FORENSIC‌‌MEDICINE‌‌AND‌‌TOXICOLOGY‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
UNIT‌‌1:‌‌INTRODUCTION‌  ‌
Medicine‌‌is‌‌understanding‌‌the‌‌functioning‌‌of‌‌the‌‌human‌‌body‌‌and‌‌it's‌‌reaction‌‌to‌‌different‌‌ 
chemicals.‌‌   ‌
Forensic‌‌medicine:‌‌application‌‌of‌‌medical‌‌knowledge‌‌in‌‌administration‌‌of‌‌criminal‌‌ 
justice.‌‌   ‌
Jurisprudence:‌‌knowledge‌‌of‌‌the‌‌law‌  ‌
Medical‌‌jurisprudence:‌‌understanding‌‌of‌‌law‌‌from‌‌a‌‌medical‌‌perspective.‌  ‌
Basically,‌‌forensic‌‌medicine‌‌and‌‌medical‌‌jurisprudence‌‌are‌‌vise‌‌versa‌‌to‌‌each‌‌other.‌‌   ‌
Like‌‌in‌‌F.‌‌medicine‌‌we‌‌look‌‌into‌‌medical‌‌knowledge‌‌of‌‌injury,‌‌death,‌‌and‌‌so‌‌on.‌ ‌Whereas‌‌ 
medical‌‌jurisprudence‌‌deals‌‌with‌‌things‌‌like‌‌consent,‌ ‌physician-patient‌‌relationship,‌  ‌
professional‌‌misconduct,‌‌medical‌‌ethics,‌‌and‌‌so‌‌on.‌  ‌
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Toxicology‌‌-‌‌the‌‌study‌‌of‌‌poisons.‌‌   ‌
Forensic‌‌toxicology‌ ‌-‌‌examination‌‌of‌‌all‌‌aspects‌‌of‌‌toxicity‌‌that‌‌may‌‌have‌‌legal‌‌ 
implications.‌‌   ‌
Occupational‌‌toxicology‌‌-‌‌deals‌‌with‌‌chemical‌‌toxicity‌‌and‌‌chemical‌‌hazards‌‌in‌‌a ‌‌
workplace‌‌like‌‌an‌‌industrial‌‌workplace.‌‌   ‌
‌environmental‌‌toxicology:‌‌a‌‌study‌‌of‌‌toxins‌‌and‌‌their‌‌effects‌‌on‌‌the‌‌environment.‌ 
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Application‌‌of‌‌forensic‌‌toxicology:‌  ‌
1.‌‌Postmortem‌‌drug‌‌testing:‌‌an‌‌examination‌‌of‌‌toxic‌‌content‌‌on‌‌post-death‌‌of‌‌an‌‌ 
individual.‌‌(medico-legal‌‌autopsy)‌  ‌
2.‌‌Workplace‌‌drug‌‌testing:‌‌MNCs‌‌and‌‌govt‌‌jobs‌‌like‌‌Armed‌‌Forces‌‌and‌‌civil‌‌services‌‌ 
conducting‌‌drug‌‌tests‌‌on‌‌employees‌‌to‌‌ensure‌‌there‌‌isn't‌‌any‌‌abuse‌‌of‌‌drugs.‌  ‌
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3.‌‌Investigation‌‌of‌‌contraband‌‌materials:‌‌all‌‌the‌‌drug‌‌investigations‌‌were‌‌done‌‌under‌‌the‌‌ 
NDPS‌‌act(‌‌narcotic‌‌drugs‌‌and‌‌psychotropic‌‌substances)‌‌like‌‌cannabis,‌ ‌cocaine,‌‌and‌‌so‌‌ 
on.‌  ‌
 ‌
History:-‌  ‌
1.‌‌In‌‌7th‌‌BC‌‌Charaka‌‌Smitha‌‌elaborates‌‌and‌‌gives‌‌a‌‌detailed‌‌description‌‌of‌‌the‌‌code‌‌ 
regarding‌‌the‌‌training,‌‌future,‌‌privileges,‌ ‌and‌‌social‌‌status‌‌of‌‌physicians.‌‌Also‌‌gave‌‌a ‌‌
description‌‌of‌‌different‌‌types‌‌of‌‌poison‌‌and‌‌their‌‌treatments.‌‌   ‌
2.‌‌In‌‌4th‌‌BC,‌‌Manusmriti‌‌laid‌‌various‌‌laws‌‌including‌‌punishment‌‌for‌‌various‌‌sexual‌‌ 
offenses‌‌and‌‌other‌‌offenses,‌ ‌and‌‌it‌‌also‌‌recognized‌‌mental‌‌incapacity‌‌due‌‌to‌‌intoxication,‌  ‌
illness,‌‌and‌‌age.‌‌   ‌
3.‌‌Arthashasthra‌‌of‌‌Kautilya‌‌defined‌‌penal‌‌laws‌‌and‌‌regulated‌‌medical‌‌practice.‌‌He‌‌laid‌‌ 
down‌‌strict‌‌rules‌‌for‌‌medical‌‌negligence.‌‌It‌‌also‌‌mentions‌‌examination‌‌of‌‌dead‌‌bodies‌‌due‌‌ 
to‌‌unnatural‌‌death,‌‌sexual‌‌offense,‌‌abortion,‌‌and‌‌so‌‌on.‌‌All‌‌were‌‌punishable‌‌offenses.‌‌   ‌
During‌‌this‌‌time‌‌we‌‌saw‌‌Vish‌‌Kanya‌‌where‌‌individuals‌‌were‌‌given‌‌small‌‌doses‌‌of‌‌poison‌‌ 
regularly‌‌and‌‌made‌‌accustomed‌‌to‌‌it‌‌and‌‌these‌‌individuals‌‌were‌‌used‌‌as‌‌mercenaries.‌‌   ‌
4.‌‌Rig‌‌Veda‌‌and‌‌other‌‌Vedas‌‌memes‌‌about‌‌crimes‌‌like‌‌incest,‌‌adultery,‌‌killing‌‌an‌‌embryo,‌‌ 
murder,‌‌frankness,‌‌and‌‌so‌‌on.‌‌Here,‌‌physicians‌‌were‌‌identified‌‌as‌‌professional‌‌people‌‌   ‌
Atharva‌‌Vedha‌‌gives‌‌details‌‌about‌‌remedies‌‌for‌‌various‌‌conditions.‌‌   ‌
5.‌‌Law‌‌medicine‌‌problems‌‌are‌‌observed‌‌in‌‌written‌‌records‌‌of‌‌Egypt,‌‌China,‌ ‌Babylon,‌‌ 
India‌‌which‌‌date‌‌back‌‌to‌‌3000‌‌-‌‌4000BC‌  ‌
6.‌‌Hippocrates‌‌(father‌‌of‌‌western‌‌medicine)‌ ‌discussed‌‌lethality‌‌of‌‌the‌‌wound‌‌where‌‌ 
effect‌‌and‌‌severity‌‌of‌‌wound‌‌were‌‌seen.‌ ‌He‌‌talked‌‌about‌‌medical‌‌ethics‌‌like‌‌you‌‌have‌‌to‌‌ 
treat‌‌any‌‌injured‌‌person‌‌and‌‌emotions‌‌should‌‌be‌‌separated‌‌from‌‌while‌‌treating.‌‌   ‌
