Campion College

Introduction to Physics
Teachers’ notes and compilation from various sources. Please note the references throughout the
script.

NAME:- ______________________________

FORM: _______________________________

3rd Form
Physics Notes
Manual
Campion College Grade 9 Physics Name:- ________________________ Form :___________

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page
Introductory Physics Skills 3
General Objectives 4-5
CHAPTER 1 -PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS 6
Basic and Derived Quantities 6
Conversion of units 7
Standard Form 8
Measuring -Precaution and Error 9
Length 10
Vernier calliper 11
Micrometre Screw Gauge 12
Mass and Weight 13
Hooke’s Law 14
Volume 15
Density 16
Time 17
Pendulum lab 18
Graph Criteria and example 19-20
CHAPTER 2 – FORCES 21
Balanced and Unbalanced Forces 22-23
Friction 24
Balance and Centre of Gravity 25
Centre of Gravity and Equilibrium 26
Levers 27-28
Moment of a Force 29-32
Work Done 32
Power 33
Conservation of Energy – Kinetic and Potential Energy 34-36
CHAPTER 3 – HYDROSTATICS - PRESSURE 37
Pressure on Solids 37
Pressure in liquids and gas 38
Uses of pressure in liquids and gas 39-40
APPENDIX
List of Constants and Formula 41
CSEC lab Format 42
Reading List 42
42
Reading List 43
List of Constants and Formulas 43
CSEC Lab manual 44

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Campion College Grade 9 Physics Name:- ________________________ Form :___________

INTRODUCTORY PHYSICS SKILLS

Reference: excerpts from

[Link]
s%20and%20Mark%[Link]

1. Knowledge and Comprehension (KC)

The ability to: Knowledge- identify, remember and grasp the meaning of basic facts,
concepts and principles; Comprehension -select appropriate ideas, match, compare and
cite examples of facts, concepts and principles in familiar situations.

2. Use of Knowledge (UK)

The ability to: Application - use facts, concepts, principles and procedures in unfamiliar
situations; transform data accurately and appropriately; use formulae accurately for
computations; Analysis and Interpretation - identify and recognise the component parts
of a whole and interpret the relationship between those parts; identify causal factors and
show how they interact with each other; infer, predict and draw conclusions; make
necessary and accurate calculations and recognise the limitations and assumptions
inherent in the collection and interpretation of data; Synthesis - combine component parts
to form a new meaningful whole; make predictions and solve problems; Evaluation -
make reasoned judgments and recommendations based on the value of ideas and
information and their implications.

3. Experimental Skills (XS)

The ability to: Observation/Recording/ Reporting -select observations relevant to the

particular activity; record the result of a measurement accurately; select, draw and use
appropriate models of presenting data, for example, tables, graphs and diagrams; organise
and present a complete report in a clear and logical form; report accurately and concisely;
report and recheck unexpected results; Manipulation/Measurement -follow
instructions; set up and use carefully and competently simple laboratory apparatus and
measuring instruments;

SKILL SET breakdown

Measurement and Manipulation (MM)

(a) Student’s ability to handle scientific equipment competently. The list of equipment is: (i)
Bunsen burner; (ii) Vernier callipers; (iii) measuring cylinder; CXC 22/G/SYLL 13 8 (iv)
beakers; (v) thermometer; (vi) ruler; (vii) stop watch/clock; (viii) balance; (ix)
micrometre screw gauge;
(b) Student’s ability to take accurate measurements.

(c) Student’s ability to use appropriate units.

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Observation, Reporting and Recording (ORR)

(a) Recording- Student’s ability to record observations and to collect and organise data;
observations and data may be recorded in: (i) Prose Written description of observations in
the correct tense. (ii) Table Numerical: physical quantities with symbols and units stated
in heading, significant figures. (iii) Graph Title axes labelled, correct scales, accurate
plotting fine points, and smooth curves/best fit lines. (iv) Calculations must be shown
with attention paid to units.

(b) Reporting -Student’s ability to prepare a comprehensive written report on their

assignments using the following format. (i) Date (date of experiment). (ii) Aim (what is
to be accomplished by doing the experiment). (iii) Apparatus and Materials (all
equipment and materials used in the experiment must be listed). (iv)
Method/Experimental Procedure (step by step procedure written in the past tense). (v)
Results and Observations (see (a) above: Recording). (vi) Discussion and Conclusion
(see 4: Analysis and Interpretation).

