatorial$Easterly$Jet! • Jetstreams!normally!cross!occluded!fronts.!
o NH!Summer!Only!(20N!–!10!N)! • Surface! projection! of! jet! stream! 300! –! 450!
o Burma!to!East!Africa! nm! ahead! of! the! warm! front! and! 50! –! 200!
o Speeds!may!only!reach!40!kts! nm!behind!the!cold!front.!
o A.K.A!Tropical!Jet! • Long! streaks! of! CI! cloud! (on! the! equatorial!
!!!!!!!!!!!!
• Artic$Jet! side)!can!provide!a!visual!indication!of!a!Jet!
o Winter!Only! Front!and!associated!CAT.!
o North!of!55!N! • Wind! speed! greatest! in! an! area! between! a!
! Max!speed!75!–!100!kts!
o trough!and!a!ridge.!
vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv! !
 ! MET$9$–$TURBULENCE$&$WINDSHEAR$

DEFINITIONS$ MOUNTAIN$(STANDING)$WAVES$
$ $
• Wind$Shear$–$Rate!of!change!of!the!wind!in! • Conditions$required:$
a!space!as!a!vector.$ o “Stable!sandwich”$
• Vertical$ Shear! –! Change! of! the! horizontal! o Wind! blowing! within! 300! to! the!
wind!vector!with!height.!(KT/100ft)$ perpendicular!of!the!ridge.$
• Horizontal$ Shear! –! Change! of! the! o Min! 15! kts! wind,! increasing! with!
horizontal! wind! vector! with! distance.! height.$
(KT/1000ft)$ • Rotor$ (roll)$ and! lenticular$ clouds! visible!
on!thhe!downwind!side!only$when!moisture!
is!present.$
TURBULENCE$VS$WINDSHEAR$ o Reversed!flow!often!present!at!SFC$
$ o Cap! clouds! can! also! form! on! the!
• Wind$ Shear$ –$ Abrupt! displacement! from! upwind!side.$
flight! path! requiring! substantial! control! MOUNTAIN$WAVES$CAUTIONS$
action.$ AVOIDING$MOUNTAIN$WAVES$ $
• Turbulence$–$Disruption!to!aircraft!attitude! $ • Flying$ lowolevel,$ upwind$ (into$ wind)$ is!
but!no!significant!effect!on!flight!path.$ • Fly!at!elevation$x2$ worst!as!aircraft!is!out!of!phase.$
• Fly!parallel$to$the$ridge$ • Can!be!no$visible$indication.$
• With!cloud!present,!airframe$icing!likely!to!
!!!!!!!!!!!!! be!more!severe!(orographic!intensification)$
Intensity$ IAS$Effect$ Effects$ INCIDENCE$
• Jetstream! can! cause! more! pronounced!
Belts$–!Slight!Strain! $
turbulence!on!the!warm!side.$
Light$ Fluctuates$5$–$15$Kts$ Objects$–!Displaced!Slightly! • Occasional$
• Can!have!a!range!of!50$–$100$nm$(even!500!
Food$+$Walk!–!No!Difficulty! <!1/3!of!the!time.$
nm!has!been!recorded)!
Light$Chop$ No!IAS!Fluctuations.!Causes!rhythmic!bumpiness! $
Belt$–!Definite!Strain! • Intermittent$
Moderate$ Fluctuates$15$–$25$Kts$ Objects$Z!Dislodged! 1/3!to!2/3$
Food$+$Walk$o!Difficult! $
Moderate$ Slight!IAS!Fluctuation.!Rapid!bumps!/!jolts!without! • Continuous:$
Chop$ appreciable!changes!in!altitude!or!attitude.! More!than!2/3$
Belts$–!Forced!Violently!
Severe$ Fluctuates$>$25$Kts$ Objects$–!Tossed!About!
! Food$+$Walk$o!Impossible!
!
 ! MET$9$–$TURBULENCE$&$WINDSHEAR$

FRONTS$ CAT$(JETSREAMS)$ CAT$(JETSREAMS)$

$ $ $
• At! fronts,! a$ sharp$ change$ in$ wind$ • There! can! be! rapid! changes! of! wind! speed! • Most!frequent!in! the! region! 7000$ ft$ below$
direction!can!occur.$ over!a!very!short!distance!in,!and!close!to,!a! to$3000$ft$above$the$tropopause.$
• More!pronounced!at!a!cold$front$ Jetstream.$ • Average!depth!of!the!layer!is!2000$ft!(can!be!
• Jetstream! is! always! located$ in$ the$ as!shallow!as!60!–!100!ft!however)$
subtropical$air$mass.$ $
CLEAR$AIR$TURBULENCE$(CAT)$ • Isotechs$join!points!of!equal!speed.$ • CI!(Cirrus)!cloud!will!move!at!high!speed!in!
$ • Maximum!CAT!will!always!be!in!the!bottom$ a! narrow! band,! perpendicular$ to! the!
• Occurs!above$the$friction$layer$ quadrant$ nearest$ the$ cold$ air$ (polar)$ surface!movement!of!the!front.$
• Has!no!visual$indicator$(no!clouds!etc)$ side.$ • In! the! NH! example! (assuming! front! is!
• Found!with!troughs!/!ridges,!Jetstreams!and! moving! north),! it! moves! in! direction! of! the!
outside!of!CB!clouds.$ wind!which!is!coming!out!of!the!page.$
o “Back!to!wind,!cold!on!the!left”$
$
CAT$(TROUGHS$AND$RIDGES)$ • The! core! of! a! jet! stream! lies! at! a! height!
$ where! there! is! no! horizontal! temperature!
• Sharp$ curves! in! troughs! and! ridges! can! gradient! and! the! slope! of! the! pressure!
cause!CAT!/!horizontal!windshear.$ surfaces!at!the!height!of!the!core!are!at!max.$
• Troughs$are!more!severe.$

MECHANICAL$TURBULENCE$
CAT$(CONVERGENCE$/$DIVERGENCE)$
$
$
• Caused! by! friction! of! air! flowing! over! the!
• When! isohypses! converge! /! diverge,! CAT!
Earth’s!surface.$
may!form!as!a!result!of!eddy!formation.$
• Due! to! terrain! and! other! obstruction!
interfering!with!the!normal!airflow.$
• Increases!when!wind!speed!increases.$
STABILITY$AND$TURBULENCE$
$
• More! turbulence! with! an! unstable!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!! THERMAL$TURBULENCE$
atmosphere.$
$
• Due! to! vertical! movements! of! air! due! to!
!
convection!in!unstable!airmass.$
• Greatest!during!early!afternoon.$
 ! MET$10$o$HUMIDITY$

SATURATED$AIR$ SATURATION$OPTIONS$ RELATIVE$HUMIDITY$(RH)$

$ $ $
• Air!is!saturated!when!it!cannot$take$on$any$ • Cool$the$particle$to!+50C!(higher!altitude)$ • Expresses$the$%$of$saturation$of$the$air.$
more$water$vapour.$ • Add!more!water!vapour!via!evaporation$ • Amount! of! water! vapour! in! a! unit! mass! of!
• Relative$humidity$=$100%$ • Increase$pressure$ air! divided&by! max! amount! of! water! vapour!
• If! air! is! not! saturated,! it! can! take! on! more! the! unit! mass! of! air! could! hold! at! same!
water!vapour!through!evaporation.$ temperature! and! pressure! expressed& as& a&
• When! cooled,! saturated! air! gives! up! water! SATURATED$MIXING$RATIO$(SMR)$ percentage.$
vapour!through!condensation.$ $ • (HMR/SMR)!*!100$
o Requires!condensation!nuclei!to!attach! • SMR! is! the! HMR$ when$ a$ parcel$ is$ • RH! depends! on! the! moisture! content! and!
to!(hygroscopic!=!affinity!to!water)$ saturated.$ temperature!of!the!air.$
o If!not!present,!superZsaturation!occurs$ • A! particle! at! +20! will! have! RH! of! (5/15)!
x100%!=!33%$
DEW$POINT$ • If!cooled,!the!RH!will!increase!to!67%!(5/8)$
HUMIDITY$MIXING$RATIO$(HMR)$ $ • Methods!of!increasing!humidity!are!same!at!
$ • Temperature$ at$ which$ a$ volume$ of$ air$ saturation!options.$
• HMR:! Amount! of! grammes! of! water!vapour! must$ be$ cooled$ at$ constant$ pressure$ for$ $
per!kg!before$saturation.$ saturation$to$occur.$
• The! indicated! parcel! of! air! at! +200C! has! a! • If! air! is! cooled! to! dew! point! it! becomes!
HMR!of!5!gm!/!kg$ saturated.$
• Cooled!beyond$dew$point!=$condensation$
• Dew! point! can! only! be! equal! to,! or! lower,!
than!the!temperature!of!the!air!mass.!
• Difference! between! DP! and! temp! will! be!
greatest!in!dry!air.!

COOLING$BEYOND$SATURATION$
$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
• Water! vapour! condenses$ into! water! EFFECT$OF$TEMPERATURE$ON$RELEASE$OF$$
droplets!if!nuclei!present.$ LATENT$HEAT$
• Latent$heat$released$ $
• Clouds!formed$ • Less!water!vapour!is!held!at!colder!temps.$
! • When! condensation! occurs,! less! latent! heat!
is!released.$
 ! MET$10$o$HUMIDITY$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
HMR$ DV$OF$HUMIDITY$
$ $
• Mass! of! water! vapour! contained! in! unit! • Inverse!of!the!temperature!DV.!
mass!of!dry!air!(gm/KG)$ • As!a!particle!is!cooled,!RH!increases.!
• Max!RH!is!therefore!at!coolest!temp.!
• Min!RH!is!therefore!at!max!temp.!
ABSOLUTE$HUMIDITY$
$
• Mass! of! water! vapour! contained! in! unit! VAPOUR$PRESSURE$
volume!of!dry!air!(gm/m3)$ $
• Vapour! pressure! is! the! amount! of! vapour!
that!can!be!found!in!the!air.$
HYGROMETER$ • Higher! over! a! water! surface! than! an! ice!
$ surface.$
• Used!to!measure$humidity.$
• Two$thermometers:$
o One!Normal!(Dry!Bulb)$
o One!with!muslin!on!the!end!(Wet!Bulb)$
• Unsaturated!air!will!cause!evaporation$and!
absorption!of!latent!heat.!
o Wet!bulb!will!show!lower!temperature!
than!dry!bulb.!
• Saturated!air!will!result!in!no$difference.!
• Other$methods:!
o Human!Hair!
o Gold!Beaters!Skin!