7.‌‌The‌‌code‌‌of‌‌Hammurabi‌‌is‌‌the‌‌oldest‌‌known‌‌medico-legal‌‌code‌‌given‌‌by‌‌the‌‌king‌‌of‌‌ 
Babylon‌‌in‌‌2200BC.‌  ‌
Sushruta‌‌dealt‌‌with‌‌various‌‌medico‌‌Legal‌‌problems‌‌like‌‌fractures(‌‌using‌‌bamboo)‌‌and‌‌so‌‌ 
on.‌‌He‌‌laid‌‌down‌‌duties‌‌of‌‌physicians,‌‌classified‌‌wounds‌‌and‌‌fractures,‌ ‌classified‌‌various‌‌ 
poison‌‌and‌‌snakes‌‌and‌‌their‌‌respective‌‌treatment.‌‌also‌‌included‌‌modes‌‌of‌‌administration‌‌ 
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of‌‌poison‌‌were‌‌described‌‌like‌‌cyanide‌‌should‌‌be‌‌consumed,‌‌air‌‌poison,‌‌and‌‌so‌‌on.‌‌This‌‌ 
book‌‌was‌‌called‌‌Sushruta‌‌Samhita.‌‌   ‌
8.‌‌Paulus‌‌Zacchias‌‌(father‌‌of‌‌legal‌‌medicine‌‌and‌‌forensic‌‌psychiatry)‌‌wrote‌‌questions‌‌ 
medico-legal,‌‌a‌‌book‌‌which‌‌consists‌‌of‌‌his‌‌research‌‌and‌‌observation‌‌on‌‌the‌‌cases‌‌he‌‌came‌‌ 
across‌‌in‌‌court‌‌cases.‌‌He‌‌was‌‌an‌‌expert‌‌in‌‌a‌‌court‌‌of‌‌appeals‌‌(rota‌‌Roman's)‌ ‌and‌‌was‌‌ 
principal‌‌physician‌‌to‌‌pope‌‌innocent‌‌X,‌‌Alexander‌‌VII.‌  ‌
 ‌
Father‌‌of‌‌forensic‌‌toxicology:‌‌Mathuie‌‌Orfila‌  ‌
He‌‌was‌‌a‌‌chemistry‌‌professor.‌‌He‌‌introduced‌‌precise‌‌chemical‌‌methods.‌‌   ‌
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Inquest‌‌: ‌ ‌
‌it‌‌is‌‌an‌‌inquiry‌‌or‌‌investigation‌‌into‌‌the‌‌cause‌‌of‌‌death‌‌like‌‌suicide,‌‌murder,‌‌accident,‌  ‌
torture,‌‌animal‌‌attack,‌‌suspected‌‌medical‌‌negligence,‌ ‌occupational‌‌illness,‌‌and‌‌so‌‌on.‌‌ 
Here‌‌we‌‌even‌‌consider‌‌unidentified‌‌bodies‌‌or‌‌skeletons.‌‌   ‌
 ‌
In‌‌India,‌ ‌there‌‌are‌‌two‌‌types‌‌of‌‌inquest‌‌: ‌ ‌
1.‌‌Police‌‌inquest:-‌  ‌
Here‌‌the‌‌police‌‌station‌‌conducts‌‌the‌‌inquest‌‌(S174‌‌of‌‌CrPC).‌‌The‌‌police‌‌in‌‌charge‌‌of‌‌ 
cases‌‌are‌‌called‌‌investigation‌‌officers,‌‌usually,‌‌these‌‌are‌‌sub-inspectors.‌‌   ‌
Firstly,‌ ‌they‌‌make‌‌a‌‌report‌‌of‌‌the‌‌information‌‌received‌‌and‌‌further‌‌go‌‌and‌‌investigate‌‌if‌‌ 
an‌‌unnatural‌‌death‌‌is‌‌observed.‌‌   ‌
Secondly,‌‌they‌‌go‌‌to‌‌the‌‌location‌‌and‌‌seal‌‌the‌‌area‌‌and‌‌start‌‌the‌‌investigation‌‌by‌‌making‌‌a ‌‌
detailed‌‌report‌‌(initial‌‌report)‌‌of‌‌the‌‌crime‌‌scene‌‌including‌‌the‌‌area‌‌around‌‌the‌‌crime‌‌ 
scene‌‌and‌‌the‌‌body‌‌and‌‌the‌‌injuries‌‌in‌‌the‌‌body.‌‌This‌‌is‌‌the‌‌first‌‌investigating‌‌report‌‌and‌‌is‌‌ 
signed‌‌by‌‌the‌‌investigation‌‌officer,‌ ‌3-5‌‌witnesses‌‌(‌‌panch‌‌maha‌‌or‌‌spot‌‌Mahajan).‌  ‌
Thirdly,‌‌the‌‌body‌‌is‌‌now‌‌sent‌‌for‌‌medico-legal‌‌autopsy‌‌to‌‌find‌‌Corroborative‌‌evidence‌‌ 
and‌‌find‌‌the‌‌cause‌‌of‌‌death.‌‌Here,‌‌it‌‌is‌‌sent‌‌to‌‌the‌‌nearest‌‌authorized‌‌govt‌‌mourger.‌ ‌The‌‌ 
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first‌‌investigation‌‌report‌‌and‌‌requisition‌‌for‌‌postmortem‌‌are‌‌forwarded‌‌to‌‌the‌‌magistrate.‌‌ 
Only‌‌after‌‌the‌‌requisition‌‌is‌‌signed,‌‌a‌‌postmortem‌‌can‌‌be‌‌carried‌‌out.‌‌   ‌
Here‌‌during‌‌the‌‌autopsy‌‌report‌‌first‌‌external‌‌is‌‌thoroughly‌‌checked‌‌then‌‌they‌‌move‌‌to‌‌ 
internal‌‌organs‌‌and‌‌it's‌‌system.‌‌And‌‌these‌‌visceral‌‌organs‌‌are‌‌sent‌‌for‌‌forensics‌‌analysis.‌‌ 
All‌‌these‌‌are‌‌recorded‌‌in‌‌a‌‌report‌‌and‌‌a‌‌copy‌‌of‌‌it‌‌is‌‌sent‌‌to‌‌the‌‌magistrate.‌‌   ‌
Here,‌ ‌the‌‌overall‌‌executive‌‌magistrate‌‌has‌‌the‌‌power‌‌to‌‌interfere‌‌and‌‌observe‌‌and‌‌take‌‌ 
over‌‌the‌‌case.‌  ‌
 ‌
2.‌‌Magistrate‌‌inquest‌‌:  ‌‌ ‌
collector/deputy‌‌commissioner‌‌/tahsildar‌‌or‌‌any‌ ‌executive‌‌magistrate‌‌can‌‌do‌‌the‌‌inquest‌‌ 
in‌‌the‌‌following‌‌conditions‌‌: ‌ ‌
A.‌ ‌Death‌‌in‌‌police‌‌custody‌‌and‌‌work‌‌under‌‌police‌‌interrogation.‌‌   ‌
B.‌ ‌Death‌‌due‌‌to‌‌police‌‌firing‌  ‌
C.‌ ‌Death‌‌in‌‌prison,‌‌reform,‌ ‌borstal‌‌school‌‌(‌‌school‌‌for‌‌juvenile)‌  ‌
D.‌ ‌Death‌‌in‌‌a‌‌psychiatry‌‌hospital‌  ‌
E.‌ ‌Dowry‌‌death‌  ‌
F.‌ ‌Exhumation:‌‌removal‌‌of‌‌the‌‌body‌‌from‌‌the‌‌buried‌‌ground‌‌   ‌
G.‌ ‌Rape,‌ ‌murder,‌‌and‌‌disappearance‌‌of‌‌the‌‌person‌‌in‌‌custody‌‌of‌‌police‌‌or‌‌authorized‌‌ 