Analysis and Interpretation (A&I) Student’s ability to:

(a) make accurate calculations;

(b) identify patterns and trends, cause and effect, and stability and change ;
(c) compare actual results with expected results if they are different;
(d) identify limitations and sources of error and error ranges if appropriate;
(e) suggest alternative methods or modification to existing methods;
(f) draw a conclusion justified by data.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES TERM 1 AND 2 from Section A

On completion of this Section, students should: 1. understand the importance of measurement

and graphical representation of data; 2. appreciate the difference between scalar and vector
quantities; 3. be familiar with the various effects of forces; 4. understand the significance of the
concept of energy;

RESEARCH

Units: Students should do a five-minute PowerPoint presentation or video on the failure of

the $125 Million Mars Climate orbiter mission, which was launched in 1999 due to a mix up
of metric and imperial units. The importance of units in Physics should be emphasised
through this exercise.

Centre of gravity: Is it easier or harder to balance a yardstick on your finger than a pencil or
ruler? Experiment and try to figure out why. Can you make a pencil easier to balance on your

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finger by adding weight at the top? Explain. “Centre of gravity: Pencil balance” from ZOOM
should be viewed as a class activity.
[Link]
gravity-pencil-balance/

Friction: Design a mini poster on “shooting stars”. Explain why the meteors burn up in the
atmosphere.

Gravity: Do a research project on how the construction industry evolved to build modern
day sky scrapers and why they could not be built in the past. The tallest constructions of the
past were pyramids. Why did they have to have bigger bases the taller they were built?
[Link]

Friction, turning forces: Design a poster to explain why rally cars can drift around corners
and Formula 1 cars do not.

Pendulums: Do five minute group presentations on clocks through the ages and how the
pendulum is used to build the clocks.

SECTION C – HYDROSTATICS TERM 3

Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid at a given point due to the force of
gravity. It hinges on the principle of pressure which is the force applied over an area.
Hydrostatics is fundamental to hydraulics for example.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES

On completion of this Section, students should: [Link] aware of the application of hydrostatics
in everyday life.2. compare pressure exerted based on different area, 3. relate the pressure at
a point in a fluid to its depth and the density; 4. apply Archimedes’ principle to predict
whether a body would float or sink in a given fluid.

PROJECT

Demonstrate using a can/bottle with holes at same and at different levels, to illustrate the
principle.

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PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS

BASIC AND DERIVED QUANTITIES

This international system of units, SI unit, is used worldwide to standardize measurements of
physical quantities so that data is comparable regardless of where you are. It is based on the
following five units:
metre, kilogram, second, Ampere, Kelvin. Note the capital letters for those named after a
scientist.
ALL Other SI units are defined in terms of these basic units. Complete the table.
SI basic units
Base quantity SI base unit
Length m
Mass kilogram
Time s
Electric current A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela ca

All other quantities obtained from combination of one or more of the basic physical quantities
are called derived quantities. Their units are obtained from the basic quantities by
multiplication or division.

** Look up the formula for the following derived quantities and note the combinations of basic
quantities used. For example- Volume of a cube uses basic unit length i.e. length of the width X
length of the height X length of the base = m3
Area?
Density?

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Some introductory examples of SI derived units

SI derived unit
Derived quantity Name Symbol
force Newton N
area square meter m2
volume cubic meter m3
pressure Pascal Pa
Energy , work Joule J
Frequency hertz Hz
density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3

Using appropriate SI units for derived quantities

Note that the units used in the formula for pressure are not present in the required SI unit which
is Pa. So where pressure is calculated using Force per unit area in kg/m3 using the original SI
unit for the basic quantities, the final answer must use the SI unit Pa.

The same applies for Work calculated by force applied through a distance in Nm, however the SI
unit is J.

CONVERSION OF UNITS

You have been converting basic units for example grams to kilograms and centimetres to meters
in math. Derived units like volume and area requires multiplication of basic quantities such as
length in metres m. Using a typical ruler in the laboratory your measurements will be in
centimetre cm hence the area cm2 and the volume cm3 will have to be converted to m2 and m3 by
multiplying by 0.01m two times and three times respectively. See example below:-

Area 1cm2= (0.01m) (0.01m) = 0.0001 m3= 10 -4 m2

Volume 1cm3 = (0.01m) (0.01m)(0.01m)= 0.000001 m3= 10 -6 m3

Example:-A volume of 320 cm3 converted to SI unit m3

1cm3 = 0.01 X 0.01 X 0.01 = 0.000001 m3

ALWAYS CONVERT ANSWERS TO SI
320 cm3 = 0.000320 m 3 UNITS and write the UNIT SYMBOL
**Note that 1 ml = 1 cm 3

Example :- An Area of 64cm 2 converted to SI unit m2

1cm2 = (0.01m) (0.01m) = 0.0001 m3= 10 -4 m2

64 cm 2 = 0. 0064 m2

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STANDARD FORM

Physics csec syllabus -1.6 expresses the result of a measurement or calculation to an appropriate number
of significant figures;

Standard form is a way of writing down very large or very small numbers easily and without
the use of many zeros. We sometimes call it scientific notation.
Scientific Notation is based on powers of the base number 10.

