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Module 5
VALIDATING THE TRUTH
Module Outline
Introduction 1
Learning Outcomes 2
Reasoning : the third act of the mind 2
Kinds of reasoning 2
Validatingf the Truth 3
The Proposition 4
The Proposition and sentence 4
Structure of Proposition 5
Kinds of Propositions 6
The Categorical Proposition 6
The Square of Opposition 7
Further Readings 8
Exercises 9
Introduction
Reasoning is the mental process of drawing out a conclusion from a given data.
The act is similar to that of a judge who, accepting a certain evidence as true and
credible, pronounces a decision or conclusion on either the innocence or guilt of the
accused. In reasoning, the mind makes a conclusion which is consistent with certain
assumed data.
Strictly speaking, reasoning is the mental process of comparing two concepts
with a common third concept for the purpose of establishing their agreement or
disagreement with each other. The use of a common third term for the purposes of
establishing the agreement or disagreement between two concepts makes reasoning a
mediate inference as opposed to immediate inference.
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Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, students are expected to:
1. Understand the process of validating the truth
2. Reason out using the deductive and inductive methods
3. Memorize the laws of categorical syllogism
4. Form a sound conclusion from premises using the laws of
categorical syllogism
UNDERSTANDING REASONING
Reasoning
This is an act in which from a known truth or certainty, the mind travels to
another truth. It is a mental process that compares two similar propositions; and out of
these propositions, a conclusion is drawn or formed. It appears like the immortal
format of research that stars with some ideas. The ideas are analyzed, studied and
observed; after which, a conclusion is made.
Kinds of reasoning
Deductive reasoning—it is a reasoning process that forms a conclusion out of a
generally accepted fact—from general or universal to aprticular.
Examples:
All men are mortal. ---------------universal
But Pedro is a man, are men.-----particular
Therefore, Pedro is mortal.--------particular
All good actions are rewarded
But Patience is a good act
Therefore, patience is rewarded.
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Inductive reasoning---it is a kind of reasoning that forms a conclusion from a
particular to universal or general instance or fact—from particular to universal.
Pedro is a man, are men.-----particular
But, all men are mortal. ---------------universal
Therefore, Pedro is mortal.--------particular
Validating the truth
In reasoning, the mind is given the capacity to form a new truth or knowledge.
The phrase used, “new truth or knowledge”, means that beforehand, there is already a
known truth or knowledge from which the mind forms a new one. The new truth is said
in the form of proposition. (remember our discussion of proposition in the previous
module). There must be two propositions logically connected and closely related in
order to form a valid and sound conclusion which is the new truth. Below are the
requirements that will enable one to form new truth or new knowledge.
1. The first two known truths which are called premises should be both true.
2. The first two known truths or premises must have rational or close connection so that
the third proposition or the conclusion is the necessary consequence of such logical
relationship.
If these two requirements are not met or not strictly observe, then a conclusion which
has been drawn out from the premises is wrongly formed. This is what logicians call an invalid
conclusion or fallacy.
Forming a categorical syllogism
The Syllogism
We now venture in to the main topic of our study—deductive reasoning. By this
method, man expands his knowledge, enabling him to discover new truths from what is
known. The verbal expression of deductive reasoning is the syllogism. By studying the
structure of the syllogism, we shall understand better the meaning of “correct thinking.”
Syllogism is a process by which one proposition is arrived at and affirmed (or
denied) on the basis of one more proposition accepted as he stating point of the
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process. Syllogism is the result of the act of reasoning in the same way that the concept
is the product of simple apprehension and the proposition that of judgment.
Example:
All men are mortal.
But all Filipinos are men.
Therefore, all Filipino are mortal.
Syllogism: Its Matter and Form
Just as idea is expressed outwardly by means of word, inference finds expression
in the syllogism. Thus, a syllogism, from the Greek words syn-legein or syn-logos,
etymologically would mean “to think in a connected manner”, or connected thought”.
The syllogism is usually made of three propositions, the first two are called the
premises and the last or third is called the conclusion. The premises stand for the
assumed truths (antecedent) and are said to support the conclusion. The conclusion
(consequent) is the new truth derived from the two premises.
The propositions are made up of terms. These are identified as: the minor term, the
major term, and the middle term.
1. The minor term is the subject of the conclusion.
2. The major term is the predicate of the conclusion.
3. The middle term is the term which appears in both minor and major premises
but not in the conclusion. The middle term serves a s the “common third term” which
determines the agreement or disagreement of the minor and major term.
Note well, it’s important!
The Middle term symbolizes by letter “M”
The Minor term symbolizes by letter “S”
The Major term symbolizes by letter “P”
Example:
All men are mortal. Middle term is “Men”
(M) (P)
But all Filipinos are men. Minor term is “Filipinos”
(S) (M)
Therefore, all Filipinos are mortal. Major term is “Mortal”
(S) (P)
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All men are mortal. Major premise
But all Filipinos are men. Minor premise
Therefore, all Filipinos are mortal. Conclusion
The valid syllogism
A syllogism must be valid in order to be acceptable. The validity of a syllogism
depends upon the correctness of its form and upon the truth of its content or matter. A
valid syllogism, therefore, is one which is simultaneously true and correct.