custody‌‌by‌‌the‌‌court.‌‌   ‌
Here,‌‌the‌‌process‌‌of‌‌investigation‌‌is‌‌the‌‌same‌‌as‌‌it‌‌is‌‌in‌‌police‌‌inquest‌‌with‌‌making‌‌the‌‌ 
first‌‌investigation‌‌report‌‌and‌‌then‌‌further‌‌postmortem.‌‌   ‌
 ‌
Coroner's‌‌inquest‌‌‌(not‌‌done‌‌in‌‌India)‌‌: ‌ ‌
A‌‌type‌‌of‌‌inquest‌‌is‌‌done‌‌in‌‌the‌‌UK‌‌and‌‌some‌‌states‌‌of‌‌the‌‌US.‌‌The‌‌forensic‌‌doctors‌‌and‌‌ 
medical‌‌examiner‌‌acts‌‌as‌‌an‌‌expert‌‌and‌‌perform‌‌postmortem‌‌and‌‌gives‌‌it‌‌as‌‌evidence‌‌At‌‌ 
the‌‌inquest.‌‌This‌‌person‌‌is‌‌called‌‌a‌‌coroner‌‌and‌‌is‌‌an‌‌expert‌‌who‌‌gives‌‌his‌‌opinion‌‌to‌‌the‌‌ 
jury.‌‌hence,‌‌we‌‌could‌‌say‌‌he‌‌has‌‌little‌‌judicial‌‌power‌  ‌
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Medical‌‌examiner's‌‌system‌‌: ‌ ‌
This‌‌is‌‌usually‌‌seen‌‌in‌‌Japan,‌ ‌American,‌ ‌Canada,‌‌and‌‌so‌‌on.‌‌Here,‌‌the‌‌medical‌‌examiner‌‌ 
conducts‌‌the‌‌autopsy‌‌and‌‌this‌‌report‌‌has‌‌higher‌‌value‌‌in‌‌court.‌‌Here,‌‌the‌‌examiner‌‌doesn't‌‌ 
have‌‌any‌‌judicial‌‌power‌‌but‌‌the‌‌report‌‌is‌‌considered‌‌to‌‌be‌‌of‌‌higher‌‌value‌‌than‌‌that‌‌of‌‌ 
police‌‌and‌‌magistrate‌‌investigation.‌‌   ‌
 ‌
Jury:‌‌a‌‌jury‌‌is‌‌a‌‌group‌‌of‌‌responsible,‌ ‌educated‌‌individuals‌‌with‌‌good‌‌social‌‌positions.‌‌ 
These‌‌ppl‌‌are‌‌called‌‌jurors‌‌and‌‌are‌‌usually‌‌in‌‌even‌‌numbers.‌‌They‌‌make‌‌a‌‌verdict‌‌and‌‌ 
their‌‌verdict‌‌is‌‌binding‌‌on‌‌the‌‌judge.‌‌Here‌‌if‌‌the‌‌judge's‌‌opinion‌‌differs,‌‌then‌‌the‌‌case‌‌goes‌‌ 
to‌‌the‌‌high‌‌court.‌‌   ‌
Trial‌‌by‌‌jury‌‌is‌‌abolished‌‌in‌‌India.‌‌It‌‌is‌‌seen‌‌to‌‌be‌‌abolished‌‌in‌‌many‌‌Asian‌‌countries‌‌as‌‌ 
they‌‌aren't‌‌well‌‌versed‌‌with‌‌legal‌‌laws‌‌and‌‌this‌‌leads‌‌the‌‌decision‌‌of‌‌juries‌‌to‌‌be‌‌usually‌‌ 
biased.‌  ‌
The‌‌Nanavati‌‌case‌‌was‌‌the‌‌one‌‌that‌‌brought‌‌abolishment‌‌of‌‌the‌‌jury‌‌system‌‌in‌‌India.‌ ‌(the‌‌ 
movie‌‌was‌‌done‌‌on‌‌this‌‌case‌‌-‌‌Rustom)‌‌   ‌
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Personal‌‌identification‌‌of‌‌the‌‌living:‌  ‌
It‌‌is‌‌the‌‌determination‌‌of‌‌individuality‌‌of‌‌a‌‌person‌‌based‌‌on‌‌certain‌‌physical‌‌ 
characteristics‌‌like‌‌exact‌‌fixation‌‌of‌‌personality.‌‌Also‌‌in‌‌partial‌‌or‌‌incomplete‌‌ 
identification,‌‌certain‌‌facts‌‌are‌‌determined‌‌like‌‌age,‌‌race,‌‌sex,‌‌and‌‌so‌‌on.‌‌   ‌
Identifications‌‌are‌‌necessary‌‌in‌‌cases‌‌like:‌  ‌
1.‌‌Living‌‌person‌  ‌
2.‌‌Recently‌‌dead‌‌person‌‌   ‌
3‌‌decomposed‌‌body‌  ‌
4.‌‌Mutilated‌‌and‌‌burnt‌‌bodies.‌‌(usually‌‌seen‌‌in‌‌disaster‌‌victim‌‌identification‌‌-‌‌DVI)‌‌   ‌
5.‌‌Skeleton‌‌   ‌
Necessary‌‌of‌‌personal‌‌identifications‌‌are‌‌seen‌‌in:‌  ‌
1.‌‌In‌‌criminal‌‌cases‌‌like‌‌the‌‌person‌‌accused‌‌of‌‌assault,‌‌murder,‌‌rape,‌‌and‌‌so‌‌on.‌‌   ‌
2.‌‌Also‌‌seen‌‌in‌‌changing‌‌of‌‌newborn‌‌baby,‌ ‌impersonation‌‌and‌‌so‌‌on‌  ‌
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3.‌‌In‌‌civil‌‌cases‌‌like‌‌marriage,‌‌inheritance,‌‌passport,‌‌insurance‌‌claims,‌ ‌disputed‌‌paternity,‌‌ 
missing‌‌person,‌‌and‌‌so‌‌on.‌‌   ‌
Here‌‌at‌‌least‌‌2‌‌identification‌‌marks‌‌should‌‌be‌‌noted‌‌by‌‌the‌‌doctor‌‌in‌‌all‌‌medico-legal‌‌ 
cases.‌  ‌
 ‌
Identification‌‌details‌‌considered/‌‌identification‌‌Data‌‌  
1.‌‌Race‌‌and‌‌religion‌‌   ‌
2.‌‌Sex‌‌   ‌
3.‌‌Age:‌‌This‌‌can‌‌be‌‌done‌‌through‌‌dental‌‌examination.‌‌   ‌
4.‌‌General‌‌developmental‌‌and‌‌stature:‌‌the‌‌morphological‌‌growth‌‌help‌‌in‌‌approx‌‌ 
identifying‌‌ade‌‌and‌‌also‌‌gender‌  ‌
5.‌‌complexion‌‌and‌‌feature:‌‌aids‌‌with‌‌identification‌‌of‌‌gender‌‌and‌‌race‌  ‌
6.‌‌External‌‌peculiarities‌‌-‌‌moles,‌ ‌birthmark,‌ ‌malformation,‌‌scar,‌‌occupation‌‌mark,‌‌tattoo,‌‌ 
and‌‌so‌‌on.‌  ‌
7.‌‌Anthropometric‌‌measurement:‌‌measurement‌‌of‌‌long‌‌bone‌‌like‌‌femur,‌‌humerus,‌‌etc‌‌thru‌‌ 
caliper.‌‌   ‌
8.‌‌Fingerprint‌‌and‌‌footprint‌‌   ‌
9.‌‌Teeth:‌‌estimate‌‌age‌‌[milk‌‌teeth,‌‌permanent‌‌teeth,‌‌molar‌‌teeth]‌‌and‌‌race.‌‌bite‌‌marks‌‌aids‌‌ 
