Polymer processing
Syllabus: Introduction, elastomeric; preparation, properties and applications. Synthetic
fibers: polyamides, rayon, Dacron, Orlon and Teflon. Plastics; properties, common plastics,
compounding and processing technology.
Introduction: Whenever we want to make a toy or fabricate a spacecraft,
polymers would often have some crucial role to play. But how does one
convert a polymer into a broad spectrum of useful shapes and structures? To
answer this question, we need to look at another branch of polymer
technology called polymer processing.
Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
Toys
Introduction
Fibers
Introduction
Polymer processing: In a very abroad sense, polymer processing may be defined as an
engineering specially used to convert polymeric materials into useful end products. Most
of the available techniques now employed in processing technology of polymers are
basically refined version of those used in ceramics and metal industries.
Polymer processing
Elastomeric material: An elastomeric material is any material exhibiting elastic
or rubber-like properties.
Elastomeric materials
Natural Synthetic
Polymer processing
(i) Natural class of elastomeric material
includes polyisoprene. The repeating
unit of natural rubber (natural
elastomeric material) is isoprene and its
chemical name is 2-methyl-1, 3-
butadiene.
Isoprene polyisoprene
Polymer processing
(ii) Synthetic class of elastomeric material includes polybutadienes, styrene-
butadiene rubber (SBR), acrylonitrile-butadiene (nitrile rubber), polychloroprene
(neoprene), polyurethane, silicone rubbers etc.
Polymer processing
Properties
Physical properties Chemical properties
Physical properties: Elastomeric materials have rubber-elasticity that means they have
properties like rubber. These are elongation, deformation(Twisting/bending/wrapping),
stretchedability etc.
Chemical properties: Almost all the elastomeric materials contain c-c double bond in their
chains. So the characteristics reactions of alkenes are seen to take place in these materials.
The reactions are (i) Hydrogenation (ii) Halogenations (iii) Addition of HX (iv) Oxidation (v)
Cyclization. Besides these reactions another important reaction is Vulcanization.
Polymer processing
Vulcanization or
vulcanisation is a chemical
process for converting
polymers into more durable
materials by introducing
crosslinks. A well known
example is sulfur
vulcanization whereby
organic polymers are cross-
linked with chains of sulfur.
By forming cross-links
(bridges) between individual
polymer chains, vulcanization
dramatically affects the
mechanical properties of a
polymer.
Polymer processing
Applications: Balloons, shoe-soles, tires, surgeons, gloves, garden hoses are examples of
articles made of elastomeric materials.
Synthetic fibers
Synthetic fibers: The polymers that can be drawn into long filament-like materials, whose
length is at least 100 times its diameter, are the fibers type polymer/fiber forming polymer.
These polymers have strong intermolecular forces between the chains. These forces are
either hydrogen bonds or dipole-dipole interaction. Because of strong forces, the chains are
closely packed giving them high tensile strength and less elasticity. Therefore, these
polymers have sharp melting points. These polymers are long, thin and thread like and can
be woven in fabric. Therefore, these are used for making fibers. Example: Nylon 66, Dacron,
Silk etc.
Polymer processing
Synthetic fibers
Polyamide: A polyamide is a polymer or macromolecule consisted of repeating units
linked by amide bonds. Polyamides occur both naturally and artificially. Examples of
naturally occurring polyamides are proteins, such as wool and silk. Artificially made
polyamides can be made through step-growth polymerization or solid-phase synthesis
yielding materials such as nylons, aramids, and sodium poly(aspartate). Synthetic
polyamides are commonly used in textiles, automotive applications, carpets and
sportswear due to their high durability/stability and strength.
Polymer processing
Synthetic fibers: Rayon
Rayon: Rayon is a semi-synthetic fiber, made from natural sources of regenerated cellulose, such as wood
and related agricultural products. It’s a low-cost and convenient/suitable fiber to work with and lends itself to
diverse uses. There are several grades of rayon that can imitate/duplicate the look and texture of other
natural fibers such as cotton, linen and silk. The different types of this fabric include viscose, modal etc.
Figure: Raw rayon, fiber and clothes made from rayon
Polymer processing
Synthetic fibers
Rayon Preparation(Steps involved):
1. Sheets of purified cellulose are steeped in sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), which produces sheets
of alkali cellulose. These sheets are dried, shredded into crumbs, and then aged in metal containers
for 2 to 3 days. The temperature and humidity in the metal containers are carefully controlled.