The number 123,000,000,000 in scientific notation is written as :1.23 X 1011

The 1stnumber 1.23 is called the coefficient. It must be greater than or equal to 1 and less than
10.

The 2nd number is called the base . It must always be 10 in scientific notation. The base number
10 is always written in exponent form. In the number 1.23 x 1011 the number 11 is referred to as
the exponent or power of ten.

We write 1000 as 103, 10 000 as 104 and so on.

Small decimal numbers less than 1 can also be written in standard form. However, instead of
the index of the power being positive it will be negative.
So 0.001\3 is written as 30-3
5000 would be 5x103
0.005 would be 5x10- 3
5200 would be written as 5.2x103
0.0052 would be written as 5.2x10-3

Multiplication

Work out the coefficient then add the indices

5000 x 3000 = 5x103 x 3x103 = 15x106 = 1.5x107

Division

Work out the coefficient then subtract the indices

50000 ÷300 = 5x104 ÷3x102 = 1.67x102 = 167

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MEASURING IN PHYSICS

Phys CSEC syllabus - 1.7 discuss possible types and sources of error in any measurement;
Visit:-[Link]

PRECAUTIONS AND ERRORS WHEN MEASURING

Precautions- Precautions must be considered before you begin an experiment to increase your
chance of obtaining valid data. Instruments must be calibrated by ensuring zero measurement
when no force is being applied or room temperature for thermometers before a temperature
change is applied. The choice of instrument for a particular job depends on the size of quantity to
be measured and the sensitivity and accuracy of the equipment. Work area must be free from
clutter and hazard free and care taken in the manipulation of the apparatus.

Errors- measurements can be subjected to errors due to :-

Random Errors
Random errors in experimental measurements are caused by unknown and unpredictable changes
in the experiment. These changes may occur in the measuring instruments or in the
environmental conditions and can be reduced by repetition and averaging data.

 Human reaction time

 Changing environmental conditions such as varying temperature , wind , noise

Systematic Errors
Systematic errors in experimental observations usually come from the measuring instruments.
They may occur because:

 there is something wrong with the instrument or its data handling system, or
 because the instrument is wrongly used by the experimenter such as making wrong
estimate of reading between two marks on the scale or the person has not read the scale
with eyes directly in front of it i.e. parallax error.

Phys CSEC syllabus -1.8 use a variety of instruments to measure different quantities; Measurements
should include length – rulers, vernier callipers, micrometer screw gauge; units. Mass – balances; units.
Time – clocks, stop clocks or watches; units. Volume – measuring cylinder; units

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LENGTH

Length measures the distance between two points. Meter rulers and cm rulers can be used,
however to find precise measurements of smaller dimensions a vernier calliper and micro-metre
screw gauge can be used as seen in A and B.

Length is used to find derived quantities such as Volume and Area. Volume and mass is used to
find Density.

Area of a regular object m2 = length m × width m

Volume of a regular object m3 = length m × width m × height m

Density =

Notice:- The Derived unit reflects how the basic unit was used in the calculation

A. VERNIER CALLIPER

A vernier calliper is used to take measurements that are accurate to within .001 of an inch or .02
of a millimetre.

Visit
[Link]
a-Vernier-Caliper.

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 To find the diameter of a coin, close the jaws of the callipers until it just grips it. ( main
scale is numbered in cm but has mm divisions)

 Read the main scale opposite the zero mark on the sliding jaw to obtain a reading to 1/10
cm or 1 mm accuracy.

 To read the vernier scale look for the mark on the vernier scale which is exactly lined up
with a mark on the main scale.

[Link]

View example

1.30cm
+ 0.06cm
1.36cm

2.80cm
+ 0.05cm
2.85cm

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B. MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE

Micrometer screw gauge, is a device

incorporating a calibrated screw widely used for
precise measurement of components in some
branches of engineering. The spindle is a very
accurately machined screw and the object to be
measured is placed between the spindle and the anvil. The spindle is moved by turning the
ratchet knob or thimble until the object to be measured is lightly touched by both the spindle and
the anvil.