in‌‌the‌‌identification‌‌of‌‌the‌‌person‌  ‌
10.‌‌Personal‌‌effects‌‌-‌‌clothes,‌‌pocket‌‌content,‌ ‌jewelry,‌‌and‌‌so‌‌on‌  ‌
11.‌‌Handwriting‌‌   ‌
12.‌‌Speech‌‌and‌‌voice:‌‌using‌‌LVA‌‌[layered‌‌voice‌‌analysis]‌‌we‌‌can‌‌identify‌‌the‌‌individual‌  ‌
13.‌‌Gait,‌ ‌tricks‌‌of‌‌manner‌‌and‌‌habit:‌‌walking‌‌patterns‌‌and‌‌their‌‌other‌‌habits‌‌help‌‌in‌‌the‌‌ 
identification‌  ‌
14.‌‌Memory‌‌and‌‌education:‌‌can‌‌determine‌‌and‌‌estimate‌‌the‌‌individual‌‌based‌‌on‌‌their‌‌ 
behavior‌‌which‌‌is‌‌usually‌‌formed‌‌through‌‌memory‌‌and‌‌education.‌  ‌
Here,‌‌sex‌‌age,‌‌and‌‌stature‌‌are‌‌primary‌‌characteristics‌‌of‌‌identification.‌‌   ‌
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In‌‌this‌‌14,‌‌at‌‌least‌‌5‌‌to‌‌7‌‌identification‌‌data‌‌is‌‌necessary‌‌to‌‌prove‌‌the‌‌identification‌‌of‌‌the‌‌ 
individual.‌‌(living,‌‌missing,‌‌or‌‌dead).‌‌11th-14th‌‌data‌‌can‌‌be‌‌applied‌‌only‌‌to‌‌living‌‌ 
individuals.‌  ‌
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While‌‌examination‌‌of‌‌death‌‌we‌‌prefer‌‌the‌‌same‌‌identification‌‌data‌‌but‌‌different‌‌measures‌‌ 
or‌‌methods‌‌of‌‌identification.‌‌   ‌
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Odontology:‌‌the‌‌scientific‌‌study‌‌of‌‌the‌‌structure‌‌and‌‌diseases‌‌of‌‌teeth‌‌and‌‌jaw‌  ‌
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● when‌‌we‌‌search‌‌for‌‌an‌‌individual‌‌or‌‌when‌‌we‌‌go‌‌for‌‌identification,‌‌we‌‌look‌‌for‌‌the‌‌ 
following‌‌types‌‌of‌‌evidence:‌  ‌
a.‌‌Circumstantial‌‌evidence:‌‌evidence‌‌which‌‌we‌‌acquire‌‌or‌‌get‌‌on‌‌the‌‌spot.‌ ‌it‌‌is‌‌mostly‌‌the‌‌ 
external‌‌examination‌‌like‌‌cloth,‌‌jewelry,‌‌and‌‌so‌‌on,‌‌in‌‌the‌‌identification‌‌of‌‌the‌‌individual.‌  ‌
b.‌‌Physical‌‌evidence:‌‌here,‌‌we‌‌do‌‌both‌‌external‌‌and‌‌internal‌‌examination‌‌of‌‌the‌‌individual‌‌ 
like‌‌external‌‌analysis‌‌of‌‌an‌‌individual‌‌including‌‌fingerprint.‌‌And‌‌the‌‌internal‌‌examination‌‌ 
is‌‌usually‌‌done‌‌on‌‌dead‌‌bodies.‌  ‌
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I.‌‌Identification‌‌of‌‌race:‌  ‌
Here,‌ ‌we‌‌need‌‌to‌‌have‌‌knowledge‌‌of‌‌all‌‌the‌‌things‌‌and‌‌the‌‌exceptions‌‌in‌‌them‌‌to‌‌make‌‌a ‌‌
proper‌‌identification.‌  ‌
Asians:‌‌‌origin‌‌from‌‌southeast‌‌and‌‌Indian‌‌subcontinent‌‌like‌‌Bangladesh,‌‌India,‌‌China,‌‌ 
Columbia‌‌and‌‌so‌‌on‌  ‌
Negroids‌:‌‌origin‌‌from‌‌Southeast‌‌Asia‌‌and‌‌isolated‌‌parts‌‌of‌‌Asia‌‌and‌‌Africa‌  ‌
mongoloids‌:‌‌they‌‌originated‌‌from‌‌East‌‌Asia,‌‌Southeast‌‌Asia,‌‌arctic‌‌and‌‌pacific‌‌side‌‌like‌‌ 
Eskimo,‌‌Tibet,‌‌Korean,‌‌Japanese.‌  ‌
Caucasian:‌‌‌origin‌‌from‌‌regions‌‌between‌‌the‌‌black‌‌sea‌‌and‌‌Caspian‌‌sea‌‌like‌‌American,‌‌ 
Georgia,‌‌southern‌‌Russia,‌‌and‌‌so‌‌on.‌  ‌
1.‌‌Skin‌‌complexion:‌‌‌it‌‌is‌‌the‌‌complexion‌‌or‌‌the‌‌color‌‌of‌‌the‌‌skin.‌‌This‌‌is‌‌of‌‌limited‌‌value.‌‌   ‌
Asians:-‌ ‌wheatish,‌‌more‌‌of‌‌dusk‌‌color‌‌Or‌‌brown‌‌shades.‌‌   ‌
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Negroids:-‌‌dark-skinned‌‌like‌‌black‌‌color‌‌Ranging‌‌from‌‌dark‌‌brown‌‌to‌‌black.‌  ‌
mongoloids:-‌‌fair‌‌skin‌‌   ‌
Caucasian:-‌‌Usually‌‌Range‌‌from‌‌white-skinned‌‌To‌‌dark‌‌brown.‌‌   ‌
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2.‌‌Eyes‌‌-‌‌here,‌‌we‌‌observe‌‌the‌‌shape/size‌‌and‌‌the‌‌color‌‌of‌‌the‌‌eye.‌  ‌
Asians:-‌‌Very‌‌similar‌‌to‌‌Negroids‌‌ranging‌‌from‌‌brown‌‌to‌‌black‌  ‌
Negroids:-‌‌usually‌‌Ranges‌‌from‌‌dark‌‌brown‌‌to‌‌black.‌‌   ‌
mongoloids:-‌‌have‌‌tiny‌‌and‌‌peculiar‌‌eye‌‌structure‌  ‌
Caucasian:-‌‌light-colored‌‌eye‌‌like‌‌hazel,‌‌blue.‌‌   ‌
‌Rarely‌‌do‌‌we‌‌see‌‌exceptions‌‌like‌‌albinos‌‌who‌‌have‌‌an‌‌absence‌‌of‌‌melanin‌‌pigmentation‌‌ 
in‌‌hair‌‌and‌‌skin.‌‌   ‌
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3.‌‌Hair‌‌-‌‌Here,‌‌we‌‌look‌‌into‌‌the‌‌color‌‌and‌‌the‌‌texture‌‌of‌‌the‌‌hair.‌‌Usually,‌‌the‌‌texture‌‌of‌‌ 