2. After ageing, the crumbs are combined and churned with liquid carbon disulfide, which turns the
mix into orange-coloured crumbs which is bathed in caustic soda. This results in a viscose solution
that looks and feels like honey. The solution is filtered for impurities and stored in vats to age, this
time between 4 and 5 days.
3. The viscose solution is next turned into strings of fibers by forcing the liquid through a spinneret
into an acid bath. The acid coagulates and solidifies the filaments resulting in regenerated cellulose
filaments. Next, the filaments are ready to be spun into yarn.
4. Once the fibers are sufficiently cured, they are ready for post-treatment chemicals and the various
weaving processes needed to produce the fabric. The resulting fabric can then be given any of a
number of finishing treatments. These include calendaring, to control smoothness; fire resistance;
pre-shrinking; water resistance; and wrinkle resistance.
Polymer processing
Synthetic fibers
Advantages and Disadvantages of Rayon
Advantages:
1. Inexpensive but looks and feels luxurious
2. Some variants of this fabric are known for their silk-like feel
3. Healthy
4. Breathable
5. Blends well with other fibers
6. Dyes easily resulting in beautiful colours
Disadvantages:
1. Not a very strong fabric and more so, when exposed to light or moisture
2. Can shrink when washed thus has to be dry-cleaned
3. Can get damaged while ironing
4. Manufacturing method is harmful to the environment and to the safety of the workers if the
chemicals used are not handled carefully.
Polymer processing
Synthetic fibers: Rayon
Polymer processing
Synthetic fibers: Dacron
Polyethylene terephthalate (sometimes written
poly(ethylene terephthalate)), commonly abbreviated
PET, PETE, or the obsolete PETP or PET-P, is the most
common thermoplastic polymer resin of the polyester
family and is used in fibers for clothing, containers for
liquids and foods, thermoforming for manufacturing,
and in combination with glass fiber for engineering
resins. It may also be referred to by the brand names
Terylene in the UK, Lavsan in Russia and the former
Soviet Union, and Dacron in the US.
Image: Dacron fiber
Polymer processing
Synthetic fibers: Dacron
Synthesis: Dacron is obtained by heating terephthalic acid with ethylene glycol at 425 -
475K following condensation polymerization.
O O
425 - 475K
nHOCH2CH2OH + nHOOC COOH OCH2CH2 O C C
Ethylene n
Terephthalic acid
Poly(ethylene terephthalate
Uses: Dacron is used in fibers for clothing, containers for liquids and foods,
thermoforming for manufacturing, and in combination with glass fiber for engineering
resins.
Polymer processing
Synthetic fibers: Orlon
Acrylic fibers are synthetic fibers made from a polymer
polyacrylonitrile, a fiber forming polymer. For a fiber to be called
"acrylic" in the US, the polymer must contain at least 85%
acrylonitrile monomer. DuPont created the first acrylic fibers in 1941
and trademarked them under the name Orlon.
CH2 CH ( CH2 CH )n
CN CN
Acrylonitrile/Vinyl cyanide Polyacrylonitrile (Orlon)
Polymer processing
Synthetic fibers: Orlon
Synthesis: The polymer is formed by free – radical polymerization in aqueous suspension.
Free – radical polymerization
CH2 CH ( CH2 CH )n
CN
CN
Acrylonitrile/Vinyl cyanide Polyacrylonitrile (Orlon)
Uses: It is generally used for making clothes, carpets and blankets.
Polymer processing
Synthetic fibers: Teflon
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a
synthetic fluoropolymer of
tetrafluoroethylene. The best known
brand name of PTFE-based formulas is
Teflon.
Preparation: PTFE is produced by free-
radical polymerization of
tetrafluoroethylene.
n F2C=CF2 → −(F2C−CF2)n− Polytetrafluoroethylene
Polymer processing
Synthetic fibers: Teflon
Properties of PTFE:
1. It is hydrophobic in nature.
2. Neither H2O nor H2O – containing substances wet it.
3. It is non-reactive.
4. It can form non-stick films on pans and other cookware.
5. It can reduce friction.
6. It is white at room temperature.
7. Its melting point is 600K.
8. It maintains high strength, toughness and self-lubrication at low temperatures down to
5 K (−268.15 °C; −450.67 °F), and good flexibility at temperatures above 194 K (−79 °C;
−110 °F).