 Hold an object between the open jaws and screw them closed using the ratchet ( the main
scale found on the sleeve is numbered in mm and has mm and ½ mm marks).

 Read this scale on the edge of the thimble.

NOTE:
One revolution of the thimble opens or closes the gap by ½ mm. A scale which has 50
divisions is marked around the edge of the thimble. Therefore each division on the
thimble is 0.5 mm/50 = 0.01 mm ie. a hundredth of a mm.
Read the number of hundredth of mm on the thimble scale opposite the centre line of the sleeve
scale. View example below.

2.50mm
+ 0.42mm
2.92mm

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MASS

The amount of matter /particles which make up a

substance is called its mass, measured in kg [SI unit].
Mass is measured by using a triple beam balance where
sliders are moved until the pointer returns to zero then
added or digital balance which is more precise. Both
instruments must show a reading of zero before use.

WEIGHT of a body is the force exerted by gravity on it. The weight of a

body can be calculated by the mass 1kg multiplied by acceleration due to
gravity 9.8m/s2 . Weight is measured using a spring balance with units in
Newton [N]. 1kg mass may be equivalent to 10N on a spring balance
[Newton Scale]

Weight N = mass kg X acceleration due to gravity m/s2

Physics CSEC syllabus - 3.3 determine the weight of objects;

[Link]

MASS (kg) AND WEIGHT(N)

Physics CSEC syllabus -3.3 determine the weight of objects;

Title: Using a spring balance to measure Force (weight) and total extension of the spring

Aim: To investigate the effect of force on extension of a spring

Materials: spring balance, masses [100g], ruler, retort stand

Method : [rewrite in report format]

1. Record the initial length showing the level of the base of the spring scale

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2. One at a time add a 100g mass to the spring balance and note the stretching force in N

3. Record the final length and calculate the extension of the spring.

4. Plot a line graph of your results.

Results: [Table and Graph THE EFFECT OF FORCE ON EXTENSION]

Title for table...............

Mass on the spring scale (g) Stretching force (N) Extension of spring (cm)
100

200

300

400

500

Precaution: state one

Source of Error: state one

Conclusion: Does the results suggest any rule about how the spring
behaves?
Example

Hooke’s law says that the extension is proportional to the load.

Physcsec syllabus – 3.13 investigate the relationship between extension

and force; Interpretation of simple force-extension graphs. Identification of regions of proportionality for
springs.

When investigating Hook’s law using a spring scale (balance) in Newton Force [F] is
proportional to Extension [e] as the F increases while the [e] increases.

However the relationship between Force and extension is one of direct proportionality if when
you divide the two quantities you obtain a constant [k] as well as the graph passes through the
origin (0,0). This indicates that the proportionality is direct.

K = F/ e The spring constant K measures how stiff the spring is. ‘e’ is the distance the
spring i stretched. The force exerted by the spring F is the restoring Force which acts to restore
the spring towards equilibrium. If the relationship is not in proportion it means the elastic limit
has been exceeded. Hook’s Law is applicable in orthodontist use of braces and retainers; in

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engineering where there is use of coils to support weight, even in making push-pens and push-
pencils.

VOLUME

Volume measures the amount of space occupied. A geometric object can be measured using a
ruler to find the length of the sides and multiply them to get cubic metre. Cylinders and spheres
take the radius and π into consideration. However displacement method has to be used for
irregularly shaped objects. This is done by using a given volume of water as volume 1 then
placing the object in the measuring cylinder and measuring the new volume as volume 2. The
difference between the volumes is the volume of the object. A displacement can is also used
where the volume of water displaced is the volume of the object.

Note that 1ml = 1cm3

Burette has graduation to measure volume with a tap which controls the outlet of liquid. It is
used to dispense measured amounts of a chemical solution.

Pipette measures a specific and small volume of liquid. A burette is distinguished from
a pipette by the fact that the quantity delivered is variable.

Tools for measuring volume

Measuring cylinder Pipette Burette Volumetric Flask

DENSITY

To measure density we simply use the following formula:

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The unit of density is the kg/m3 (pronounced “kilogram per metre

cubed”) or g/cm3
DENSITY AND FLOTATION
Physics CSEC syllabus -1.10 apply the formula for density: .