!
 ! MET$11$–$ADIABTICS$&$STABILITY$

RADIO$SONDE$BALLOON$ SATURATED$ADIABATIC$LAPSE$RATE$ ABSOLUTE$INSTABILITY$

$ (SALR)$ $
• Used! to! obtain! the! Environmental$ Lapse$ $ • ELR$>$30C$/$1,000$ft$
Rate.$ • Used!for!saturated!air!with!a!RH!=!100%! • Both!an!unsaturated!and!saturated!parcel!of!
• By! comparing! this! to! a! set! of! fixed! lapse! • 1.80C$/$1,000$ft$ air!will!be!unstable.$
rates,!we!can!determine$the$stability!of!the! • 0.60C$/$100m$
atmosphere.$ • A! saturated! parcel! of! air! when! cooled! will!
ABSOLUTE$STABILITY$
still!cool!at!the!DALR!but!it!will!also!release$
$
latent$heat$during!condensation.$
WHY$DOES$AIR$COOL$WITH$ALTITUDE?$ • ELR$<1.80C$/$1,000$ft$
• This! ‘extra! warming’! reduces! the! rate! of!
$ • Both!an!unsaturated!and!saturated!parcel!of!
cooling!and!hence!SALR!<!DALR.$
• Consider!a!single!parcel!of!air!that’s!lifted.$ air!will!be!stable.$
1. Pressure!Decreases!
2. Volume!Increases! STABILITY$
$ CONDITIONAL$INSTABILITY$
3. Molecules!Slow!Down! $
4. Adiabatic$Cooling! • Neutral$
o Parcel!of!air!at!same!temperature!than! • ELR$1.80C$oo>$30C$$/$1,000$ft$
!
surrounding!air.$ • Unsaturated!parcel!is!unstable$
• The!opposite!process!(on!descent)!results!in!
o Happy!where!it!is.$ • Saturated!parcel!is!stable$
adiabatic$warming.!
• This!‘lifting’!is!done!by!trigger$factors.! • Unstable$
o Parcel!of!air!warmer!than!surrounding!
air.$
DRY$ADIABATIC$LAPSE$RATE$(DALR)$ o Will! ascend! to! get! to! colder! (once!
$ trigger!is!removed)$
• Used! for! unsaturated$ (dry)! air! with! a! RH! • Stable$
less!than!100%.!(99.9%!is!still!dry)! o Parcel! of! air! colder! than! surrounding!
• 30C$/$1,000$ft$ air.$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
• 10C$/$100$m$ o Will! descend! to! get! to! warmer! (once!
trigger!is!removed)$

!
 ! MET$11$–$ADIABTICS$&$STABILITY$

STABILITY$GRAPH$ DEW$POINT$LAPSE$RATE$ ADIABATIC$PROCESS$

$ $ $
• Plot!the!ELR!on!the!graph.$ • Rate!of!change!of!the!dew!point!temperature! • When! a! gas! is! warmed! due! to! compression!
• Consider!whether!the!ELR!is!left!/!on!/!right! in!an!unsaturated!parcel!of!air.! or! cooled! due! to! expansion! without!
of! the! DALR! line! (if! dry! air)! or! SALR! (if! • 0.50C$/$1,000$ft$ receiving!or!giving!energy!to!surroundings.!
saturated)$
• If!Right!=!Stable$
• If!Left!=!Unstable$ TEPHIoGRAM:$CRITICAL$TEMP$ ISOTHERMAL$LAYERS$
$ $
• On!Line!=!Neutral$
• Critical$Temperature$–!Temperature!at!the! • An! unsaturated! parcel! rising! through! an!
surface!when!the!DALR! first!meets!the!dew! isothermal!layer!will!still!cool!at!the!DALR!
point!lapse!rate.$
• A!condensation$level$will!be!present!at!this!
point! where! air! becomes! saturated! and! ELR$VARIATIONS$
clouds!start!to!form!(cloud!base).$ $
• Parcel!now!cools!at!the!SALR.$ • The!actual!ELR!varies!daily.!
• A! neutral$ atmosphere!occurs!when!SALR!=! • The!average!ELR!is!20C!/!1,000!ft!
ELR!and!at!this!point!the!cloud$top$forms.$
• Other$reasons$for!a!cloud!top!forming:$
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
o Run!out!of!moisture$
o Tropopause! forces! the! ELR! to! equal!
DALR$&$SALR$SPREAD$ the!SALR!eventually.$
$
• At! lower$ temperatures,$ less$ latent$ heat!
given!off!during!condensation.$
• Less! warming! of! the! atmosphere! occurs! at!
the!poles!so!the!SALR$is$closer$to$DALR.$
• Also!close!together!at!high!altitude!where!it!
is!cold!=>!CI!Cloud!

INVERSION$STABILITY$
$
• With!an!inversion!the!ELR!is!+ve!and!to!the!
!
right!of!the!graph.$
• An!inversion!is!therefore!absolutely$stable$
 ! MET$12$–$CLOUDS$

STABLE$STRATIFORM$ NIMBOSTRATUS$(NS)$ UNSTABLE$CUMULIFORM$

$ $ $
Thin!Layered!|!Cover!Large!Horizontal!Area! • Present!in!both!low!and!medium!heights.! Large!Vertical!Development!!
• Nimbo!=!Rain!bearing!
LOW$CLOUD$
$ WARM$FRONT$
• Base:!<!6,500!FT! $
• Water!Droplets! • Stable!stratiform!often!found!ahead!of!the!
• Grey!From!Below! surface!position!of!a!warm!front.!
!
• Stratus!(ST)!
• Stratocumulus!(SC)!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
MEDIUM$CLOUD$
$ CUMULUS$(CU)$
• Base:!6,500!–!23,000!FT! $
• Water!Droplets!+!Ice!Crystals! • 3!Types!of!cumulus!cloud.!
• Light!Grey!From!Below! • From!SFC!to!25,000!FT!
!
• Altostratus!(AS)!
• Altocumulus!(AC)!–!Mackrell!Sky!

HIGH$CLOUD$
$
• Base:!23,000!FT!+!
• Ice!Crystals!
• White!From!Below!
!
CB$&$AC$CAST$
• Cirrus!(CI)!–!Mare’s!Tail!
$
• Cirrostratus!(CS)!
• CB!–!Cumulonimbus!
• Cirrocumulus!(CC)!
! • AC$CAST!–!Altocumulus!Castellanus!
(Medium!level!only)!
 ! MET$12$–$CLOUDS$

SUPPLEMENTARY$FEATURES$ CB$CLOUD$SPECIES$ CLOUD$REPORTING$

$ ! $
• Used!to!enhance!descriptions.! • 0!Octas!=!SKC!
! • 1!Z2!Octas!=!FEW!
• Castellanus! • 3!–!4!Octas!=!SCT!
o$CI,!CC,!AC!&!SC! • 5!–!7!Octas!=!BKN!
o!Turret!shaped!appearance! • 8!Octas!=!OVC!
• Lenticularis!
o$CC,!AC,!SC!
o!Lens!/!almond!shaped!clouds! CB$REPORTING$
• Fractus! $
o$ST,!CU! • ISOL!=!Individual!CBs!
o!Broken!/!ragged!appearance! • OCNL!=!Well!separated!CBs!
• Uncius! • FRQ!=!Little!or!no!separation!
o$CI! • EMBD!=!Embedded!
o!Like!a!comma!/!mares!tail!
• Virga!
o$All!clouds! DEFINITIONS$
o!Precipitation!that!does!not!reach!SFC! $
! • Cloud$Base$–!Height!of!base!above!a!
CONTRAILS$ particular!level!(usually!airfield).!
$ • Cloud$Ceiling$–!Height!of!a!BKN!base!
• Water!vapour!is!a!byZproduct!of!combustion! (below!20,000!ft)!above!the!ground!or!water!
• Increases!humidity!of!surrounding!air,! • Operational$Significance$–!Cloud!with!a!
casing!it!saturate!and!condense.!! base!below!5,000!ft!or!below!highest!MSA!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
WING$TIP$TRAILS$
$
• Formed!at!extremities!of!the!wing!
• Low!pressure!from!lift!causes!expansion!
• Abiabatic!cooling!reduces!it!below!dew!
point!
!
 ! MET$13$–$CLOUD$TRIGGERS$

6$TRIGGERS$ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^! ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^!