hair‌‌like‌‌wavy/straight/curly‌‌and‌‌also‌‌the‌‌density‌‌like‌‌thick‌‌and‌‌thin‌‌are‌‌determined‌‌by‌‌the‌‌ 
medulla.‌‌   ‌
Asians:-‌‌dark-colored‌‌hairlike‌‌black/dark‌‌brown.‌‌Usually‌‌either‌‌curly‌‌or‌‌wavy‌‌hair.‌‌rarely‌‌ 
it‌‌is‌‌seen‌‌to‌‌be‌‌straight.‌‌And‌‌often‌‌seen‌‌to‌‌be‌‌thin.‌‌   ‌
Negroids:-‌‌dark‌‌jet‌‌black‌‌color‌‌hair‌‌with‌‌thick‌‌Curly‌‌hair‌‌Like‌‌wool‌‌type.‌‌Usually‌‌have‌‌ 
dense‌‌hair‌  ‌
mongoloids:-‌‌mostly‌‌straight‌‌hair‌‌Or‌‌Wavy‌‌hair.‌‌but‌‌mostly‌‌straight‌‌and‌‌smooth.‌  ‌
Caucasian:-‌‌Usually‌‌oval‌‌in‌‌shape‌‌and‌‌can‌‌be‌‌wavy,‌‌straight,‌‌or‌‌curly‌‌with‌‌thick‌‌density‌  ‌
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4.‌‌Physical‌‌appearance‌‌-‌‌it‌‌is‌‌how‌‌an‌‌individual‌‌appears‌‌or‌‌looks.‌‌here,‌‌we‌‌look‌‌into‌‌the‌‌ 
following‌‌factors:‌  ‌
‌‌A.‌ ‌Jaw‌‌shape:‌‌‌it‌‌is‌‌the‌‌shape‌‌of‌‌the‌‌mouth,‌‌that‌‌is‌‌lower‌‌jaw‌‌(mandible)‌‌and‌‌upper‌‌jaw‌‌ 
(maxilla)‌‌bone‌‌shape.‌‌here,‌‌usually,‌‌we‌‌observe‌‌the‌‌structure‌‌of‌‌the‌‌maxilla‌‌as‌‌it‌‌ 
prominently‌‌forms‌‌a‌‌jawline‌‌   ‌
Asians:-‌ ‌jaw‌‌is‌‌not‌‌protruded‌‌and‌‌the‌‌maxilla‌‌is‌‌properly‌‌fixed‌‌   ‌
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Negroids:-‌‌wide‌‌jaw‌‌and‌‌mandible‌‌is‌‌protruding‌‌and‌‌forms‌‌like‌‌a‌‌U-shape‌‌jaw‌‌and‌‌chin‌‌ 
structure‌  ‌
mongoloids:-‌‌more‌‌like‌‌a‌‌rectangular‌‌protruding‌‌jaw‌‌and‌‌chin‌‌shape‌‌as‌‌they‌‌have‌‌ 
squarish/rectangle‌‌shape‌‌maxilla‌  ‌
Caucasian:-‌‌sharp‌‌or‌‌narrow‌‌jaw‌‌and‌‌mandible‌‌is‌‌protruding‌‌and‌‌forms‌‌like‌‌a‌‌V-shape‌‌jaw‌‌ 
and‌‌chin‌‌structure.‌  ‌
 ‌
B.‌ ‌Skull‌‌shape‌‌-‌‌it‌‌is‌‌the‌‌shape‌‌of‌‌the‌‌skull‌‌which‌‌is‌‌determined‌‌by‌‌the‌‌shape‌‌of‌‌the‌‌ 
forehead‌‌of‌‌the‌‌individual.‌‌  
Asians:-‌‌medium‌‌shaped‌‌skull‌‌and‌‌it‌‌isn't‌‌protruding‌‌out‌‌nor‌‌is‌‌flat‌  ‌
Negroids:-‌‌prominent‌‌protruding‌‌skull‌‌forehead‌  ‌
mongoloids:-‌‌flat‌‌skull‌‌forehead‌  ‌
Caucasian:-‌ ‌medium‌‌shaped‌‌and‌‌does‌‌not‌‌have‌‌protruding‌‌nor‌‌flat‌‌skull‌  ‌
 ‌
C.‌‌Occipital‌‌hole/‌‌foramen‌‌magnum‌‌‌(the‌‌area‌‌around‌‌the‌‌eye):‌‌this‌‌is‌‌our‌‌occipital‌‌or‌‌ 
externally‌‌the‌‌area‌‌of‌‌our‌‌eye‌‌or‌‌the‌‌opening‌‌of‌‌the‌‌skull‌‌or‌‌the‌‌two‌‌holes‌‌of‌‌the‌‌skull‌‌ 
where‌‌our‌‌eyes‌‌exist.‌‌This‌‌is‌‌usually‌‌used‌‌when‌‌observing‌‌a‌‌skeleton‌‌as‌‌we‌‌can‌‌observe‌‌it‌‌ 
more‌‌prominently.‌‌   ‌
Asians:-‌‌similar‌‌to‌‌mongoloids,‌‌it‌‌is‌‌almost‌‌circular,‌‌oval‌‌shape‌  ‌
Negroids:-‌‌it‌‌is‌‌of‌‌rectangle‌‌shape‌  ‌
mongoloids:-‌‌it‌‌is‌‌almost‌‌circular‌‌in‌ ‌shape‌  ‌
Caucasian:-‌‌the‌‌shape‌‌of‌‌the‌‌hole‌‌goes‌‌from‌‌narrow‌‌from‌‌the‌‌nose‌‌side‌‌to‌‌broader‌‌to‌‌the‌‌ 
ear‌‌side‌  ‌
 ‌
D.‌‌Width‌‌of‌‌Nasal‌‌aperture/‌‌pyriform‌‌aperture‌:‌‌it‌‌is‌‌the‌‌tip‌‌bone‌‌of‌‌the‌‌nasal‌‌which‌‌ 
gives‌‌a‌‌pear‌‌shape‌‌of‌‌the‌‌nose.‌  ‌
Asians:-‌‌it‌‌is‌‌similar‌‌to‌‌caucasian,‌‌have‌‌a‌‌long‌‌nasal‌‌aperture‌‌that‌‌extends‌‌down‌‌and‌‌ 
doesn't‌‌get‌‌broader‌  ‌
Negroids:-‌ ‌really‌‌broad‌‌nasal‌‌aperture‌  ‌
 ‌

mongoloids:-‌‌looks‌‌more‌‌like‌‌a‌‌circular‌‌shape‌‌and‌‌an‌‌inverted‌‌V-shape‌‌nasal‌‌aperture.‌  ‌
Caucasian:-‌ ‌width‌‌of‌‌the‌‌tip‌‌of‌‌nose/‌‌nasal‌‌aperture‌‌is‌‌long‌‌and‌‌often‌‌extends‌‌down‌‌than‌‌ 
getting‌‌broad‌  ‌
 ‌
cephalic‌‌index‌=
‌ ‌‌(max‌‌breadth‌‌of‌‌skull‌‌/‌‌max‌‌length‌‌of‌‌skull)‌‌*‌‌100.‌‌   ‌
This‌‌is‌‌usually‌‌done‌‌while‌‌doing‌‌skeleton‌‌analysis‌‌e‌‌which‌‌can‌‌usually‌‌identify‌‌the‌‌age,‌‌ 
race‌‌and‌‌gender‌‌of‌‌the‌‌skeleton‌‌using‌‌the‌‌skull.‌‌   ‌
 ‌
II.‌‌Identification‌‌of‌‌age‌  ‌
it‌‌is‌‌important‌‌as‌‌it‌‌helps‌‌in‌‌: ‌ ‌
1.‌‌Determining‌‌the‌‌criminal‌‌liability‌‌or‌‌responsibility‌‌of‌‌the‌‌act‌‌committed.‌  ‌
Acc‌‌to‌S
‌ 82‌‌of‌‌IPC‌:‌‌says‌‌any‌‌crime‌‌committed‌‌by‌‌a‌‌child‌‌below‌‌7‌‌years‌‌is‌‌not‌‌an‌‌offense.‌‌ 
Hence,‌‌he‌‌is‌‌held‌‌responsible‌‌but‌‌no‌‌action‌‌is‌‌taken.‌‌   ‌