An object will float in a liquid if the density of the solid is less than the
density of the liquid.
A less dense liquid will float on top of a more dense liquid
e.g. oil will float on [Link]

If the density of copper is 9g cm-3 , find a) the mass of 5cm3 and b) the
volume of 63g.
a) We have m=Vxρ = 5cm 3 x 9g cm-3 = 45g*Note that the cm3
cancels out cm-3, leaving the answer for m in g.

b) We have V= = 63g/ 9g cm-3 = 7cm3 * Note that g on top cancels

out with g on the bottom leaving the answer for V in 1/cm-3 or cm3 .
Ref:-Physics for the Caribbean Ona &Duncan
To measure the density of a regularly-shaped block
To find the mass using triple beam balance and compare with digital balance.
To find the volume:
Volume = length × width × height
In this case the volume is 5 × 2 × 1 = 10 cm3.
To measure the density of an irregularly-shaped small stone
To find the mass - using triple beam balance and compare with digital balance.

To find the volume:

Drop the stone into a graduated cylinder containing water and note the new volume.
To get the volume of the stone simply subtract the two readings.
In this case the volume = 90 – 75 = 15 cm3.

To measure the density of an irregularly-shaped large stone

To find the mass - using triple beam balance and compare with digital
balance.
To find the volume:
Fill an overflow can up to the top and place an empty graduated cylinder
under the spout.
Carefully drop the stone in (using a string so there is no splash).
Note the level of water in the overflow can.

To measure the density of a liquid

To find the mass:

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Weigh an empty graduated cylinder, and then weigh the graduated cylinder after pouring water
into it.
Then subtract the two readings.
To find the volume simply note the level of water in the graduated cylinder.
TIME

Physics CSEC syllabus- 1.2 investigate the factors [one factor] which might affect the period of a simple
pendulum;
1.3 use graphs of experimental data from simple pendulum; Use or to denote plotted points.
Allow students to plot T vs L.
1.4 draw a line of ‘best fit’ for a set of plotted values;
1.5 determine the gradient of the straight line graph;

TITLE: The Simple Pendulum [14mks]

The word 'pendulum' is new Latin, from the Latin pendulus, meaning 'hanging'. A pendulum is a
weight suspended from a pivot so that it can swing freely. When released, the pendulum will
swing back and forth before coming to rest. The time for one complete cycle, a left swing and a
right swing, is called the period. A pendulum swings with a specific period which depends
(mainly) on its length. From its discovery around 1602 by Galileo Galilei the regular motion of
pendulums was used for timekeeping to regulate pendulum clocks as oscillations remain
constant within controlled environment.

Aim: To determine the length of string for a pendulum that would take one second to oscillate

Materials: Stand, clamp, pendulum bob, string, stop watch, protractor, metre rule

Procedure :[report format]

1. Attach a pendulum unto the stand.

2. Tie one end of the string to the bob and the other end to the clamp.

3. Adjust the string until the distance from the top of the clamp to the bottom of the bob is
60 cm.

4. Tighten the clamp.

5. Move the bob 35 0 to the right and record the time for 10 oscillations.

6. Repeat this procedure for lengths 60cm, 50 cm , 40 cm, 30 cm, 20 cm and 10 cm.[the cm
may be used in your data table]

7. Tabulate the data and plot a graph of time for one swing (period)i.e. one oscillation
against length.

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Results: [*note-Period (T) = t avg ÷ # of oscillations]

TABLE SHOWING VALUES OBTAINED FOR PERIOD (T) AT DIFFERENT LENGTHS

Length (cm) Time for 10 Time for 10 Average time PERIOD (T)-
oscillations oscillations (seconds)tAvg Time for 1
(seconds) t1 (seconds )t2 oscillation
(seconds)

GRAPH OF PERIOD AGAINST LENGTH

Precaution: (state one precaution)

Source of Error: (state one source of error)
Conclusion:
1) Does the Length of string affect the Time period?
2) Is there a constant in the Period? [direct proportion by dividing the Length by the Time
Period]

3) What length of string takes one second to oscillate?

Mark scheme
ORR= 12 MARKS reported procedure = 1 ; table title = 1 ; column heading with untis = 1 ;
data = 1 ; graph title = 1 ; label axes = 2 ; plotted points = 2 ; outline axes = 1; precaution and
error = 2

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A/I = 2 marks for conclusion