$ $ $
• Turbulence!(Stable,!Wind!≥!8!kts,!DP)! • Increase$SFC$Temp$=$Higher$Cloud$Base!
• Convection!(Unstable)! o Dew!point!occurs!at!a!higher!level!
• Orographic!Lifting! • Increase$Turbulent$Layer$=$Higher$Base!
• Frontal!Lifting! o Increases!amount!of!mixing!leading!to!
• Convergence!! a!higher!SFC!temp.!
• Thin!Layer!Lifting!(Unstable!Sandwich)! • Increase$Humidity$=$Lower$Base!
o Dew!point!increases!
!
TURBULENCE$(ST$/$SC)$
$
• Conditions$Required$
o Stable!Atmosphere!(ELR!<!1.8)!
o Wind!≥!8!kts! • Cloud!base!can!be!calculated!by!equating$
o Dew!point!within!turbulent!layer! the$DALR$and$DPLR.$
• The!resultant$ELR!approaches!DALR!(30)! $
o Air!forced!to!rise!is!mixed!with!that! CONVECTION$(CU$/$CB)$ !"#!!"#$ = !"!!"#$
descending.! $ !"#$%!!"#$ = ! $
!. !
• Cloud$base$will!form!at!the!dew!point!level.! • Convection!cause!by!short!wave!radiation!
• Inversion$present!above!turbulence!layer! from!sun!so!mainly!over$land$during$day.!
• Flying$Conditions! • Assume!a!SFC!temp!of!+15!at!start!of!day.!
o Turbulent!inside!/!under!cloud! o Cools!at!DALR!but!hits!ELR!(neutral)!
o Smooth!above!cloud!and!in!inversion! • SFC!temp$increases$to$+20!due!radiation!
• Icing! o Saturated!once!DALR!=!DPLR!(=base)!
o Light!/!occasionally!moderate!rime!if! o Cools!at!SALR!
cloud!above!freezing!layer.! o Neutral!when!SALR!=!ELR!(=!tops)!
! • SFC!temp$increases$to$+25!due!radiation!
! o Base!and!top!rise!and!TUC!formed.!
• SFC!temp$increases$to$+30!due!radiation! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
o Base!and!top!rise!and!CB!formed!
!
• Tops! can! also! be! formed! due! lack! of!
! moisture! or! tropopause! forcing! ELR! and!
SALR!to!meet.!
 ! MET$13$–$CLOUD$TRIGGERS$

OROGPRAHIC$LIFTING$o$UNSTABLE$ CONVERGENCE$ EFFECT$OF$INVERSIONS$

$ $ $
• Air!forced!to!rise!and!cool!adiabatically.$ • Where! there! is! a! sharp! change! in! wind! • CU$ vertical! development$ could! become!
• Stable$ conditions! will! cause! stratiform! direction,!air!comes!together!and!rises.! trapped!and!ST$formed.!
cloud!to!form!on!the!windward!side.$ • Occurs!at!troughs!and!fronts!(esp.!cold)!
• Air! descends! once! the! trigger! is! removed! !
and!cloud!also!forms!on!the!leeward!side.$ EFFECT$OF$SUBSIDENCE$
• Water! vapour! lost! to! precipitation! or! $
contact! with! the! winward! side! of! the! hill! • Descending!air!warms!adiabatically!and!any!
causes!a!higher$base$on$the$leeward$side.$ cloud!in!the!air!will!dissipate.!
!
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

FRONTAL$CLOUDS$
$
• Colder$ more$ dense$ air$ undercuts$ the$
warm$air.$
• Cold!Front!=!Unstable$
OROGPRAHIC$LIFTING$o$UNSTABLE$ • Warm!Front!=!Stable$
$
• Air! continues! rising! and! cloud$ base$ forms$
above$crest$level.$
• Very$ humid! conditions! can! cause! base! to!
form! below! crest! level! and! tops! to! form!
above!crest!level!–!obscuring$high$ground.$
!
!
THIN$LAYER$LIFTING$
$
• Unstable$air$trapped$between$stable$air.!
• Bell!shaped!AC!/!CC!formed!

!
 ! MET$14$–$VISIBILITY$AND$FOG$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
VISIBILITY$MEASURING$ TYPES$OF$FOG! ADVECTION$FOG$
$ $
• Prevailing$Vis$–$Visibility!reached!within!at! • Movement! of! warmer$ air$ over$ a$ colder$
least!half!the!horizon!circle!/!half!the!surface! RADIATION$FOG$ surface.!
of!the!aerdrome.! $ !
• Minimum$ Vis$ –!Reported!with!direction!on! • Conditions$Required! • Conditions$Required!
METAR! when! <! 1500! m! or! 50%! of! the! o Over!Land! o Land!or!sea!
prevailing!visibility.! o Clear!Sky!(1!–!2!Oktas)! o High!RH!
• Visibility! is! measured! using! a! visibility$ o High!Relative!Humidity! o Surface!with!temperature!<!DP!
meter$ which! compensates! for! different! o Wind!(5!kts)! o Wind!(up!to!15!kts!/!20!kts!over!sea)!
types!of!precipitation.! ! !
• Radiation!of!the!earth’s!heat!at!night!causes! • Colder! surface! cools! warmer! air! (at! a! high!
cooling!of!the!air!in!contact!with!the!ground.! RH)!below!the!dew!point.!
OBSCURITY$(VIS$REDUCTION)$ • Once! cooled! below! the! dew! point! and! • Forms!over$land$in$winter!(land!cooler)!
$ condensation! occurs,! a! small! amount! of! • Form!over$sea$in$summer!(land!warmer)!
• Less$than$1000$m$=$Fog$(FG)! wind!is!required!to!lift!it!off!the!ground.! !
• 1000$m$–$5$Km$=$Mist$(BR)! • Note! that! factors! to! produce! max! DV! are! • Will!often!form!slightly!off!shore!as!it!takes!a!
• 1000$m$–$5$Km$=$Haze$(HZ)! required.! while!to!pick!up!moisture!from!sea.!
o Formed!from!solid!particles! • Average!height!of!500!ft! • Can$ also$ occur$ between$ two$ seas$ at$
! ! different$temperatures.$
• In$order$of$decreasing$vis:$ • Can! occur! at! anytime! although! most$ likely$ • Can!appear!suddenly!by!day!and!night.$
o Hail! in$early$morning$(sunrise$+$30).! !
o Rain! • Cloud$ cover! will! reduce! heating! and! rain! !
o Drizzle! will! keep! air! saturated,! both! causing!
o Sleet! radiation!fog!to!persist.!
o Snow! • More!likely!with!a!high!pressure!system.!
! !
• Driving$Snow!Z!Blown!by!wind!when!falling.! • Dissipation$Factors!
• Drifting$ Snow$ –! Lifted! less! than! 2m! above! o Sun!(insolation)!
surface!after!falling.! o Wind!>!10!kts!to!lift!it!into!ST!/!SC!
• Blowing$Snow$–!Lifted!more!than!2m!above! !
surface!after!falling.! !
!
• !
Shallow$ Fog$ –! Lifted! less! than! 2m! above!
surface.!
 ! MET$14$–$VISIBILITY$AND$FOG$

FRONTAL$FOG$ FREEZING$FOG$
$ $
• Forms!ahead$of$the$warm$front$(150nm)! • Fog! made! of! water$ droplets! becomes!
• Precipitation$ from$ NS$ cloud$ saturates$ supercooled.!
(via! evaporation! of! precipitation)! the! • A! solid! object! will! act! as! a! nuclei! and!
shallow! layer! of! cold! air! underneath! the! droplets!will!freeze!to!it.!
front!surface.!
• Passes!with!passage!of!the!warm!front.!
ICE$FOG$
$
• Normally!found!in!extremely$cold$artic$air.$
• Fog$ composed$ of$ ice$ crystals! instead! of!
water!droplets.$

SOLID$PARTICLES!

MIXING$FOG$
$ SOLID$PARTICLES$
• Also!known!as!frontal$fog.! $
• Occurs! in! the! warm$ frontal$ zone! where! • Smoke$(FU)$
warm!and!cold!air!mix.! • Volcanic$Ash$(VA)$
• The! resulting! temperature! after! mixing! is! • Dust$(DU)$<0.08!mm$
below!it’s!saturation!point.! • Sand$(SA)$0.08!–!0.3!mm$
$
• Steaming! fog! occurs! is! air! with! cold! mass! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
properties.!

VALLEY$FOG$
$
• Cold! air! runs! down! hill! and! mixes! with!
moist!air!at!the!valley!floor.!
!
• This!is!a!form!of!mixing!fog.!
 ! MET$14$–$VISIBILITY$AND$FOG$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
FLIGHT$VISIBILITY$ SHALLOW$FOG$LAYER$
$ $
• The! only! measurable! visibility! is! oblique$ • Steeper$ approach! can! be! used! to! improve!
visibility$ which! is! the! distance! along! the! viz!(stay!out!of!it!for!longer)$
ground!between!a!point!directly!beneath!the!
aircraft!and!the!furthest!point!on!the!ground!
a!pilot!can!see.!
• Into!Sun!/!UpZSun!/!DownZMoon!=!Worst!
• Into!Moon!/!UpZMoon!/!DownZSun!=!Best!

VIS$WITHIN$HAZE$LAYER$
$
• Slant! vis! remains! the! same! regardless! of!
altitude.!
• Oblique$ vis$ improves$ closer$ to$ the$
surface.$
• Climbing! out! of! the!haze! layer! will!improve!
visibility.$

!
 ! MET$15$–$PRECIPITATION$

BERGERON$(ICE$CRYSTAL)$THEORY$ SNOW$(SN)$*$ REPORTING$PRECIPITATION!