S83‌ ‌of‌‌IPC‌:‌‌Any‌‌Child‌‌from‌‌7‌‌-‌‌12‌‌years‌‌of‌‌age‌‌is‌‌capable‌‌of‌‌committing‌‌a‌‌crime.‌‌ 
“presumed‌‌to‌‌be‌‌capable‌‌of‌‌committing‌‌an‌‌offense,‌‌if‌‌he‌‌attained‌‌sufficient‌‌Maturity‌‌of‌‌ 
understanding‌‌to‌‌judge‌‌the‌‌nature‌‌and‌‌consequences‌‌of‌‌his‌‌conduct.”‌‌‌Here,‌‌in‌‌the‌‌trial,‌‌ 
it‌‌is‌‌observed‌‌if‌‌he‌‌is‌‌able‌‌to‌‌understand‌‌his‌‌action‌‌and‌‌the‌‌consequences‌‌of‌‌his‌‌action.‌ ‌If‌‌ 
yes,‌‌then‌‌punished.‌‌If‌‌no,‌ ‌then‌‌he‌‌will‌‌just‌‌be‌‌held‌‌responsible‌‌but‌‌not‌‌punished.‌‌   ‌
S89‌‌of‌‌IPC‌:‌‌any‌‌child‌‌of‌‌age‌‌below‌‌12‌‌years‌‌cannot‌‌give‌‌consent‌‌of‌‌doing‌‌any‌‌act‌‌that‌‌ 
can‌‌lead‌‌to‌‌OR‌‌done‌‌in‌‌good‌‌faith.‌ ‌Like‌‌if‌‌a‌‌child‌‌below‌‌12‌‌years‌‌needs‌‌surgery‌‌to‌‌ 
survive‌‌and‌‌isn't‌‌willing‌‌to‌‌live.‌‌here,‌‌his‌‌decision‌‌and‌‌consent‌‌aren’t‌‌valid.‌‌   ‌
S87‌‌of‌‌IPC:‌‌‌any‌‌Child‌‌Above‌‌18‌‌years‌‌can‌‌give‌‌valid‌‌consent‌‌to‌‌suffer‌‌any‌‌harm‌‌or‌‌pain‌‌ 
or‌‌act‌‌which‌‌may‌‌result‌‌in‌‌death.‌ ‌Here,‌‌he‌‌will‌‌be‌‌only‌‌held‌‌reliable‌‌only‌‌if‌‌he‌‌is‌‌aware‌‌of‌‌ 
the‌‌consequences‌‌of‌‌his‌‌action‌‌leading‌‌to‌‌grievous‌‌hurt.‌  ‌
 ‌
It‌‌is‌‌observed‌‌that‌‌individuals‌‌with‌‌XYY‌‌chromosomes‌‌tend‌‌to‌‌be‌‌more‌‌aggressive‌‌In‌‌ 
nature.‌‌Hence,‌‌are‌‌more‌‌prone‌‌to‌‌commit‌‌crime.‌‌   ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌

2.‌‌To‌‌abort/carry‌‌out‌‌judicial‌‌punishment.‌‌   ‌
This‌‌is‌‌important‌‌to‌‌know‌‌as‌‌the‌‌age‌‌determines‌‌the‌‌type‌‌of‌‌trial‌‌and‌‌judicial‌‌punishment‌‌ 
for‌‌the‌‌offender‌‌looking‌‌into‌‌the‌‌situation‌‌of‌‌the‌‌case‌‌and‌‌also‌‌the‌‌age‌‌of‌‌the‌‌offender‌‌and‌‌ 
the‌‌victim.‌‌This‌‌aids‌‌in‌‌carrying‌‌out‌‌Judicial‌‌punishment‌‌in‌‌cases‌‌involving‌‌the‌‌following‌‌ 
aspects:‌  ‌
a.‌‌Juvenile:‌‌‌That‌‌is‌‌if‌‌the‌‌offender‌‌is‌‌a‌‌juvenile‌‌or‌‌an‌‌adult.‌  ‌
If‌‌juvenile,‌‌it‌‌falls‌‌under‌‌JJ‌‌act,2000[juvenile‌‌justice‌‌act].‌ ‌The‌‌juvenile‌‌justice‌‌care‌‌and‌‌ 
protection‌‌of‌‌children‌‌amendment‌‌bill,‌‌2006‌ ‌states‌‌juveniles‌‌are‌‌individuals‌‌who‌‌are‌‌ 
below‌‌the‌‌age‌‌of‌‌18‌‌who‌‌have‌‌committed‌‌an‌‌offense.‌  ‌
‌Here,‌ ‌juveniles‌‌in‌‌conflict‌‌with‌‌the‌‌law‌‌are‌‌trialed‌‌differently‌‌in‌‌different‌‌types‌‌of‌‌courts;‌‌ 
where‌‌the‌‌environment‌‌of‌‌the‌‌court‌‌isn’t‌‌cruel‌‌and‌‌traumatizing.‌‌   ‌
The‌‌juveniles‌‌are‌‌usually‌‌made‌‌to‌‌participate‌‌in‌‌group‌‌counseling‌‌and‌‌are‌‌to‌‌perform‌‌ 
community‌‌service‌‌and‌‌further‌‌are‌‌sent‌‌to‌‌special‌‌homes‌‌and‌‌reformatory‌‌schools‌‌or‌‌ 
rehabilitation‌‌centers‌‌and‌‌correctional‌‌institutions.‌‌   ‌
Here,‌ ‌no‌‌juvenile‌‌shall‌‌be‌‌sentenced‌‌to‌‌death‌‌or‌‌life‌‌imprisonment,‌‌or‌‌committed‌‌to‌‌ 
prison.‌‌But,‌‌after‌‌nirbhaya‌‌case‌‌the‌‌JJ‌‌amendment‌‌bill,‌‌2021‌‌came‌‌forth‌‌saying‌‌if‌‌any‌‌ 
juvenile‌‌from‌‌age‌‌16-18‌‌years‌‌commits‌‌a‌‌serious‌‌offense‌‌(like‌‌rape‌‌or‌‌murder),‌‌then‌‌the‌‌ 
juvenile‌‌will‌‌be‌‌charged‌‌with‌‌a‌‌max‌‌punishment‌‌of‌‌7‌‌years‌‌of‌‌prison.‌  ‌
 ‌
b.‌‌Underaged‌‌sexual‌‌intercourse:‌‌‌Here,‌‌the‌‌age‌‌determines‌‌whether‌‌or‌‌not‌‌it‌‌is‌‌rape.‌‌ 
Like‌‌in‌S
‌ 375‌‌of‌‌IPC‌-‌‌sexual‌‌intercourse‌‌by‌‌a‌‌man‌‌under‌‌the‌‌age‌‌of‌‌15‌‌years‌‌even‌‌if‌‌she's‌‌ 
a‌‌wife‌‌and‌‌below‌‌18‌‌years,‌‌even‌‌with‌‌the‌‌consent‌‌is‌‌rape.‌‌   ‌
 ‌
c.‌‌Kidnapping‌‌and‌‌abduction‌‌-‌‌here,‌‌the‌‌age‌‌determines‌‌whether‌‌it‌‌is‌‌a‌‌kidnap‌‌or‌‌ 
abduction‌‌which‌‌further‌‌aids‌‌in‌‌judicially‌‌punishing‌‌the‌‌offender‌‌accordingly.‌‌   ‌
S369‌‌of‌‌IPC:‌‌ ‌kidnap‌‌a‌‌child‌‌with‌‌the‌‌intention‌‌of‌‌dishonestly‌‌taking‌‌any‌‌movable‌‌ 
property,‌‌from‌‌the‌‌child‌‌or‌‌the‌‌parent‌‌of‌‌the‌‌child.‌  ‌
S361‌‌of‌‌IPC:‌‌‌to‌‌kidnap‌‌minors‌‌from‌‌lawful‌‌guardianship‌‌(‌‌boy‌‌-‌‌below‌‌16‌‌years‌‌and‌‌ 
girl-18years.‌  ‌
 ‌

S363A‌‌of‌‌IPC:‌‌‌kidnap‌‌and‌‌make‌‌them‌‌beg‌‌by‌‌making‌‌them‌‌look‌‌like‌‌beggars‌‌(Miam)‌  ‌
 ‌
S366‌‌of‌‌IPC:‌‌‌kidnap‌‌and‌‌compel‌‌to‌‌marry‌  ‌