***To take this principle to another level in order to obtain a straight line T2 is found as a result
of the formula for the gradient of a line. ***
OBSERVATION/REPORTING/RECORDING - Line graph mark scheme
16 marks [scaled to 10]
Criteria Complete Partial Not at all
A pencil is used for drawings in lines on graphs, labelling the axes 2 1 0
and writing the title
The independent variable is plotted on the X axis and the dependent 2 1 0
variable on the Y axis
The scales chosen for the graph axes makes it easy to read the 2 1 0
graph, such as 1, 2 or 5 units to a 20 mm square and make the best
use of the space available – half or more of the length and width of
the grid
Each axis is labelled and the relevant quantity and units stated e.g. 2 1 0
Temperature of solution/0C
Points are lightly drawn (but are visible on the grid) with a sharp 2 1 0
pencil using a fine cross or an encircled dot; points are no larger
than one of the smallest squares on the grid
Where data falls on a straight line or smooth curve, and then a line 2 1 0
of best fit or an appropriate curve is drawn in on the graph; when a
straight line or smooth curve is not formed neighbouring points are
joined by straight ruled lines; lines of best fit show an even
distribution of points on either side of the line along its whole
length
Lines are thin, drawn without kinks or breaks 2 1 0
Title - a concise statement identifying the variables included in the 2 1 0
graph is printed and underlined with a single line
See example of best fit linebelow

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FORCES
[Link]

Physics CSEC syllabus- 3.1 explain the effects of forces; 3.2 identify types of forces; 2.1
distinguish between scalars and vectors and give examples of each;

By now you have been using various physical quantities in their basic and derived form. These
physical quantities can however present as one- dimensional Scalar form or two-dimensional
Vector form.
Scalars are quantities that are fully described by a magnitude (or numerical value/size) alone.
For example mass 6kg, distance 10m, speed 4m s-1, time 67s , power 12W, energy 23J
Understanding scalar quantities measures the basics of activity occurring. For Example; If you
place 50kg of stones in a truck, then place 20Kg more stones in the truck, you will amount to
70Kg. If the truck travels 15m in 5seconds the scalar value speed is calculated as distance/ time =
3ms-1 ; However if the truck travelled 15m north changes the distance to displacement therefore
Velocity = displacement /time = 3ms-1 North.
Vector quantities have both magnitude (size) and direction. There are only six vector
quantities: displacement , velocity , acceleration , force , weight , momentum
Vector quantities change when: their magnitude changes, their direction changes, their
magnitude and direction both change
An example of vector quantity is the use of force N instead of mass kg. This is because force
measure the effect of gravity on mass and gravity acts to pull object in a downward direction.
So a 50kg mass exerts a force of 500N downward on a platform.

FORCE can be defined as a physical influence (push or pull) that tends to change position
(accelerate, slow down or change shape) of an object with mass.
Force types are placed into two broad category headings on the basis of whether the force
resulted from the contactor non-contact of the two interacting objects. Contact forces include
friction, and tension for example. Non-Contact would include gravitational force, electrical
force, air resistance and magnetic forces.

The result of these forces can create balanced or unbalanced forces.

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The SI unit of Force is the Newton (N) which is based on the change of
speed a force can produce on a body. Weight is a force and therefore
should be measured in Newton and can be measured using a spring balance
or Newton metre. On the earth’s surface the weight of a body of mass 1kg
is 9.8N which is often averaged as 10N. Therefore a mass of kg has a
weight of ___N. The mass of a body is the same wherever it is as it does
not depend on the presence of gravity as does weight.

BALANCED AND UNBALANCED FORCES

:-[Link]
Refer to
Forces that act on objects at rest

Forces that act on moving objects

Newton’s First Law States :- An object at rest tends to stay at rest, and an object in
motion tends to stay in motion, with the same direction and speed. Motion (or lack of motion)
cannot change without an unbalanced force acting.

Newton’s Second Law states: - the acceleration of an object is dependent upon two variables –
the net force acting upon the object and the mass of the object.

Newton’s Third Law states:- For every action (force) there is an equal and opposite reaction
(force). Forces are found in pairs.

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Unbalanced Forces
If a force acts in opposing position, that force is unbalanced if it is greater than or less than the
original force. That means when you subtract these forces the resultant force is not zero.
So if you push a bag of books exerting a force of 47N and a friend pushed the box back against
you using a force of 52 N then the resultant force would be 52N – 47N = 5N right

Resultant Forces
The result of forces added or subtracted is called resultant force.
Forces acting in the same direction along a straight line can be added. So if you and your friend
pushed the box of books in the same direction you would add both forces 52N + 47N = 99N left
However you would subtract because the forces are acting in the opposite direction.

Newton's Second Law speaks about resultant force in that if the forces on an
object are unbalanced then the resultant force will cause the _ _ _ _ _ _ of the object to change.
The bigger the _ _ _ _ _, the bigger the change in motion.

A change in motion is called _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ o n.

Therefore Force = mass x acceleration F=mxa

For example, gravitational attraction of the Earth is about 10 N/kg

[Link]

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FRICTION

Friction is one factor which affects motion.