$ !
• When!above!the!freezing!level,!both!ice!crystals! • Will!not!form!if!less!than!Z150C!
and!SCWDs!may!be!present.! • Snow!Grains!(SG)!–!Stratus!/!FG! DURATION$
• The! saturation! vapour! pressure! of! water! is! • Snow!Pellets! $
greater!than!ice!so!the!water!vapour!sublimates! • Snow!Flakes!! • Showers$
onto!the!ice!crystals.! o CU!/!CB!(Unstable!Cumuliform)!
• When!heavy!enough,!ice!crystals!fall.! o Good!vis!after!passing!
SLEET$(SN)$*$
• If!warm,!falls!as!rain.!If!cold,!falls!as!snow! ! • Intermittent$
!
o !“From!time!to!time”!
• Mix!of!snow!and!rain!
COALESCENCE$THEORY$ • Continuous$/$Steady$
• RASN!/!SNRA!
$ o NS!(Stable!Statiform)!
• Only!settles!when!less!than!40C!
• In! clouds! where! temperature! is! above! 00C! and! o NonZstop!for!at!least!60!minutes!
ice!crystals!are!not!present.!
• Updrafts! and! downdrafts! cause! water! droplets! HAIL$Δ$
to!collide!and!grow!in!size.! $ INTENSITY$
• Once! droplets! become! sufficiently! heavy,! they! • CB$/$TCU! $
fall!as!precipitation.! • Most$ likely$ in$ continental$ regions$ at$ mido • Light$
• Produces!only!DZ!/!ZRN!in!the!mid!latitudes! latitudes$ (High! SFC! temp! and! low! temps! at! • Moderate$
altitude!=>!greater!instability)! • Heavy$
• Small$Hail$(GS)! o NS/!CU!/!CB!
PRECIPITATION$TYPES! • Large$Hail$(GR)!
MEASURING$PRECIPITATION$
ICE$PELLETS$ $
DRIZZLE$(DZ)$(Comma)$
$ • Intensity$–!Rate!of!rainfall!device!
$
• Frozen$raindrops$<5$mm.! • Amount$–!Rain!gauge!
• 0.3$mm!
• Ice! crystals! melt! in! warm! air! then! reZfreeze! in!
• Originates!from!Stratus$cloud$
colder!air.!
• Their! presence! indicates$ freezing$ rain$ at$ PRECIPITATION$EFFECTS$
RAIN$(RN)$(Full$Stop)$ higher$altitude.$ $
! • Lowers$Temperature!
• Splashes$when$hits$the$ground$ • Increases$Dew$Point!
FREEZING$PRECIPITATION$
$
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! • Freezing$Rain$
! • Freezing$Drizzle$
 ! MET$16$–$ICING$

FROST$POINT$TEMPERATURE$ FREEZING$RAIN$/$RAIN$ICE$
$ $
• When!cooled!below!the!frost!point!temperature,! • When$ flying$ below$ an$ inversion,$ when$
water!vapour!sublimates!directly!to!ice.$ OAT$ less$ than$ 00C$ and$ rain$ is$
• Frost! will! form! on! a! solid! surface! of! the! same! encountered.$
temperature! when!cooled! below!the! frost! point!
temperature.$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! • Commonly! occurs! just! ahead! of! a! warm!
front.$
SCWD$PROPORTIONS$ • Can!build!up!at!a!rate!of!12!mm!/!min$
ICING$INTENSITY$ $
• Escape!options:$
$ • For! every! degree! below! 00C,! 1/80th! of! the! o Climb!/!Turn!Back!/!Speed!Up!/!Descend$
• Trace$ drop!will!freeze!instantly!on!impact.! o Turn!Back!is!the!book!option!of!choice$
o$Ice!becomes!perceptible$ • The!rest!will!flow!back!over!the!wing.$
o No! deZicing! /! antiZice! required! (unless!
more!than!1!hour)$ AIRFRAME$ICING$
• Light$ $
o$Occasional!use!of!deZicing!/!antiZice$ • The$following$conditions$are$required$for$
• Moderate$ airframe$icing:$
o$DeZicing!/!antiZice!necessary$ o Below!00C$
• Severe$ o In!cloud!where!moisture!is!present$
o$DeZicing! /! antiZice! fails! to! control! the! • Exception$is$freezing$ rain$ and$ hoar$ frost!
hazard$ which!occur!outside!of!clouds.$
HOAR$FROST$
$
SCWD$ • Occurs!in!clear!air!(cloud!not!required)$
$ • Aircraft!below!zero!comes!into!contact!with!
• Supercooled$Water$Droplets$ warm!moist!air!at!temperatures!>!00$
• Water! droplets! cooled! below! freezing! but!
remain!in!liquid!state.$
o Due!to!surface!tension$ Type$ SCWD$ Intensity$ Notes$
• When! surface! tension! is! broken! and! they! Impact!/!Rime!/!Opaque! Small! Light!/!Mod! Not!serious!
come!into!contact!a!surface!they!freeze.$
• Large! and! small! SCWDs! are! present! in! Most!severe!at!low!temperatures!
different!parts!of!clouds.$ Clear!/!Flowback! Large! Mod/!Severe! (more!flowback).!
• !
Only!small!SCWDs!exist!is!ST!/!SC.$ Freezes!gradually!and!is!transparent.!
Mixed!/!Cloudy! Small!+!Large! Mod!/!Severe! Combination!of!Impact!&!Clear!
 ! MET$16$–$ICING$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
GROUND$ICING$ ENGINE$ICING!
$
• Hoar!Frost$
PISTON$ENGINES$
• Freezing!Drizzle$ $
• Packed!Snow$ • Fuel$Icing$
• Freezing!Fog!/!Rime!Frost$ o Water!in!fuel!freezes!in!pipe!bends$
• Ice!Fog$ • Oil$Coring$
• Glaze!Frost!(Rain!ice!on!surface)$ o Congealing!of!oil!at!low!temperatures$
• Impact$Ice$
• Carburettor$Icing$
FACTORS$AFFETING$ICING$SEVERITY$ ICING$EFFECTS$/$HAZARDS$ o Throttle!Ice$
$ $ o Fuel!Ice$
• Ascending$/$Descending$ • Mass$of$Ice$
o Descending! worse! as! a! cold! airframe! • Aerodynamics$ CARBURETTOR$ICING$SEVERITY$
enters!more!moist!air.$ • Visibility$ $
• Aerofoil$Characteristics$ • Instruments$ • Can$ form$ anywhere$ between$o100$ and$+320C$
o Thin!aerofoil!will!up!more!icing.$ • Communications$ with$a$RH$>$30%$
o “Thin!before!fat”$ • Most$severe$between$o2 0$and$+15 0C$in$cloud,$
• Systems$
• Airspeed$ precipitation$or$fog$at$any$power$setting.$
o Higher! speeds! result! in! more! drops!
hitting!per!unit!time!=>!more!severe$ ICE$PROTECTION$&$REMOVAL$
$
• Kinetic$Energy$
o Airframe!rises!by!temp!of!(TAS/100)2$ • AntioIce:$Prevents!Formation$
o Requires!very!high!speeds! however!to! • DeZIce:$Removes!ice!accretion$
make!a!difference.$ !
• Cloud$Density$ • Methods$of$antioice$/$deZIce:$
o Precipitation!reduces!water!content!so! o Chemicals$
icing!likely!to!be!less!severe.$ o Electrical!Heating$
• Cloud$Base$Temperature$ o Hot!Air!(Bleed)!Heating$
o A!cloud!base!at!00C!will!result!in!more! o DeZIcing!Boots!(DeZIce!Only)$
TURBINE$ENGINES$
icing!than!one!at!Z100C!due!to!warmer! $
temperature!holding!more!WV.$ • Also!subject!to!fuel!icing!like!pistons.$
• Orographic$Intensification$ • Turbine$ icing! most$ likely! to! occur! at! high!
o! Freezing! level! in! cloud! is! lower! than! RPMs,!with!water!droplets!in!cloud!/!fog!up!to!+!
the!environment.$ 100C$
 ! MET$17$–$THUNDERSTORMS$

CB’S$VS$THUNDERSTORMS$ CLASSIFICATIONS! 2.$MATURE$STAGE$

$ $
• Both!CB’s!and!thunderstorms!have:! • Takes$approx.$15o20$mins$
o MOD!/!SEVERE!Icing! TS$CLASSIFICATIONS$ • Characterised!by!precipitation$starting!
o MOD!/!SEVERE!Turbulence! $ • Contains!updrafts$and$downdraft!
o Hail! • Single$–$Cell$(1$–$2$Hrs)$ o Downdraft!from!falling!water!droplets!
• Thunderstorms!additionally!have!lightning.! • Multi$–$Cell$(3$–$4$Hrs)$ • A!gust$front$forms!25nm!ahead!
• Super$–$Cell$ o Descending! air! initially! warms!
o Lasts!longest! adiabatically.!
REQUIREMENTS$FOR$TS$FORMATION$
o Contains!tornadoes! o Entrainment! cools! the! air! however! and!
$
makes!it!more!dense.!
• Cloud$Trigger$ o Spreads!out!when!it!reaches!the!surface!
• Moisture$
STAGES$OF$DEVELOPMENT! • Water! droplets! breaking! up! results! in! static$
• Unstable$Atmosphere$ electricity$leading!to!lightning.$
o When!ELR!>!SALR$
• Roll$cloud$can!form!on!the!bottom!leading!edge$
1.$DEVELOPMENT$STAGE$ • The!TS!will!move!with!the!700$hPa$wind!
$
TRIGGERS! • Takes$approx.$15o20$mins$
• CU!Humilis!develops!into!CU!Mediocris!then!CU! 3.$DISSIPATING$STAGE$
Congestus.! $
FRONTAL$LIFTING$TRIGGER$ • It!is!driven!by!latent$heat$due$to$condensation! • Takes$approx.$1$Hour$
$ • Characterised!by!updrafts! • Contains!mainly$downdrafts!
• CBs!normally!formed!around!a!cold$front.! • Entrainment$ is! the! influx! of! dry! air! being! • Precipitation$continues!
• Squall$ Line!–!A!big!line!of!TS’s!that!form!ahead! drawn!into!the!cloud.! • Lightning$possibility!still!exists!
of!cold!/!occluded!fronts!(I.E.!In!warm!sector)! o Results! in! evaporation! that! could! stop!
development! if! latent! heat! absorbed! >!
latent!heat!given!off!from!condensation.! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
AIR$MASS$TRIGGERS$
$
• Orographic!
• Convergence!
o Particularly!around!a!trough!
• Convection!
o Land!–!Most!common!by!day!(large!DV)!
o Sea!–!Both!day!and!night!(small!DV)!