A syllogism is correct when it is in conformity with the rules of valid syllogism.
These are the rules which interest us in our present study. It is true when the
propositions employed are expressive of truths. Truth is the agreement of a statement
with objective reality.
A syllogism which is correct as to form but false as to its content is considered
“fo5mally correct”, that is, only in form. A syllogism which is t5ue as to is content but
wrong or incorrect as to its form is said to be “materially true”. An ideal syllogism is one
in which manifests both qualities—true and correct. The absence of one of them makes
a syllogism faulty and inadmissible.
Example of Valid Syllogism
Fundamental in the analysis of a syllogism is the ability to identify the three
terms: the major, the minor, and the middle term. To make the most of these examples,
encircle the middle term, underline once the minor term, and underline twice the major
term.
1. All systematized body of proven knowledge is a science,
But Logic is a systematized body of proven knowledge,
Therefore, Logic is a science.
2. Some machines are not motorized,
But all machines are man-made,
Therefore, some man-made (things) are not motorized.
Rules of Syllogism
Inferential thinking is an art. It is the art of making a valid inference or valid
syllogism. Here, we shall discuss the rules of which provide for a valid syllogism sound.
Violation of any of these rules will render a syllogism invalid.
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There are eight rules governing the syllogism and these are grouped into: (a.)
Rules on terms, and (b) Rules on propositions.
a. Rules governing the Term
1. The syllogism must contain only 3 terms, not less nor more.
2. No term can have a greater extension in the conclusion than it had in the
premise.
3. The middle term should not be found in the conclusion.
4. The middle term must be distributed or taken universally, at least once, in the
premise.
b. Rules governing the proposition
5. Two affirmative premises cannot give a negative conclusion.
6. From two negative premises no conclusion can be inferred.
7. From two particular premises no conclusion can be inferred.
8. The conclusion follows the weaker side. That is:
If one of the premises is negative the conclusion must also be negative.
If one of the premises is particular the conclusion must also be particular.
Memorize these rules because we are going to use them to validate a syllogism
in the preceding topics.
Further Readings
Agapay, Ramon. Logic: The Essentials of Deductive Reasoning. Manila:
National Bookstore Pub., 1991.
De Torre, Joseph. Christian Philosophy. Manila: Sinag
Tala Publishing, 1980.
Papel, Rex Oliver T., Cornejo, Nigel, (2016). LOGIC, The Art of Defining
and Reasoning. Manila: Mindshapers Publishing, Co., Inc.
Pinion, Manuel. Fundamental Logic. Manila: Rex Printing Company, 1973.
Yarza, Ignatius. History of Ancient Philosophy. Manila:
Sinag Tala Pub., 1983.
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Name: ________________________________________________________
Course and Year Level: __________________________________________
Address (Municipality): ___________________________________________
Date:____________________________________
EXERCISES
TEST I. Decide whether the following syllogisms are valid or invalid. Then explain
your answer. Write your answers legibly on the space provided.
1. Some scientists are astronauts,
But Alex is a scientist,
Therefore, Alex is an astronaut.
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2. All figures have sides,
But a square is a figure,
Therefore, a square have sides.
__________________________________________________________________
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3. All stars are ‘heavenly bodies’,
But, Angel Locsin is a star,
Therefore, Angel Locsin is a ‘heavenly body’.
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TEST II. IDENTIFICATION. WRITE YOUR ANSWERS ON A SPACE PROVIDED.
________________________1. Reasoning that is formed from general or universal to
particular.
________________________2. The term that cannot be found in the conclusion.
________________________3. The third premise which is the consequence of the two
previous premises.
________________________4. “M” stands for what term in a syllogism.
________________________5. What is the quality of “E” proposition?
________________________6. “P” stands for what term in a syllogism.
________________________7. “S” stands for what term in a syllogism.
________________________8. Going back to our previous topic, what is the quantity
and quality “E” proposition?
________________________9. What is quantity and quality “I” proposition?
_______________________ 10. What is the premise that contains the Major Term and
the Middle Term?
________________________11. Reasoning that is formed from particular to general or
universal
________________________12. The term that cannot be found in the major premise.
________________________13. The term that can be found in both major minor
premises.
________________________14. The Term which is the subject of the conclusion.
________________________15. The term that is the predicate of the conclusion.
Test III. Supply the missing terms.
1. All false beliefs are _________________________,
But, some religious beliefs are false beliefs,
Therefore, some _________________________are dangerous.
2. All ______________________are profit oriented,
But some ___________________are businessmen,
Therefore, some investors are profit oriented.
3. All_________________________are not honest,
But, all tax evaders are______________________,
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Therefore, some tax payers are not honest.
4. All______________________________are gamblers,
But all gamblers are risk-takers,
Therefore, some_____________________________are cock fighters.
5. All novels are __________________________
But some biographies are novels,
Therefore, some _________________________are narrative.
Well, how did you do on this exercise? Congratulations! You finally finished the fifth
module of this course. Good job!
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