The human respiratory system

Functions of the Respiratory System

The functions of the respiratory system are:

1. Oxygen supplier. The job of the respiratory system is to keep the body constantly supplied with
oxygen.
2. Elimination. Elimination of carbon dioxide.
3. Gas exchange. The respiratory system organs oversee the gas exchanges that occur between
the blood and the external environment.
4. Passageway. Passageways that allow air to reach the lungs.
5. Humidifier. Purify, humidify, and warm incoming air.

Anatomy of the Respiratory System

The organs of the respiratory system include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and their smaller
branches, and the lungs, which contain the alveoli.
The Nose

The nose is the only externally visible part of the respiratory system.

EXTERNAL NOSE
External nose forms a pyramidal projection in the middle of the [Link] consists of the following structure-
 Tip: it is the lower free end of the nose.
 Root: the upper narrow part attached to the forehead is the root of nose.
 Dorsum: it is between the tip and the root.
 Nostrils. During breathing, air enters the nose by passing through the nostrils, or nares.
Structure
External nose is made up of cartilaginous framework supported by bones and is covered with skin.
 The bony framework comprises of:

– two nasal bone and

– Frontal part of the maxillae.
 The cartilaginous structure consists of:

– two lateral alar cartilages

– two major alar cartilages
– a septal cartilages
 Nasal cavity. The interior of the nose consists of the nasal cavity, divided by a
midline nasal septum. It is pyramidal in shape. It extends from the nostrils to the posterior nasal
aperatus.

Subdivisions

 Vestibule: vestibule is the dilated part, just inside the anterior nasal opening. There are numerous
coarse hairs called vibrissae, which help to filter the air.

 Olfactory receptors. The olfactory receptors for the sense of smell are located in the mucosa in
the upper one third of the nasal cavity, just beneath the ethmoid bone.

 Respiratory mucosa. The lower two third of the nasal cavity is lined by thick mucous
membrane, it is highly vascular. It is lined by pseudo stratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
Found in nose, sinuses, pharynx, larynx and trachea.

 Nasal conchae - folds in the mucous membrane that increase air

turbulenceandensuresthatmostaircontactsthe mucousmembranes. It is divided into inferior nasal
conchea, middle nasal conchea and superior nasal conchea.
 Nasal meatus. The three nasal conchea’s are attached with each other with the four air channels.
Those are 1. Inferior nasal meatus, 2. Middle nasal meatus, 3. Superior nasal meatus and 4.
Common nasal meatus.

 Boundaries. The roof is mainly formed by ethmoid bone. Anteriorly the roof is formed by nasal
bone and posteriorly the roof is formed by the body of the sphenoid bone.
The floor is formed by the palate, which separates the nasal cavity from the oral cavity.

• Arterial supply. 1. External carotid artery and its branches of the superior labial branch of facial
artery, the sphenopalatine artery and greater palatine. 2. Internal carotid artery and its branches of
anterior ethmoidal artery and posterior ethmoidal artery,.

• Nerve supply. 1. Olfactory nerve for olfaction (sense of smell), 2. Trigeminal nerve for general
sensation, 3. Facial nerve for serous glands secretion.

• Paranasal sinuses. There are air filled extensions of the respiratory part of the nasal cavity into
the skull bones. Those are- frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal, maxillary. The sinuses are responsible for
decreasing skull bone weight and Warm, moisten and filter. It also Add resonance to voice. The
sinuses are lined by Pseudo stratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
Pharynx

 Size. The pharynx is a muscular passageway about 13 cm (5 inches) long that vaguely resembles

a short length of red garden hose.
 Function. Commonly called the throat, the pharynx serves as a common passageway for food
and air.
 Portions of the pharynx. Air enters the superior portion, the nasopharynx, from the nasal cavity
and then descends through the oropharynx and laryngopharynx to enter the larynx below.
 Pharyngotympanic tube. The pharyngotympanic tubes, which drain the middle ear open into the
nasopharynx.
 Pharyngeal tonsil. The pharyngeal tonsil, often called adenoid is located high in the
nasopharynx.
 Palatine tonsils. The palatine tonsils are in the oropharynx at the end of the soft palate.
 Lingual tonsils. The lingual tonsils lie at the base of the tongue.
Muscles of pharynx:

 There are 3 pairs of constrictors- superior, middle and inferior.

 Other muscles of the pharynx are stylopharyngeus, salpingopharyngeus and

Larynx

The larynx or voice box routes air and food into the proper channels and plays a role in speech.