Polymer processing
Synthetic fibers: Teflon
Uses of PTFE:
1. PTFE is often used to coat non-stick pans as it is hydrophobic and possesses fairly high heat resistance.
2. It is used for wiring in aerospace (majority of the production)
3. It is used in computer applications (hookup wire, coaxial cables etc.)
4. It is used in industry ( plain bearings, gears, slide plates, seals, gaskets, bushings.)
5. It used in the production of carbon fiber composites as well as fiberglass composites,
notably in the aerospace industry.
6. Because of its extreme non-reactivity and high temperature rating, PTFE is often used as
the liner in hose assemblies, expansion joints, and in industrial pipe lines, particularly in
applications using acids, alkalis, or other chemicals
Polymer processing
Plastics
Plastics: The American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) has defined a plastic as “any
one of the large and varied group of materials,
wholly or primarily organic in composition,
which may be formed into useful shapes by
the application, singly or together, of heat and
pressure.”
Varieties of plastics
Polymer processing
Plastics: Properties
1. They are light in weight. So they are easy to carry.
2. They can be both low and high dense.
3. They can be affected by several environmental factors such as light (UV), air (O2, O3)
etc.; mechanical stress, heat, high energy radiations etc.
4. They have good corrosive resistance.
5. They (PTFE) have high thermal and electrical resistance.
6. They can be easily moulded to any desired shape and size.
7. They can be made transparent and colourful.
8. All types of operations like drilling, sawing, punching can be done on them.
9. They are cheap compared to metals.
10. They have low specific gravity. It lies between 1.3 to1.4
Polymer processing
Plastics: Common plastics
1. Poly(ethylene terephthalate)/PET or PETE—is
a durable thermoplastic that shows tough resistance to
chemicals, high energy radiation, moisture, weather,
wear, and abrasion.
2. High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) is a semi flexible to
hard plastic. It is resistant to chemicals, moisture, and any
sort of impact but cannot stand temperatures exceeding 160
degrees C.
Polymer processing
Plastics: Common plastics
3. Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) is soft and
flexible as compared to HDPE. Low Density
Polyethylene shows good chemical resistance
and excellent electrical properties. At low
temperatures, it shows high impact strength.
LDPE is available in the market under the
following trade names: Venelene, Vickylen,
Dowlex, and Flexomer.
LDPE
Polymer processing
Plastics: Common plastics
4. Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) is present in both
rigid and flexible forms as unplasticised Polyvinyl
Chloride PVC-U and Plasticised Polyvinyl Chloride
PCV-P. PVC-P is commonly used for cable
sheathing, blood bags, blood tubing, watch
straps, garden hoses, and shoe soles. PVC is
commonly available under trade names of
Apex, Geon, Vekaplan, Vinika, Vistel, and
Vythene.
Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC)
Polymer processing
Plastics: Common plastics
5. Polypropylene (PP) is a strong yet flexible plastic that can
withstand high temperatures up to 200 degrees C. Being a
lightweight material, PP has high tensile strength and is highly
resistant to corrosion, chemicals, and moisture. Polypropylene
is used to make dip bottles and ice cream tubs, margarine tubs,
potato chip bags, straws, microwave meal trays, kettles, garden
furniture, lunch boxes, prescription bottles, and blue packing
tape. It is available under trade names such as Valtec, Valmax,
Vebel, Verplen, Vylene, Oleplate and Pro-Fax.
Polymer processing
Plastics: Compounding of polymers
Compounding: Compounding means mixing of ingredients such as plasticizers,
vulcanizing agents, curatives, Colouring agents, stabilizers, fillers, flame retardants, and
lubricants into the virgin polymers in a specific proportion as per requirement, i.e mixing
the ingredients as per the recipe or formulation.
Polymer processing
Vulcanization
Vulcanization or vulcanisation is a chemical process for converting polymers into more
durable materials by introducing crosslinks. A well known example is sulfur vulcanization
whereby organic polymers are cross-linked with chains of sulfur. By forming cross-links
(bridges) between individual polymer chains, vulcanization dramatically affects the
mechanical properties of a polymer. The term vulcanized fiber refers to cellulose that has
been treated in a zinc chloride solution to cross-link the cellulose fibers.
Polymer processing
Vulcanization: Sulfur vulcanization
Sulfur vulcanization: Sulfur vulcanization is
a chemical process for converting natural
rubber or related polymers into materials
of a variety of hardness, elasticity, and
mechanical durability by heating them with
sulfur or other equivalent curatives or
accelerators