!
 ! MET$17$–$THUNDERSTORMS$

LIGHTNING! TYPICAL$CHARACTERISTICS$ 3.$TORNADO$

$ $
• Mainly!occurs!in!midowest$USA! • The! lifecycle! of! the! tornado! can! be! further!
LIGHTNING$ • Occur!in!spring$/$early$summer$ broken!down!into!3!parts.!
$ • Hail$can$exceed$0.75$inches$ !
• Ice!crystals!(top!of!cloud)!tend!to!be!positive! • Gusts$can$exceed$50$kts$ • 1$Initial$–!Precipitation!drags!down!and!area!of!
• Water!droplets!(bottom)!tend!to!be!negative! quickly! descending! air! creating! a! rear! flank!
• Leaders$ extend! from! both! ground! and! cloud.! downdraft.!The!RFD!pulls!down!the!mesocylone!
1.$INITIAL$STAGE$ and!cloud!and!a!funnel$starts$to$develop.!
When! they! meet! there! is! a! flow! of! current! and!
lighting!strike!occurs.! $ !
• Most! likely! to! experience! lightning! 5,000$ ft$ • Same!as!a!singleZcell!thunderstorm! • 2$ Mature$ –!Eventually!the! funnel$ reaches$ the$
either$ side$ of$ the$ freezing$ level$ =>$ With$ • Updrafts!develop.! surface.!
!
temperatures$between$o100C$and$+10 0C$
• 3$ Dissipation$ –! Cold! air! from! RFD! surrounds!
2.$SUPER$CELL$ the! tornado! and! cuts! off! the! warm! moist! air!
$ supply.!
• Windshear!will!cause!a!cylonic$motion!to!form!
in!the!horizontal!plane.!
• The! updrafts! will! lift! the! cylone! towards! the!
vertical! and! a! mescocylone$ is! formed! within!
the!cloud.!
• This!has!a!rotating$centre!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
SUPERoCELL$THUNDERSTORMS!

DIFFERENCES$
$
• Characterised!by!tornadoes!
• Strong$ upper$ winds!result!in!separation!of!the! 4.$DISSIPATION$
updrafts!and!downdrafts.! $
o They!now!do! not! tend!to!cancel!each! other! • Tornado!dies!out!and!thunderstorm!follows.!
out!so!the!lifetime!is!extended.!

!
 ! MET$17$–$THUNDERSTORMS$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
WATERSPOUTS$ TS$AVOIDANCE$
$ $
• Tornadoes! over! the! sea! are! known! as! • An!airborne!weather!radar!(AWR)!will!sense!the!
waterspouts.! concentration!of!water!droplets.!
• Only!20$–$30$ft$in$diameter!however!and!do!not! !
have!the!destructive!power!of!tornadoes.! • If$avoiding$TS$using$the$AWR:$
o Avoid!by!10!nm!when!below!20,000!ft!
o Avoid!by!20!nm!when!above!20,000!ft!
MICRO$/$MACRO$BURSTS$ • If$avoiding$TS$visually,$avoid$by$10$nm$at$any$
$ altitude.$
• Included!in!the!TS!hazards.! !
• Only!last!for!about!1$o$5$minutes.! • If!you!must!overfly!a!TS!then!overfly$by$at$least$
• Microburst$is$less$than$4$km$ 5,000$ft.!
• Macroburst$is$greater$than$4$km$

PRESSURE$VARIATIONS$
$
• Altimeter! may! vary! by! up! to! 1,000! ft! in! the!
vicinity!of!thunderstorms.$

PEARSON$TORNADO$SCALE$ TS$CLASSIFICATION$
$
Scale$ Windspeed$(kts)$ Damage$ • ISOL!=!Individual!
0! 30!–!60! Light! • OCNL!=!Well!separated!
• FRQ!=!Little!or!no!separation!
1! 60!Z!90! Moderate!
• EMBD!=!Embedded!
2! 90!Z!130! Considerable!
3! 130!Z!170! Severe!
4! 170!Z!220! Well!constructed!houses!are!levelled!
5! 220!Z!270! Strong!frame!houses!are!lifed!from!foundations.!
! !
 ! MET$18$–$AIR$MASSES$

SOURCE$CHARCTERISTICS$ AIR$MASS$MODIFICATIONS$ RETURING$POLAR$MARITIME$

$ $ $
• Large$ volume! of! air! (can! be! thousands! of! nm! • As! the! air! mass! moves! away! from! source,! it’s! • Presence$ of$ a$ pressure$ system$ will! cause!the!
across).! characteristics!will!change.! mPc! to! head! south! of! the!sea! initially! then!turn!
• Slack!pressure!gradient!=>!Very$slow$moving! ! north!towards!the!UK.$
o Due!to!almost!stationary!nature,!they!take! • A! change! in! latitude$ will$ affect$ temperature,$ • On! the! southern$ track,! temp! increases! and!
on!the!characteristics!of!the!surroundings.! stability$and$relative$humidity.$ stability!decreases.$
• High$Pressure$&$Stable! o Move! South! =! Warming! from! below! =! o CU!/!CB!/!TS!forms!out!at!sea$
Stability!Decreases!&!RH!Decreases! • On! the! northern$ track$ towards$ the$ UK,! temp!
o Move! North! =! Cooling! from! below! =! decreases!and!stability!increase.$
SOURCE$NAMING$ Stability!increases!&!RH!Increases! o A!lower!layer!of!stable!air!forms.$
$ ! o Thickness!of!the!stable!layer!depends!on!
• Air! masses! are! named! according! to! the! • The! surface$ it$ moves$ over$ will$ affect$ the$ length!of!returning!track.$
temperature$and$humidity$(in$the$horizontal$ absolute$humidity.$ o ST!/!SC!forms!over!the!UK.$
plane)$at$source.! o Over!land!=!AH!Decreases! • Inland!convection!could!cause!the!stable!layer!to!
• Named!either!Continental$(Land)$/$Maritime! o Over!Sea!=!AH!Increases! be!broken!through.$
• Named! Equatorial,$ Tropical,$ Polar$ or$ Artic! o CU!/!CB!/!TS!could!then!form!inland.$
depending!on!its!latitude.! $
$
• Equatorial! &!Tropical! will!be! a!warm$ air$ mass! CLOUD$&$PRECIP$TYPES$ $
and!Polar!&!Artic!will!be!cold$air$masses.! $ $
! • If$stability$has$decreased$=>$Unstable$ !
• Tropical!Continental!(cTw)!Sahara! o CU!/!CB!/!TS!with!showers!
• Tropical!Maritime!(mTw)!“Azore’s!High”! o Vis!good!outside!showers!
• Polar!Continental!(cPc)!“Siberian!High”! o Inland,! the! moisture! dries! out! leaving!
• Polar!Maritime!(mPc)! clear!skies.!
• Artic!Continental!(cAc)! !
• Artic!Maritime!(mAc)! • If$stability$has$increased$=>$Stable$
o ST/!SC!with!drizzle$
o Viz!poor!in!haze$
$
• If! continental$ air$ mass,! it! will! be! dry! so! no$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
cloud$forms$and$haze$will$be$present.$
o The!exception!is!cPc!with!a!sea!track.$
o Added! moisture! gives! ST! /! SC! /! CU! with!
RA!and!SN.$
!
 ! MET$18$–$AIR$MASSES$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
! mTw$ mAc$ mPc$ cTw$ cPc$ mPw$
Stable! Stable! Stable! Stable! Stable! Same!as!mPc! Same!as!mPc!
At$Source$ Moist! Moist! Cold! V!Warm! V!Cold! SEA!TRACK! ! !
Warm! V!Cold! Moist! Dry! Dry! ! (Over!Sea)! (TRK!TO!UK)!
(Moisture!added!but!
Temp$ "! #! # " # # "
since!dry!initially!
Stability$ #! "! " # " not!enough!to!CBs! " #
etc)!
RH$ #! "! " # " " #
AH$ #! #! # Z Z! #! # #
Cloud$ ST!/!SC! CU!/!CB/!TS! CU!/!CB!/TS! Z! Z! ST!/!SC!/!CU! CU!/!CB!/!TS! ST!/!SC!
Precip$ DZ! SH! SH! Z! Z! RA!/!SN! SH! DZ!
Good!outside! Good!outside! Good!outside!RA!/! Good!outside!
Viz$ Poor!in!HZ!
SH! SH!
HZ! HZ!
SN! SH!
HZ!
Clear!skies,!
Clear!Skies,!
UK$Inland$ Fog!
Very!Cold!
poss!radiation! Z! Z! Z! Z! Z!
fog!at!down!
Other$ Azores! Also!cAC! ! Balklands!/!E!Asia! Siberian!High!Extremely!Cold! ! !
!
SEASONAL$VARIATIONS$
$
• Artic$&$mPw$(Returning)$–$Winter$Only$
!

!
 ! MET$19$–$FRONTS$AND$POLAR$FRONT$DEPRESSIONS$

WHAT$IS$A$FRONT$ COLD$FRONT$ ISOBARS$

$ $ $
• When$ two$ air$ masses$ of$ different$ • Cold$air$replaces$warm$air$at$the$surface.$ • The! isobars$ bend$ at$ the$ fronts! due! to! the!
temperature$and$humidity$meet.! • Unstable$CB$/$TCU$/$CU$ change!in!pressure.!
• The! cold$ air$ will$ always$ undercut$ the$ warm$ • Precipitation$ 50nm$ wide$ both$ ahead$ and$ • As! a! warm! front! passes! through,! pressure!
air!as!it!is!more$dense.$ behind$the$front.$ decreases.!
o Slope!always!leans!towards!the!cold!mass.$ $ • As! a! cold! front! passes! through,! pressure!
increases.!
• Considering!the!warm!front:!
QUASIoSTATIONARY$FRONT$
$
• Hardly$any$movement$
• Very! little! interaction! between! them! so! no$
significant$wx.$
• Wind!flows!from!cold!(HP)!to!warm!(LP)!and!is!
deflected! through! 900! so! blows$ along$ the$
• Due! to! its! steep! gradient,! surface$ friction! can!
frontal$zone.$ cause!a!nose$overhang!to!develop.!
• A!squall$can!develop!if!this!collapses.!