S366A‌‌of‌‌IPC‌‌‌to‌‌procure‌‌a‌‌girl‌‌for‌‌prostitution.(below‌‌18‌‌years‌‌of‌‌age)‌‌   ‌
S366B‌‌of‌‌IPC:‌t‌o‌‌import‌‌foreigner‌‌or‌‌NRI‌‌to‌‌India‌‌for‌‌illicit‌‌intercourse.‌‌(girl‌‌below‌‌21‌‌ 
years).‌‌   ‌
Abduction:‌S
‌ 362‌‌of‌‌IPC:‌‌‌compelling‌‌by‌‌force‌‌or‌‌inducing‌‌by‌‌deceitful‌‌means‌‌on‌‌person‌‌ 
to‌‌go‌‌to‌‌any‌‌place.‌‌   ‌
Simple‌‌terms‌‌any‌‌adult‌‌getting‌‌kidnapped.‌‌   ‌
 ‌
d.‌‌Employment:‌‌‌Here‌‌the‌‌identification‌‌of‌‌age‌‌helps‌‌us‌‌identify‌‌if‌‌the‌‌case‌‌comes‌‌under‌‌ 
child‌‌labor‌‌or‌‌not.‌  ‌
A‌‌child‌‌below‌‌14‌‌years‌‌cannot‌‌be‌‌employed‌‌for‌‌any‌‌type‌‌of‌‌work.‌‌   ‌
A‌‌person‌‌completing‌‌15‌‌years‌‌can‌‌work‌‌as‌‌an‌‌adult‌‌in‌‌the‌‌factory‌‌a‌‌fitness‌‌certificate‌‌is‌‌ 
issued‌‌by‌‌a‌‌certified‌‌surgeon‌‌   ‌
 ‌
e.‌‌Attainment‌‌of‌‌majority:‌‌‌this‌‌aids‌‌in‌‌judicial‌‌punishment‌‌by‌‌finding‌‌out‌‌if‌‌the‌‌ 
individual‌‌is‌‌minor‌‌or‌‌major.‌‌Further,‌‌it‌‌helps‌‌with‌‌consent‌‌and‌‌guardianship.‌  ‌
Individual‌‌attains‌‌majority‌‌after‌‌reaching‌‌18‌‌years.‌‌But‌‌if‌‌he‌‌is‌‌under‌‌the‌‌guardianship‌‌of‌‌ 
the‌‌court,‌‌he‌‌attains‌‌majority‌‌at‌‌21‌‌years.‌(‌ S3,‌‌Indian.‌‌Majority‌‌Act,1875).‌  ‌
 ‌
f.‌‌Giving‌‌evidence‌‌-‌‌here,‌‌the‌‌age‌‌aids‌‌in‌‌determining‌‌how‌‌to‌‌go‌‌about‌‌with‌‌the‌‌evidence‌‌ 
and‌‌in‌‌determining‌‌the‌‌liability‌‌of‌‌the‌‌evidence.‌‌Like,‌‌a‌‌child’s‌‌testimony‌‌is‌‌usually‌‌ 
considered‌‌after‌‌fact‌‌check‌‌and‌‌if‌‌the‌‌child‌‌knows‌‌what‌‌he‌‌is‌‌testifying‌‌to.‌  ‌
The‌‌competence‌‌of‌‌giving‌‌evidence‌‌depends‌‌on‌‌the‌‌understanding‌‌but‌‌not‌‌on‌‌age.‌‌A‌‌child‌‌ 
of‌‌any‌‌she‌‌can‌‌give‌‌evidence‌‌if‌‌the‌‌court‌‌is‌‌satisfied‌‌that‌‌the‌‌child‌‌is‌‌truthful‌(‌ S118,‌‌IEA).‌‌   ‌
 ‌
g.‌‌Marriage‌‌contract‌:‌‌the‌‌identification‌‌here‌‌aids‌‌in‌‌ensuring‌‌there‌‌isn’t‌‌any‌‌child‌‌ 
marriage‌‌and‌‌helps‌‌in‌‌child‌‌marriage‌‌cases.‌  ‌
 ‌

‌In‌‌India,‌‌a‌‌girl‌‌below‌‌18‌‌years‌‌and‌‌a‌‌boy‌‌below‌‌21‌‌years‌‌can't‌‌get‌‌married‌(child‌‌ 
marriage‌‌restraint‌‌act,‌‌1978)‌  ‌
 ‌
h.‌‌Infanticide‌‌and‌‌foeticide:‌‌‌Here,‌ ‌the‌‌age‌‌determination‌‌aids‌‌as‌‌a‌‌piece‌‌of‌‌evidence‌‌for‌‌ 
cases‌‌involving‌‌infanticides‌‌and‌‌foeticides.‌  ‌
Usually,‌‌it‌‌is‌‌considered‌‌to‌‌be‌‌foeticide‌‌from‌‌the‌‌8th‌‌month‌‌of‌‌intrauterine‌‌life/‌‌pregnancy.‌‌   ‌
Below‌‌that‌‌infanticide/‌‌foeticide,‌‌The‌‌procedure‌‌isn't‌‌considered.‌‌   ‌
 ‌
i.‌‌Criminal‌‌abortion:‌‌‌the‌‌identification‌‌of‌‌age‌‌helps‌‌in‌‌cases‌‌involving‌‌criminal‌‌abortion.‌  ‌
Here,‌‌A‌‌woman‌‌who‌‌has‌‌passed‌‌childbearing‌‌age‌‌cannot‌‌be‌‌charged‌‌with‌‌procuring‌‌ 
Criminal‌‌abortion.‌‌   ‌
 ‌
j.‌‌Identification:‌a‌ n‌‌approximate‌‌age‌‌is‌‌important‌‌in‌‌any‌‌chain‌‌of‌‌identity‌‌data‌‌like‌ ‌in‌ 
cases‌‌when‌‌a‌‌child‌‌is‌‌found‌‌but‌‌he‌‌isn't‌‌aware‌‌of‌‌his‌‌age‌‌and‌‌so‌‌on‌  ‌
 ‌
k.‌‌Impotence‌‌or‌‌sterility:‌t‌he‌‌age‌‌can‌‌be‌‌sometimes‌‌determined‌‌by‌‌knowing‌‌the‌‌sterility‌‌ 
of‌‌an‌‌individual.‌‌Like‌‌an‌‌old‌‌woman‌‌when‌‌menopause,‌‌they‌‌become‌‌Sterilite‌‌and‌‌Men‌‌are‌‌ 
Sterilite‌‌before‌‌puberty.‌  ‌
Here,‌‌it‌‌also‌‌aids‌‌The‌‌cases‌‌which‌‌involve‌‌sterility‌‌and‌‌impotence.‌   ‌ ‌
 ‌
IIA.‌‌The‌‌procedure‌‌of‌‌Determination‌‌of‌‌Age‌‌through‌‌examining‌‌bones‌‌   ‌
[BRIEF‌‌EXPLANATION,‌‌IN‌‌DETAIL,‌‌WILL‌‌BE‌‌DONE‌‌DURING‌‌SKELETAL‌‌
 
EXAMINATION]‌  ‌

GENERAL‌‌BONE‌‌TERMS‌‌TO‌‌KNOW‌‌HERE:‌  ‌
HAND:‌  ‌
a. Humerus:‌‌it‌‌is‌ ‌‌a‌‌long‌‌bone‌‌in‌‌the‌‌arm‌‌that‌‌runs‌‌from‌‌the‌‌shoulder‌‌to‌‌the‌‌elbow.‌‌It‌‌ 
connects‌‌with‌‌the‌‌scapula‌‌at‌‌the‌‌top‌‌and‌‌Ulnar‌‌and‌‌radial‌‌bone‌‌at‌‌the‌‌elbow.‌  ‌
 ‌

b. Bones‌‌of‌‌lower‌‌arm:‌‌Ulnar‌‌bone‌ ‌and‌‌radial‌‌Bone‌‌[runs‌‌from‌‌the‌‌lower‌‌end‌‌of‌‌ 
the‌‌humerus‌‌[elbow‌‌joint]‌‌to‌‌the‌‌wrist‌‌[radiocarpal‌‌joint]‌  ‌
c. Wrist/Radiocarpal‌‌joint:‌‌the‌‌bones‌‌which‌‌make‌‌the‌‌transition‌‌of‌‌joining‌‌arm‌‌and‌‌ 