 Structure. Located inferior to the pharynx, it is formed by eight rigid hyaline cartilages and a
spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage, the epiglottis.
 Thyroid cartilage. The largest of the hyaline cartilages is the shield-shaped thyroid cartilage,
which protrudes anteriorly and is commonly called Adam’s apple.
 Epiglottis. Sometimes referred to as the “guardian of the airways”, the epiglottis protects the
superior opening of the larynx.
 Vocal folds. Part of the mucous membrane of the larynx forms a pair of folds, called the vocal
folds, or true vocal cords, which vibrate with expelled air and allows us to speak.
 Glottis. The slitlike passageway between the vocal folds is the glottis.
Trachea
  Length. Air entering the trachea or windpipe from the larynx travels down its length (10 to 12
cm or about 4 inches) to the level of the fifth thoracic vertebra, which is approximately
midchest.
 Structure. The trachea is fairly rigid because its walls are reinforced with C-shaped rings of
hyaline cartilage; the open parts of the rings abut the esophagus and allow it to expand anteriorly
when we swallow a large piece of food, while the solid portions support the trachea walls and
keep it patent, or open, in spite of the pressure changes that occur during breathing.
 Cilia. The trachea is lined with ciliated mucosa that beat continuously and in a direction opposite
to that of the incoming air as they propel mucus, loaded with dust particles and other debris away
from the lungs to the throat, where it can be swallowed or spat out.
Main Bronchi

 Structure. The right and left main (primary) bronchi are formed by the division of the trachea.
 Location. Each main bronchus runs obliquely before it plunges into the medial depression of the
lung on its own side.
 Size. The right main bronchus is wider, shorter, and straighter than the left.
Lungs
  Location. The lungs occupy the entire thoracic cavity except for the most central area,
the mediastinum, which houses the heart, the great blood vessels, bronchi, esophagus, and other
organs.
 Apex. The narrow, superior portion of each lung, the apex, is just deep to the clavicle.
 Base. The broad lung area resting on the diaphragm is the base.
 Division. Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures; the left lung has two lobes, and the right
lung has three.
 Pleura. The surface of each lung is covered with a visceral serosa called the pulmonary,
or visceral pleura and the walls of the thoracic cavity are lined by the parietal pleura.
 Pleural fluid. The pleural membranes produce pleural fluid, a slippery serous secretion which
allows the lungs to glide easily over the thorax wall during breathing movements and causes the
two pleural layers to cling together.
 Pleural space. The lungs are held tightly to the thorax wall, and the pleural space is more of a
potential space than an actual one.
 Bronchioles. The smallest of the conducting passageways are the bronchioles.
 Alveoli. The terminal bronchioles lead to the respiratory zone structures, even smaller conduits
that eventually terminate in alveoli, or air sacs.
 Respiratory zone. The respiratory zone, which includes the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar
ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli, is the only site of gas exchange.
 Conducting zone structures. All other respiratory passages are conducting zone structures that
serve as conduits to and from the respiratory zone.
 Stroma. The balance of the lung tissue, its stroma, is mainly elastic connective tissue that allows
the lungs to recoil passively as we exhale.
The Respiratory Membrane

 Wall structure. The walls of the alveoli are composed largely of a single, thin layer of squamous
epithelial cells.
 Alveolar pores. Alveolar pores connecting neighboring air sacs and provide alternative routes for
air to reach alveoli whose feeder bronchioles have been clogged by mucus or otherwise blocked.
 Respiratory membrane. Together, the alveolar and capillary walls, their fused basement
membranes, and occasional elastic fibers construct the respiratory membrane (air-blood barrier),
which has gas (air) flowing past on one side and blood flowing past on the other.
 Alveolar macrophages. Remarkably efficient alveolar macrophages sometimes called “dust
cells”, wander in and out of the alveoli picking up bacteria, carbon particles, and other debris.
 Cuboidal cells. Also scattered amid the epithelial cells that form most of the alveolar walls are
chunky cuboidal cells, which produce a lipid (fat) molecule called surfactant, which coats the
gas-exposed alveolar surfaces and is very important in lung function.
Physiology of the Respiratory System
The major function of the respiratory system is to supply the body with oxygen and to dispose of carbon
dioxide. To do this, at least four distinct events, collectively called respiration, must occur.

Respiration

 Pulmonary ventilation. Air must move into and out of the lungs so that gasses in the air sacs are
continuously refreshed, and this process is commonly called breathing.
 External respiration. Gas exchange between the pulmonary blood and alveoli must take place.
 Respiratory gas transport. Oxygen and carbon dioxide must be transported to and from the
lungs and tissue cells of the body via the bloodstream.
 Internal respiration. At systemic capillaries, gas exchanges must be made between the blood
and tissue cells.
Mechanics of Breathing