Friction opposes motion and can be a benefit [create needed heat, brakes, walking writing] and a
nuisance [create unwanted heat, wears down surfaces, reduce efficiency].
Friction in the form of resistance from air and water is called drag. Travelling in water and air as
a medium creates resistance. A streamlined shape helps to reduce resistance as the tapered end
cuts through the air and water.

Streamline

Reducing Friction between Surfaces

 Ball bearings

 Adding wheels

 Create smooth surfaces

 Use of lubricant

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BALANCE AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY

Gravity acts on everything on earth. Recall that gravitational attraction of the Earth is
approximately 10 N/kg and becomes more precise over the sea at 9.8 N/kg.

As we live one earth balance is important to avoid accidents for example. Building, devices and
vehicles are created with this principle in mind.

Centre of Gravity - the point at which all of the weight of an object appears to be concentrated.
When an object is suspended so that it can move freely, its centre of gravity is always directly
below the point of suspension. An object can be balanced on a sharp point placed directly
beneath its centre of gravity. It is important for automobiles and trucks to have their centres of
gravity located close to the road, because a low centre of gravity gives them stability.
[Link]

Let us look at the vehicles below. Discuss the design of the vehicles which are likely to topple
while turning at high speed.
[Link]

The position of the centre of gravity of an object affects its stability.

 The lower the centre of gravity (G) is, the more stable the object.

 The higher it is, the more likely the object is to topple over if it is pushed.

Racing cars have really low centres of gravity so that they can take corners rapidly without
turning over. [Link] 14/Mechanics/Statics/text/Stability_/[Link]

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CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND EQUILIBRIUM

3.11 determine the location of the centre of gravity of a body;
3.12 relate the stability of an object to the position of its centre of gravity and its weight;

Perform an experiment where you find the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped lamina [flat
piece of object like cardboard]. Observe the diagram below of an experiment done.
Use internet and Physics CSEC text books to help you design an experiment to determine the
centre of gravity of your lamina. Take your materials to class and you will be given a clamp to
swing your lamina if needed. Ensure your holes are near the edge and separated equally around
your lamina.

Stability and Equilibrium

If an object is in equilibrium which means that it is balanced, then it will either tilt, tip over or
roll when a force is applied.
Three conditions of equilibrium are as a result such as:-
(a) stable equilibrium when it tilts but then falls back to the original position
(b) unstable equilibrium when it tilts and then falls over
(c) neutral equilibrium when it rolls

State the state of equilibrium of the following:-

1. A ball on the ground ………………………………..
2. A box on a table …………………………………..
3. A vuvuzela placed to stand on the mouthpiece …………………….

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LEVERS

Physics CSEC syllabus -3.7 identify situations in which the application of a force will result in a turning
effect; Situations that are relevant to everyday life, for example, opening a door, sitting on a ‘seesaw’,
using a spanner.
3.10 explain the action of common tools and devices as levers;

Force can be applied to get work done more efficiently by the use of levers as an example of
simple machines. When force is applied resulting in a change of direction from the point of
called a turning force

Classes of Levers

A lever consists of a device with a pivot called Fulcrum [F], an

area where Effort [E] is applied and the Load [L] to which the
effort is being applied.

F L E is used to recall the part of the lever which is in the middle

and each is in the order of 1st class [scissors], 2nd
class[wheelbarrow] then 3rd class levers [broom].

[Link]

Characteristics of class 1 levers

[Link]

 First-class levers always change the direction of the force, so if the effort is “down,”
the load moves “up” as when using a screw driver to open a paint can.
 First-class levers can be used to affect the force on the load, the distance through
which the load moves, and the speed with which it moves as when using a scissors.
 If the fulcrum is close to the load and far from the effort, the force is increased but the
effort must move through a greater distance or with a greater speed to move the load.
 If, on the other hand, the fulcrum is close to the effort, the force is not as much increased
but the load moves through a greater distance or with a greater speed.
Examples:-
1. In opening a paint can with a screw driver- the hand is the EFFORT, the FULCRUM is
the point of contact in the groove of the tin cover and the paint can is the LOAD
2. The handle of a scissor is the EFFORT, the supporting screw is the FULCRUM and the
LOAD is the blade and whatever it is being used to cut.

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Characteristics of class 2 levers

A second-class lever does not change the direction of the force (if the effort force points “up,”
the load moves “up”).

Examples :-
1. Wheelbarrow you see at school when pulled up the load tilts down
2. The door

Characteristics of class 3 levers

Like a second-class lever, a third-class lever does not change the direction of the force.
What, then, is the use of third-class levers? They alwaysproduce a gain in the speed (or
distance covered per unit time) of the load. Sometimes the gain in speed of the load is useful
in itself.