fingers.‌  ‌
SHOULDER:‌  ‌
a. Scapula:‌‌it‌‌is‌‌the‌‌shoulder‌‌blade‌  ‌
b. Sternum:‌‌it‌‌is‌‌a‌‌breastbone.‌‌It‌‌is‌‌long‌‌and‌‌flat‌‌and‌‌is‌‌located‌‌at‌‌the‌‌central‌‌part‌‌of‌‌ 
the‌‌chest.‌  ‌
c. Clavicle:‌‌it‌‌is‌‌a‌‌collar‌‌bone.‌‌It‌‌is‌‌in‌‌S-shape‌‌and‌‌is‌‌between‌‌Sternum‌‌and‌‌scapula‌  ‌
‌HIP‌‌AND‌‌LEG:‌  ‌
a. Pelvis:‌ ‌it‌‌is‌‌the‌‌hip‌‌region‌‌and‌‌these‌‌are‌‌the‌‌bones‌‌between‌‌the‌‌abdomen‌‌and‌‌ 
thigh.‌  ‌
b. Ilium/‌‌Iliac‌‌Crest‌i‌s‌‌the‌‌uppermost‌‌and‌‌largest‌‌part‌‌of‌‌the‌‌hip‌‌bone‌‌which‌‌‌is‌‌in‌‌ 
the‌‌shape‌‌of‌‌an‌‌elephant‌‌ear.‌  ‌
c. Acetabulum‌‌[socket]:‌‌it‌‌is‌‌a‌‌concave‌‌surface‌‌of‌‌the‌‌hip‌‌bone‌‌which‌‌is‌‌like‌‌a ‌
socket.‌‌It‌‌is‌‌where‌‌the‌‌femur‌‌joins‌‌or‌‌fits‌‌with‌‌the‌‌hip‌‌bone.‌  ‌
d. Femur:‌‌it‌‌is‌‌a‌‌thigh‌‌bone‌‌[aka‌‌longest‌‌bone‌‌of‌‌the‌‌body].‌  ‌
e. Bones‌‌of‌ ‌lower‌‌leg‌‌Joint:‌‌tibia‌‌and‌‌fibula‌‌[‌‌from‌‌knee‌‌to‌‌ankle]‌  ‌
● Epicondyle:‌‌Bulbous‌‌formation‌‌at‌‌the‌‌side‌‌ends‌‌of‌‌bones[usually‌‌joints]‌‌which‌‌ 
provides‌‌sites‌‌for‌‌attachment‌‌of‌‌muscle[cartilages].‌  ‌
● Condyle:‌‌it‌‌is‌‌round‌‌prominence‌‌at‌‌the‌‌end‌‌of‌‌the‌‌joints‌‌which‌‌helps‌‌in‌‌ 
articulating‌‌bones‌‌to‌‌make‌‌joints‌‌[‌‌like‌‌elbow‌‌joint,‌‌knee‌‌joint,‌‌and‌‌so‌‌on].‌‌This‌‌ 
makes‌‌the‌‌joints‌‌either‌‌immovable,‌‌movable,‌‌or‌‌slightly‌‌movable.‌  ‌

 ‌
Here,‌‌before‌‌the‌‌start‌‌of‌‌the‌‌examination,‌‌the‌‌name‌‌of‌‌the‌‌medical‌‌examiner,‌‌and‌‌nurse‌‌is‌‌ 
noted.‌‌Further,‌‌before‌‌examining‌‌the‌‌individual’s‌‌consent,‌‌name,‌‌age,‌‌weight,‌‌scars,‌‌ 
tattoo,‌‌and‌‌so‌‌on‌‌are‌‌noted.‌‌That‌‌is‌‌before‌‌moving‌‌to‌‌radiological‌‌examination‌‌[X-rays],‌‌ 
the‌‌physical‌‌examination‌‌of‌‌the‌‌individual‌‌is‌‌done.‌  ‌
 ‌

A.‌‌6‌‌-12‌‌years‌‌:  ‌‌ ‌
Here,‌‌the‌‌X-rays‌‌are‌‌taken‌‌at‌‌the‌ E
‌ lbow‌‌joint‌‌and‌‌Wrist‌‌Joint‌.‌‌This‌‌is‌‌done‌‌to‌‌analyze‌‌the‌‌ 
development‌‌of‌‌bone‌‌as‌‌children’s‌‌bones‌‌tend‌‌to‌‌be‌‌more‌‌tender‌‌and‌‌the‌‌sutures‌‌aren’t‌‌ 
fused‌‌fully.‌  ‌
If‌‌the‌‌individual‌‌is‌6‌ ‌‌-9‌‌years‌,‌‌the‌‌development‌‌of‌‌Ulnar‌‌bone‌‌and‌‌the‌‌Epicondi‌‌of‌‌the‌‌ 
Humerus‌‌bone‌‌estimates‌‌it.‌  ‌
For‌9‌ -12‌‌years‌,‌‌the‌‌humerus‌‌is‌‌examined‌‌and‌‌analyzed‌‌[development‌‌of‌‌the‌‌humerus‌‌and‌‌ 
what‌‌type‌‌of‌‌cartilages‌‌are‌‌forming]‌‌to‌‌estimate.‌  ‌
B.‌‌13‌‌-‌‌16‌‌years:‌  ‌
Here,‌‌the‌‌X-rays‌‌are‌‌taken‌‌at‌E
‌ lbow‌‌Joint‌‌and‌‌Pelvis.‌  ‌
If‌‌the‌‌person‌‌is‌‌around‌‌13‌‌years,‌‌the‌‌development‌‌of‌‌triradiate‌‌cartilage‌‌and‌‌Acetabulum‌‌ 
[socket]‌‌estimates‌‌it.‌‌   ‌
For‌1‌ 2-‌‌14‌‌years‌,‌‌epicondyle‌‌of‌‌the‌‌humerus‌‌and‌‌the‌‌examination‌‌of‌‌the‌‌development‌‌of‌‌ 
ilium/iliac‌‌crest‌‌estimates‌‌it.‌‌   ‌
Around‌‌the‌‌age‌‌of‌‌15-16‌‌years,‌‌the‌‌lower‌‌end‌‌of‌‌the‌‌humerus,‌‌epicondyle‌‌of‌‌humerus,‌‌and‌‌ 
the‌‌fusion‌‌of‌‌triradiate‌‌cartilages‌‌near‌‌the‌‌acetabulum‌‌determine‌‌it.‌‌Also,‌‌the‌‌fusion‌‌of‌‌ 
cartilages‌‌near‌‌the‌‌ulnar‌‌bone.‌  ‌
 ‌
C.‌‌After‌‌the‌‌age‌‌of‌‌16years:‌  ‌
Here,‌‌usually,‌‌the‌‌X-ray‌‌is‌‌taken‌‌of‌‌the‌p‌ elvis,‌‌elbow,‌‌and‌‌leg‌‌joint‌. ‌ ‌
For‌‌around‌1‌ 6‌‌-17‌‌years‌,‌t‌he‌‌fusion‌‌of‌‌the‌‌tibia‌‌and‌‌fibula‌a‌ re‌‌analyzed‌‌to‌‌determine‌‌it.‌  ‌
For‌1‌ 7-18‌‌years‌,‌‌th
‌ e‌‌changes‌‌in‌‌the‌‌hip‌‌joint‌‌‌are‌‌considered.‌  ‌
For‌1‌ 8-19‌‌years‌,‌t‌he‌‌knee,‌‌shoulder,‌‌and‌‌wrist‌a‌ re‌‌examined‌  ‌
At‌‌and‌‌above‌2‌ 0-21‌‌years‌,‌‌the‌‌hip‌‌joint‌‌[iliac‌‌crest]‌ ‌and‌‌fusion‌‌of‌‌the‌‌inner‌‌end‌‌of‌‌the‌‌ 
clavicle‌‌with‌‌respect‌‌to‌‌the‌‌sternum‌‌are‌‌analyzed.‌  ‌
Here,‌‌we‌‌can‌‌only‌‌estimate,‌‌not‌‌perfectly‌‌determine‌‌just‌‌by‌‌radiograph‌‌as‌‌it‌‌might‌‌vary‌‌if‌‌ 
a‌‌person‌‌works‌‌out.‌‌Hence,‌‌with‌‌radiography,‌‌we‌‌also‌‌consider‌‌dental‌‌examination,‌‌ 
physical‌‌examination,‌‌and‌‌other‌‌multiple‌‌criteria‌‌together‌‌to‌‌give‌‌an‌‌opinion‌‌on‌‌the‌‌ 
accurate‌‌estimation‌‌of‌‌the‌‌age.‌  ‌