WARM$FRONT$
$
• Warm$air$replaces$cold$air$at$the$surface.$ STRENGTHENING$/$WEAKENING$
• Stable$CI$/$CS$/$AS$/$NS$ $
• Precipitation$200nm$ahead$of$the$front.$ • Frontogenesis!–!Strengthening!
o Continuous!and!Moderate$ • Frontolysis!–!Weakening!
FRONTAL$SPEEDS$ o Marked!by!crosses!on!the!chart!
$
• Cold$Front!–!Full!Geostrophic!Wind!Speed! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
• Warm$Front!–!2/3!Geostrophic!Wind!Speed!

!
 ! MET$19$–$FRONTS$AND$POLAR$FRONT$DEPRESSIONS$

POLAR$FRONT$ POLAR$FRONT$DEPRESSIONS$(PFD)$ WARM$SECTOR$CLOUDS$

$ $ $
• Where! the! tropical$ air$ mass$ and$ polar$ air$ $ • Kata!Front!=!Stable!=!Stratiform$
mass$meet.$ • Ana!Front!=!Unstable!=!Cumuliform!(can!contain!
• Located!further$north$in$summer.$ EMBED!CB!within!NS)$
$

OCCLUDED$FRONT$
$
• When!the!cold!front!catches!the!warm!front.$
• Warm$occlusion$(Winter)$
o Land! is! colder! in! winter! so! the! cold! air!
holds!it’s!position!and!the!warm!front!rides!
up!above!it.$
POLAR$FRONT$DEPRESSIONS$(PFD)$ • Cold$occlusion$(Summer)$
$ o Land! is! warmer! in! winter! (less! dense)! so!
• Forms!along!the!polar!front.$ the! cold! air! behind! the! cold! front! cuts! into!
• Develops! due! to! ripples$ and$ intrusion$ of$ the!polar!air!ahead!of!the!warm!front.$
• Note!the!jet!stream!is!closer!to!the!surface!front!
tropical$ warm$ air! which! lowers! the! surface! of!the!cold!front!than!the!warm!front!due!to!the!
pressure.$ steeper!gradient.$
• Takes! 4$ days! to! reach! the! point! of! lowest!
pressure.!
• Takes!10$days$or!more!to!fill!and!dissipate.! PRESSURE$AND$FRONTS$
$ $
$
• As! a! warm! front! approaches,! pressure! falls! and!
then!remains!constant!after!it!passes.!
• As! a! cold! front! approached,! pressure! falls! (due! $
to!lifting)!then!increases!after!it!passes.!

POLAR$FRONT$SFC$PROJECTION$
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! $
• The! jet! stream! is! closer! to! the! surface! front! of!
the! cold! front! than! the! warm! front! due! to! the!
steeper!gradient.$
! • 50!–!200!nm!behind!cold!front$
• 300!Z450!nm!ahead!of!warm!front$
 ! MET$20$–$ANTI$CYLONES$

CHARACTERISTICS$ WARM$ANTICYCLONES$(PERMANENT)$ COL$

$ $ $
• An!anticyclone$is$a$high$pressure$system.$ • Lie!in!the!tropical$air$south$of$the$polar$front.$ • Slack!pressure!between!two!highs!and!two!lows.$
• There! is! divergence$ at$ the$ surface,$ • Warm!air!near!surface!is!overlaid!by!cold!dense! • Clear! skies! and! light! wind! result! in! max! DV! of!
convergence$ at$ altitude$ and! subsidence$ in$ air!from!above.$ temperature.$
the$centre.$ • Characteristed! by! a! pressure$ bulge$ upwards$ • Max! heating! during! summer$ results$ in$
• Subsidence!limits$the$formation$of$clouds$and$ through$a$great$depth.$ thunderstorms.$
precipitation.$ • EG/$Azores$High$ • Max!cooling!during!winter$results$in$low$cloud$
• A! subsidence$ inversion! often! forms! as! and$fog.$
subsiding! air! is! warmed! adiabatically! and!
spreads!out!over!cooler!air!near!the!surface.$ WARM$ANTICYCLONES$(BLOCKING)$
$
• Anticylones! are! categorized! as! warm! or! cold!
• Breakooff!from!a!permanent!warm!anticyclone.$
depending!on!how!they!are!formed.$
• Temporary! Z! Establishes! itself! in! the! higher!
latitude!for!several!days.$
• Last$longer$over$land!than!at!sea.$
• Can!deflect$PFDs!north!of!the!UK.$

COLD$ANTICYCLONES$(SEMIoPERMANENT)$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
$
• Lie!in!the!polar$air$north$of$the$polar$front.$
• Conduction! from! cold! surface! subjects! air! to!
CHANGES$OF$STRENGTH$
intense$cooling.$
$
• Since! pressure! decreases! quicker! in! cold! air,! a!
• Intensifying! –! Pressure! is! increasing! as!
shallow!layer!of!subsidence!is!created.$
convergence!exceeds!divergence.$
• Typically!does!not!show!higher!than!500!hPa$
• Weakening$ –! Pressure! is! decreasing! as!
• EG/$Siberian$High$
divergence!exceeds!convergence.$

COLD$ANTICYCLONES$(INTERMEDIATE$HIGH)$
$
• Temporary$
• Formed!by!a!ridge$
• Southward$ migration! can! result! in! warming!
and!formation!of!a!blocking$high.$
!
 ! MET$20$–$OTHER$DEPRESSIONS$(CYLONES)$

SECONDARY$DEPRESSIONS$ THERMAL$DEPRESSIONS$(WINTER)$ OROGRAPHIC$DEPRESSIONS$

$ $ $
• Can!form!in!3!cases:$ • Over!water$ • Low$ pressure$ forms$ on$ the$ lee$ side! of! a!
• Within$ the$ circulation$ of$ a$ larger$ primary$ $ mountain! range! as! the! passage! over! the! top! is!
depression$ • Land! is! cold! but! water! (which! has! little! DV)! is! blocked!and!it!flows!round!the!sides!instead.$
• At$the!triple$point$of$a$PFD$occlusion.$ relatively!warmer!than!the!land.$ • With!the!passage!of!a!cold!front,!the!cold$ air$ at$
• At!the!trailing$edge$of$a$cold$front$ • When!a!cold!front!passes,!the!cold$ air$ overlies$ upper$ levels$ spills$ onto$ the$ lee$ side! where!
$ the$warmer$air!and!instability$results.$ there!is!relatively!warmer!air!at!the!surface.$
• Gales! form! on! the! side! furthest! from! the! • Convection!causes!CU!/!CB!/!TS!to!form.$ • Instability$and$convection$results.$
primary!centre.$ • Normally! expect! good! vis! etc! with! the! pass! of!
• Heavy$rainfall!moves!outwards!from!the!centre! the!cold!front!but!TS!can!persist.$
of!the!secondary!low.$
$
POLAR$LOW$
$
• A!type!of!termal!depression!that!is!nonofrontal.$
• Cold! polar! maritime! air! behind$ a! cold! front!
moves! southoeast$ (due$ to$ northowesterly$
TROUGHS$
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! winds)$over$a$progressivly$warmer$sea.$
$
• Instability$ and$ convection! results! in! CB! and!
THERMAL$DEPRESSIONS$(SUMMER)$ • Strong$ convergence$ at! the! surface! results! in!
showers.$
$ lifting!of!air!and!vertical!development!clouds.$
$
• Over!land$
• Unstable!air!mass$
• Slack!pressure!gradient$ DUST$DEVIL$
$ $
• Sun!heats!surface!during!the!day!and!convection! • On!a!hot$day$with$clear$skies,$convergence!and!
results.$ rising!air!occurs!at!the!surface.$
• Rising$ air$ creates$ a$ low$ pressure$ at$ the$ • If!windshear!is!present,!small!cylonic!motion!can!
surface$and$a$depression$is$formed.$ result!which!will!lift!dust!etc.$
• Dry!air!=!Cloudless$
• Moist! air! =! CU! /! CB! /! TS! which! die! out! in! the!
evening!once!the!isolation!stops.$

!
 ! MET$21$–$GLOBAL$CLIMATOLOGY$

CAUSE$OF$GLOBAL$CLIMATOLOGY$ TROPOSPHERIC$CIRCULATION$ MOVEMENT$OF$THE$ITCZ$

$ $ $
• The! obliquity$ of$ the$ ecliptic! results! in! • Maximum! heating! at! the! equator! results! in! air! • The!ITCZ!is!essentially!the!earth’s!heat!equator.!
temperature! variations! which! leads!to! pressure! rising!and!convergence!at!the!surface.$ • In! January,! the! southern! hemisphere! receives!
gradients!etc.$ • This!results!in!low!pressure!at!the!equator.$ the!most!heat!and!the$ ITCZ$is$ displaced$south$
• As! a! result! of! natures! attempt! to! stabilize! • Rising!air!diverges!at!the!tropopause!and!heads! of$the$equator.$
everything,!global!circulation!patterns!arise.$ north! where! it! cools! and! descends! at! 30! N! o Parts! of! the! ITCZ! remain! north! of! the!
$ creating!high!pressure.$ equator! due! to! the! high! pressure! south! of!
• The!NH!summer!solstice!occurs!in!June.!There!is! • Cold! polar! air! descends! and! diverges! at! the! the!equator!around!the!cold!coasts.$
max!heating!of!the!northern!hemisphere!during! surface!resulting!in!high!pressure.$ o This!brings!cold!sea!air!north!and!prevents!
this! period! and! the! maximum! temperature! is! • This!flows!south!and!heats!up!before!converging! the!ITCZ!from!dropping!south.$
reached!in!July!(due!to!heating!lag).$ at!60N!and!creating!low!pressure!at!the!surface.$ • In! July,! the! northern! hemisphere! receives! the!
! $ most! heating! and! the! ITCZ$ is$ displaced$ north$
• The! NH! winter! solstice! occurs! in! December.! • Wind! flows! from! high! to! low! and! the! of$the$equator.$
There!is!minimum!heating!of!the!NH!during!this! geostrophic!force!acts.$ $
period! at! the! minimum! temperature! occurs! in! • This!creates! easterlies,! westerlies!and!the!trade!
January.!$ winds.$
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
 ! MET$21$–$GLOBAL$CLIMATOLOGY$