 Rule. Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead to the flow of gasses to equalize
pressure.
 Inspiration. Air is flowing into the lungs; chest is expanded laterally, the rib cage is elevated,
and the diaphragm is depressed and flattened; lungs are stretched to the larger thoracic volume,
causing the intrapulmonary pressure to fall and air to flow into the lungs.
 Expiration. Air is leaving the lungs; the chest is depressed and the lateral dimension is reduced,
the rib cage is descended, and the diaphragm is elevated and dome-shaped; lungs recoil to a
smaller volume, intrapulmonary pressure rises, and air flows out of the lung.
 Intrapulmonary volume. Intrapulmonary volume is the volume within the lungs.
 Intrapleural pressure. The normal pressure within the pleural space, the intrapleural pressure, is
always negative, and this is the major factor preventing the collapse of the lungs.
 Nonrespiratory air movements. Nonrespiratory movements are a result of reflex activity, but
some may be produced voluntarily such as cough, sneeze, crying, laughing, hiccups, and yawn.
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
  Tidal volume. Normal quiet breathing moves approximately 500 ml of air into and out of the
lungs with each breath.
 Inspiratory reserve volume. The amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over the tidal
volume is the inspiratory reserve volume, which is normally between 2100 ml to 3200 ml.
 Expiratory reserve volume. The amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a tidal
expiration, the expiratory reserve volume, is approximately 1200 ml.
 Residual volume. Even after the most strenuous expiration, about 1200 ml of air still remains in
the lungs and it cannot be voluntarily expelled; this is called residual volume, and it is important
because it allows gas exchange to go on continuously even between breaths and helps to keep the
alveoli inflated.
 Vital capacity. The total amount of exchangeable air is typically around 4800 ml in healthy
young men, and this respiratory capacity is the vital capacity, which is the sum of the tidal
volume, inspiratory reserve volume, and the expiratory reserve volume.
 Dead space volume. Much of the air that enters the respiratory tract remains in the conducting
zone passageways and never reaches the alveoli; this is called the dead space volume and during a
normal tidal breath, it amounts to about 150 ml.
 Functional volume. The functional volume, which is the air that actually reaches the respiratory
zone and contributes to gas exchange, is about 350 ml.
 Spirometer. Respiratory capacities are measured with a spirometer, wherein as a person breathes,
the volumes of air exhaled can be read on an indicator, which shows the changes in air volume
inside the apparatus.
Respiratory Sounds

 Bronchial sounds. Bronchial sounds are produced by air rushing through the large respiratory
passageways (trachea and bronchi).
 Vesicular breathing sounds. Vesicular breathing sounds occur as air fills the alveoli, and they
are soft and resemble a muffled breeze.
External Respiration, Gas Transport, and Internal Respiration

 External respiration. External respiration or pulmonary gas exchange involves the oxygen being
loaded and carbon dioxide being unloaded from the blood.
 Internal respiration. In internal respiration or systemic capillary gas exchange, oxygen is
unloaded and carbon dioxide is loaded into the blood.
  Gas transport. Oxygen is transported in the blood in two ways: most attaches to hemoglobin
molecules inside the RBCs to form oxyhemoglobin, or a very small amount of oxygen is carried
dissolved in the plasma; while carbon dioxide is transported in plasma as bicarbonate ion, or a
smaller amount (between 20 to 30 percent of the transported carbon dioxide) is carried inside the
RBCs bound to hemoglobin.
Control of Respiration

Neural Regulation

 Phrenic and intercostal nerves. These two nerves regulate the activity of the respiratory
muscles, the diaphragm, and external intercostals.
 Medulla and pons. Neural centers that control respiratory rhythm and depth are located mainly
in the medulla and pons; the medulla, which sets the basic rhythm of breathing, contains
a pacemaker, or self-exciting inspiratory center, and an expiratory center that inhibits the
pacemaker in a rhythmic way; pons centers appear to smooth out the basic rhythm of inspiration
and expiration set by the medulla.
 Eupnea. The normal respiratory rate is referred to as eupnea, and it is maintained at a rate of 12
to 15 respirations/minute.
 Hyperpnea. During exercise, we breathe more vigorously and deeply because the brain centers
send more impulses to the respiratory muscles, and this respiratory pattern is called hyperpnea.
Non-neural Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate and Depth

 Physical factors. Although the medulla’s respiratory centers set the basic rhythm of breathing,
there is no question that physical factors such as talking, coughing, and exercising can modify
both the rate and depth of breathing, as well as an increased body temperature, which increases
the rate of breathing.
 Volition (conscious control). Voluntary control of breathing is limited, and the respiratory
centers will simply ignore messages from the cortex (our wishes) when the oxygen supply in the
blood is getting low or blood pH is falling.
 Emotional factors. Emotional factors also modify the rate and depth of breathing through
reflexes initiated by emotional stimuli acting through centers in the hypothalamus.
 Chemical factors. The most important factors that modify respiratory rate and depth are
chemical- the levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the blood; increased levels of carbon
dioxide and decreased blood pH are the most important stimuli leading to an increase in the rate
and depth of breathing, while a decrease in oxygen levels become important stimuli when the
levels are dangerously low.
 Hyperventilation. Hyperventilation blows off more carbon dioxide and decreases the amount of
carbonic acid, which returns blood pH to normal range when carbon dioxide or other sources of
acids begin to accumulate in the blood.
 Hypoventilation. Hypoventilation or extremely slow or shallow breathing allows carbon dioxide
to accumulate in the blood and brings blood pH back into normal range when blood starts to
become slightly alkaline.