JANUARY$PRESSURE$SYSTEMS$ JULY$PRESSURE$SYSTEMS$ CLIMATIC$ZONES$(KOEPPEN$CLASSIFICATION)$

$ $ $
• In! January,! the! northern! hemisphere! is! in! • In!July,!the!northern!hemisphere!is!in!summer.!
winter.! • 3! HP! STJs! in! the! SH! present! as! always,! along!
• 3! HP! STJs! in! the! SH! present! as! always,! along! with!the!Azores!high!and!high!off!the!west!coast!
with!the!Azores!high!and!high!off!the!west!coast! of!America.!
of!America.! • Icelandic!Low!present!but!reduced!in!strength.!
• Icelandic!Low!present.! • Heating! of! Russian! land! mass! results! in! low!
• Cooling! of! N! America! and! Russian! land! mass! pressure!over!this!region.$
results!in!high!pressure!over!these!regions.$ $
o!N!American!High$
o!Siberian!High$
• A! thermal! low! occurs! in! the! Mediterranean!
where! cold! air! from! land! blows! over! the! TRADE$WIND$VARIATIONS$WITH$ITCZ$
relatively!warmer!sea!mass.$ $
• Note!the!NW!and!SE!trade!winds.$ $
$

ROARING$40’S$&$HOWLING$50’S$
$
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
• Westerlies! in! the! SH! have! very! little! land! to!
impede!their!progress.$

!
 ! MET$22$–$TROPICAL$CLIMATOLOGY$

ITCZ$ EASTERLY$WAVES$ TROPICAL$STORMS$&$TRS$

$ $ $
• Trade!winds!converge$on!the!ITCZ$ • Troughs! orientated! N/S! moving! slowly! in! a! • Heating!of!a!tropical!disturbance!and!addition!of!
• Weak!winds!give!rise!to!weak!convergence$ westerly!direction.$ moisture! due! to! sea! track! results! in! further!
$ • Form!over!Africa!and!cross!the!North!Atlantic!on! convection!and!lower!pressure.$
• There! is! more! movement! of! the! ITCZ! over! land! their!way!to!America.$ • Lower!pressure!increases!the!wind!speed.$
than!at!sea.$ $ • Wind!>!34!kts!=!Tropical!Storm$
$ • On!the!east!side,!wx!is!poor!due!to!convergence.$ • Wind!>!64!kts!=!Tropical!Revolving!Storm!(TRS)$
• Instability! is! created! where! two! air! masses! • On!the!west!side,!wx!is!fine!due!to!divergence.$ • Tropical!storms!do!not!exist!in!the!high!pressure!
meet.$ $ areas!south!of!the!equator.$
• High! temperature,! instability,! convergence! and! • 10%!of!these!become!a!tropical$disturbance$
heat! give! rise! to! possible! TS! up! to! the! $
troposphere!and!beyond.$ TROPICAL$REVOLVING$STORMS$
$
• Named!depending!on!their!geographic!location.$
ITCZ$CHARACTERISTICS$ • Hurricanes$ (America)$ /$ Cyclones$ (Africa)$ or$
$ Typhoon$(Asia)$
• Thermal!low$ $
• In!vicinity!of!heat!equator$ • TRS$Formation$Requirements:$
• No!circulation!due!to!weak!GF$ o Sea!temperature!of!+270C$
• Weak!convergence$ o Between! 50! –! 250! with! a! trigger! action!
• TS!/!Clear!skies!possible$ (usually!convergence!at!the!ITCZ)$
• Unstable$ TROPICAL$DISTURBANCE$ o Light!wind!with!little!shear!at!height$
$ $
• Disorganised!array!of!cloud!and!thunderstorms.$ • Typical$Diameter$–$500!m$
MESOSCALE$CONVECTIVE$COMPLEXES$ • Formed!by:$ • Typical$Pressure$–!900!to!960!mBar$
$ o Convergence!at!ITCZ$ • Wind$Speeds$Z!>!64!kts$
• Oval$/$circular$collection$of$thunderstorms$ o Intrusion!of!trough!from!higher!lats$ • Normally$Summer$–$Autumn$in$NH$
• Occurs!over!a!very$large$scale$ o Easterly!waves$ • Normally$Winter$–$Spring$in$SH$
• May!persist!for!12$hours$or$more$ $
• Slow$moving$ • Descending$ air$in$the$ eye$clears$the$cloud.!It!
$ does! not! cause! high! pressure! however! as! it! is!
• !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Occurs! within! the! warm! pulled!back!up!by!low!pressure!near!surface.$
sector!at!the!dryline$ • TRS!dies!out!over!land!as!the!moisture!supply!is!
o$Where! cTw! and! cTm! cut!off.$
air!masses!meet$ • Low!pressure$causes!swelling$of$the$sea.$
$ ! • Cirrus$ canopy$ rotates$ clockwise! due! to!
divergence!at!altitude.$
! MET$22$–$TROPICAL$CLIMATOLOGY$

MONSOON$DIRECTIONS$ COLD$AIR$OUTBREAKS! DUST$STORMS!

$
January$Monsoons$
USA$ DUST$STORMS$
Darwin! Asia! $ $
Dakar! • Winter!/!Early!Spring!or!Summer$ • Results!from!the!lifting$of$dust$/$sand!due!to:$
! ! • Results!in!a!blizzard$ o Increasing!wind!speeds$
$ o Cold!Fronts$
o Local!surface!heating$
$ $
July$Monsoons$ • Sand$is$heavier$than$dust!so!is!not!blown!very!
high! and! settles! quickly! once! the! storm!
dissipates.$
! !
• Dust$ lingers$ in$ the$ air$ for$ longer! as! it! is!
lighter.$
Asia!
Darwin!
Dakar! $
$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
PAMPERO$
$
• Winter!/!Early!Spring!or!Summer$
$

!
 ! MET$22$–$TROPICAL$CLIMATOLOGY$

MONSOON$WEATHER! AUSTRALIA$(DARWIN)$ AFRICA$(DAKAR)$

$ $
• January$=$NW$Monsoon$(CB$/$TS)$ • January$=$NE$Harmattan$(Hot,$dry$&$dusty)$
MONSOON$DEFINITION$ $ o Harmattan! =! “The! Doctor”! giving! a! break!
$ from!the!normally!humid!conditions$
$
• Defines! seasonal! changes! in! weather! when! the!
wind!changes!direction!by!more!than!1200$
• Such! a! change! occurs! due! to! movement! of! the!
ITCZ! between! seasons! and! the! associated!
change!in!trade!winds.$

ASIA$
$
• January$=$NE$Monsoon$ • July$=$SE$Monsoon$(Hot,$dry$and$dusty)$
o Normally! clear! and! dry! as! the! wind! blows! o ITCZ!in!NH!and!STJs!over!central!Australia$ • July$=$SW$Monsoon$(CB$/$TS)$
from!the!Siberian!high.$ o Sudan! experiences! the! Haboob’s! (NE! dust!
$ storm)$

• July$=$SW$Monsoon$
o Normally!unstable!with!TS$
$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
 ! MET$24$–$MID$LATITUDE$CLIMATOLOGY$

LOW$PRESSURE$ FLAT$PRESSURE$ LOCAL$SURFACE$WINDS$(SUMMER)$

$ $ $
• PFDs!hit!Spain!and!the!Mediterranean!by!winter! • Area!of!slack$pressure$gradient!at!the!SFC.$ • Etesians$–$Relatively!Cool$
but!can!route!north!of!the!UK!in!summer.$ • Winter!=!Fog$ • The$Levanter$–!Very!Humid$
• Summer!=!TS$
o 1200!=!CU!Humilus$
HIGH$PRESSURE$ o 1400!=!CU!Mediocris$
$ o 1600!=!CU!Congestus$
• Siberian!High!in!winters!brings!very!cold!winds! o 1800!=!CB!/!TS$
and!possible!snow!showers!if!the!air!travels!any! o 2100!=!SC!/!AC$
distance!over!the!north!sea.$
• In!summer,!Azores!high!dominates.$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
• Blocking!anticyclones!can!form!from!the!Azores! LOCAL$SURFACE$WINDS$(WINTER)$
high.$ $
• Mix!of!very!cold!unstable!outflow!from!Siberian!
high! and! warm,! dry! and! stable! inflow! from! the!
COLD$AIR$POOLS$
Sahara.$
$
$
• Formed! when! cold! air! from! an! old$ depression!
• Mistral$–$Ravine!Wind!|!Becomes!Unstable$
is!undercut!by!warmer!air.$
• Bora$–!Ravine!Wind!|!Becomes!Unstable$
• They!are!not$visible$on$the$surface$chart.$
• Sirocco$/!Ghibli$/$Khamsin$–!Blows!from!North!
• Difficult$to$forecast!due!to!their!unpredictable$
Africa!|!Dry,!hot!and!stable$
movement.$
$

!
 ! MET$24$–$LOCAL$WINDS$

SEA$BREEZE$ LAND$BREEZE$ KATABATIC$WIND$

$ $ $
• Requires!a!slack$pressure$gradient$ • Requires!a!slack$pressure$gradient$ • Night!/!Early!Morning!(Bare!Slopes)$
• Occurs!during$the$day$ • Occurs!during$the$night$ • Day!/!Night!(Ice!covered)$
$ $ • Most!common!on!north!facing!slope!(NH)$
• Surface! heating! results! in! land! being! warmer! • Surface!cooling!results!in!land!being!colder!than! $
than!sea.$ sea.$ • Slopes!cool!at!night!via$radiation$
• Pressure!decreases!at!a!lower!rate!within!warm! • The! first$ horizontal$ movement$ of$ air$ from$ • Air! in! contact! cools! by! conduction,! becomes!
air!compared!with!cold!air.$ sea$to$land$occurs$at$1,000$ft$ more!dense!and!flows$down$the$slope.$
• The! pressure! at! approx.! 1,000! ft! is! high! over! • The! resulting! circulation! pattern! creates! low! • Rivers! at!the!bottom! of!the! valley!add! moisture!
land!and!low!over!the!sea!in!comparison.$ pressure! over! the! sea! and! high! pressure! over! resulting!in!valley$(mixing)$fog.$
• The! first$ horizontal$ movement$ of$ air$ from$ the!land!at!the!surface.$ $
land$to$sea$occurs$at$1,000$ft$ • Once$ the$ surface$ pressure! differential$ • Ice! covered! slopes! are! colder! than! surrounding!
• The! resulting! circulation! pattern! creates! high! exceeds$ the$ surface$ friction,$ a$ land$ breeze$ air!even!during!the!day,$
pressure!over!the!sea!and!low!pressure!over!the! from$land$to$sea$now$results!at!the!surface.$ $
land!at!the!surface.$ $ • Typically!falls!down!at!10!kts$
• Once$ the$ surface$ pressure! differential$ • 5$kts$(Pressure!gradient!less!at!night)$
exceeds$ the$ surface$ friction,$ a$ sea$ breeze$ • 5$nm!either!side!of!coast$
ANABATIC$WIND$
from$sea$to$land$now$results!at!the!surface.$
$
• If! persisting! into! the! afternoon,! the! geostrophic!
• During!Day$
force!can!cause!the!wind!to!blow!parallel!to!the!
• South!Facing!Slopes!(NH)$
coast.!$
$
$
• Slope! is! heated! by! insolation! and! air! in! contact!
with!slope!is!heated!by!conduction.$
• Air! becomes! less! dense! than! surrounding! air!
and!flows$up$the$slope.$
• Lifting!can!result!in!Fair!Wx!CU!at!top!of!slope.$
$
• Typically!falls!down!at!5!kts!(gravity!slows!it)$
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

• 10$–$15$kts$
• Extends$10$–$15$nm!either!side!of!coast$
$
!
 ! MET$24$–$LOCAL$WINDS$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
FOEHN$WIND$ VALLEY$&$MOUNTAINS$WINDS$
$ $
• Base$ higher$ on$ the$ lee$ side! due! to! loss! of! • Valley$Wind$
moisture! from! contact! with! surface! on! the! o During!day$
winward!side.$ o Similar!to!a!sea!breeze$
! o Heating!results!in!a!anabatic!breeze$
• In! the! ‘gap’! between! the! bases,! the! air! on! the! $
windward! side! cools! at! the! SALR! whilst! on! the! • Mountain$Wind$
leeward!side!it!warms!at!the!DALR.$ o During!night$
• The! net! effect! is! warming$ on$ the$ lee$ side$ at$ o Similar!to!a!land!breeze$
1.20C$/$1,000$(DALR$–$SALR)$ o Cooling!results!in!a!katabatic!breeze$
$ $
• The! wind! blowing! down! the! leeside! is! warm,$
dry$and$gusty.!Known!as!the!Foehn$/$Chinook$
Wind$
$
• In! the! example! below,! the! temperature! on! the!
lee!side!is:!15!+!(3!x!1.2)!=!+!18.60C$
$

VENTURI$/$RAVINE$WIND$
$
• Air$ accelerates$ and$ pressure$ drops! when!
blowing!through!a!mountain!valley.$
• Sudden$reversals$of$wind$direction!can!occur!
within!the!valley.$

HEADLAND$EFFECT$
$
• Similar! venturi! effect! created! as! wind! flows!
! round!a!headland.$
 ! MET$26$–$SATELLIITE$AND$GROUND$RADAR$

PURPOSE$ VISUAL$IMAGERY$ GROUND$RADAR$

$ $ $
• Enable! predictions! to! be! made! in! areas! where! • Only$available$by$day$ • Higher$ transmitter$ power! available! allows! a!
ground$stations$are$not$available.$ • Good! for! spotting! low$ cloud$ and$ fog! (except! shorter$wavelength!to!be!used.$
against!white!background!in!polar!regions)$ • Drizzle$can$also$be$picked$up$
• Shows!the!albedo$effect!(reflections)$ • Can!be!sent!via!datalink$to!aircraft$
GEOSTATIONARY$SATELLITES$ $
$ • Beam$Overshoot$
• Fixed$position$relative$to$the$earth$ INFRARED$ o Radar!is!tilted!up!to!prevent!reflection$
$ o Low! cloud! further! away! from! transmitter!
• Orbit!at!altitude!of!36,000$km$
• 5$satellites$are$placed$700!of$lat$apart$ • Can!be!used!during!day$and$night$ may!not!be!picked!up!due!to!‘blind!spot’$
• Cloud! levels! are! indicated! via! temperature! $
• Distorted!image!above!55!N!/!S$
changes$ • Beam$Blocking$
• Provide!continuous$coverage$of!a!fixed!area$
• Hotter! (=>! lower)! clouds! show! as! deeper! tones! o High!ground!blocking!line!of!sight$
of!black.$ $
• Struggles$with$showing$low$cloud$/$fog!as!the! • Beam$Attenuation$
POLARoORBITING$SATELLITES$ temperature!is!very!similar!to!earth!surface.$ o Similar!to!‘blind!alley’!with!AWR$
$ $
• Sun$ synchronous$ o$ Fixed! position! relative! to! • Virga$
the!sun! MSG$–$METEOSTAT$SECOND$GENERATION$ o Shows! on! radar! but! will! not! actually! reach!
• Orbit!at!altitude!of!800$km$=!higher$resolution$ $ surface$
• Provide! coverage! of! the! high! lats! and! polar! • Higher!resolution! $
regions! • Colour!imagery$ • Duct$Propagation$
• 14$orbits$occur$each$day$ o Inversion! bends! the! radio! beam! and! it!
• Full!global!coverage!obtained!every$12$hours$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! paints!the!ground!rather!than!the!sky.$
• Do! not! provide! continuous! coverage! so! harder$
to$observe$trends$

!
 ! MET$27$–$METARS$AND$TAFS$

RVR$ TREND$INFORMATION$ CONTAMINATION$CODES$

$ $ $
• Measured!from!a!height!of!2.5m$AGL$ • Based!on!forecast!trend!+$2$Hrs!ahead$ • First!two!numbers!indicate$RWY$
• Reported!when!prevailing!vis!<!1500!m$ • NOSIG$=!No!significant!changes!expected$ o 23!=!RWY!23!L$
• Reports!discontinued!when!vis!>!2000!m$ o 73!=!RWY!23!R!(+!50)$
$ o 88!=!All!RWYs$
• P1500!=!>!1500!m$ CAVOK$ o 99!=!Repetition$
• M0100!=!<!100!m$ $ $
$ • No!cloud!below!5,000!ft!or!the!highest!MSA$ • Last!two!numbers!indicate!braking$action$
• Trend!based!on!10!mins!prior!to!issue$ • Vis!10!km!+$ o 91!=!Poor$
• D!=!Decreasing$ • No!CBs$ o 92!=!Poor!/!Medium$
$ o 93!=!Medium$
• N!=!Constant$
• If!there!is!no!cloud!below!5,000!ft!/!highest!MSA! o 94!=!Medium!/!Good$
• U!=!Increasing!
but!vis!is!less!than!10!km,!NSW!is!used!and!the! o 95!=!Good$
vis!is!reported.$ o 99!=!Unreliable$
$ o xx!=!Friction!coefficient$
WIND$REPORTING$
• No!cloud!at!any!level!=!SKC$(Sky$Clear)$ o //!=!Not!reported$
$
• Gusts!when!+$10$kts!from!the!mean!speed$
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
• Varying$when!±!60!kts$
• Windshear$when!below!1600!ft$ “ODD”$WX$CODES$ TEMPO$
$ $
• PR!–!Partial$ • Less!than!1!Hr!in!each!instance$
• MI!–!Shallow$ • No!more!than!50%!of!forecast!period!in!total$
VIS$REPORTING$
$ • BC!–!Patches$
• <$800$m$=!Rounded!down!to!nearest!50!m$ • BL!–!Blowing$ TAF$VALIDITY$
• 800$–$5$km$=$Rounded!down!to!nearest!100!m$ • DR!–!Drifting$ $
• 5$km$+$=!Rounded!down!to!nearest!1!km$ • BR!–!Mist$ • 9!Hrs!(Issued!every!3!Hrs)!
! • PO!–!Dust!Devils$ • 12!–!30!Hrs!(Issued!every!6!Hrs)!
• Directional$ vis! reported! when! less! than! 1500!
m!or!50%!of!the!prevailing!visibility$
TURBULENCE$&$ICING$
$
CLOUD$BASE$REPORTING$(ROUNDING)$ • 5!=!Turbulence$
$ • 6!=!Icing$
• Up!to!10,000!ft!=!100!ft!increments$
!
• 10,000!ft!+!=!1,000!ft!increments$
 ! MET$28$o$CHARTS$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
CHART$TYPES$
$
• Significant$Weather$
• Upper$Wind$&$Temperature$

FREQUENCY$OF$ISSUE$
$
• Produced$in!6$hourly!intervals!(4!per!day)$
• Valid!3$Hrs$eitherside!of!the!forecast!time$