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MOMENTS AND LEVERS

3.8 define the moment of a force, T; Moment units of Nm. Note that Nm is not equivalent to a Joule.

You are doing Work when you use a Force to cause Motion.

1. Motion is the changing of position of an object in Reference to a Starting Point.

2. Work is the transfer of Energy through motion.

3. In order for work to take place, a Force must be exerted through a distance.

4. Amount of Work (w) done depends on two things:

 The amount of Force (F) exerted.

 The perpendicular Distance (d) over which the Force is applied

5. Equation for Work :- w = F x dNm

6. Work is measured Joules after British Scientist James Prescott Joule however 1 Joule is equal
to 1 Nm ONLY if the forces acting are parallel. Moment of a force is not parallel so the unit
Nm is maintained.

7. One Nm, is Work done when a Force of one Newton acts through a perpendicular Distance
of one [Link] is the Moment of a Force Nm.

8. There are two factors to keep in mind when deciding whether work is being done:

A. Something has to move.

B. The motion must be in the direction of the applied Force.

9. The amount of Work a machine produces equals the Force used Multiplied By the Distance
the Machine lifts or moves and object.

Forces that act on objects that have a fixed point – such as the hinge of a door, or the axle
of a wheel – may make that object rotate. We call the turning effect of a force the moment.

The fixed point is often called the pivot or fulcrum. How strong the turning effect is depends on:

size of the force

distance from the pivot

The turning effect or moment of a force is dependent on both the size of the force and how far
[distance] it is applied from the pivot or fulcrum.

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Moment of Force = Force [N] x Perpendicular distance from fulcrum [m]

Units = Newton metres (Nm). N.B.
Try pushing a door to get it to turn from a place of rest [moment of a force] by, a) placing your
index finger on the door right beside the hinge and compare it with b) placing your index finger
at the edge of the door beside the door knob. Which is easier? You will notice that the distance
can determine how easy it is to get the door to turn.

Law of Moments

Many machines must contain a counter balance in order to carry out its work. It means that
for equilibrium to be met, the work done on one side must be equal to the work done on the other
side. The Moment of a force is a measure of its tendency to cause a body to rotate about a
specific point or axis.

The Law of Moments AKA the Law of the Lever states:

When an object or body is in equilibrium the sum of the clockwise moments about any point
equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same point.

Gravity exerts forces F1 and F2 on the

masses m1 and m2at distances d1 and
d2.

F1 is trying to turn the object anticlockwise. (F1 x d1 = the moment) Nm

F2 is trying to turn the object clockwise. (F2 x d2 = the moment) Nm
When the object is in balance we say it is in equilibrium.
If the object is balanced (in equilibrium) then:
The anticlockwise moment should equal the clockwise moment.F1 x d1 = F2 x d2
[Link]

Find the Centre of Gravity of your ruler. Fill in the data from your experiment. The number of
masses and the distance is provided. Convert your distance to m and your masses to kg then to
Force in N.
Left side Right side
Distance from Force /N Anticlockwise Distance from Force /N Clockwise
COG/m moment/ Nm COG/m moment/Nm
0.3 (3) (1 )
0.4 (4) (3)
0.45 (1) (2)
(4) 0.5 (2)
What trend do you notice?

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Levers
Forces can be used to turn objects around
pivots. A pivot is also known as a fulcrum.

Levers work by magnifying the force that is put

in or the distance it moves.
The hammer is acting as a force multiplier.
MOMENT OF A FORCE
A turning force is called a moment. Moments are measured in newton metres (N m).

Small moment. Big moment.

The longer the distance the greater the moment. It is easier to turn the long spanner than the
short one.

When an object is balanced, the anticlockwise moment = the clockwise moment.

In the example above:

the anticlockwise moment = 300 N X 2 m

= 600 Nm

the clockwise moment = 400N X 1.5 m

= 600 Nm

The clockwise and anticlockwise moments are the same, so the seesaw is balanced or
inequilibrium.

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Cranes use the principle of moments. The

moment from the load is balanced by the
moment from the concrete blocks to stop the
crane toppling over.

Adapted from Exploring Science QCA Copymaster File 9 © Pearson Education Limited 2003

CALCULATING WORK DONE [J] when perpendicular force is applied

Work is the size of the force being exerted multiplied by the displacement i.e. distance that you
move in the direction of the force. When a force (N) acts upon an object to cause a
displacement (m) of the object, it is said that work (SI unit J) was done upon the
object. WORK IS NOT DONE IF THERE IS NO DISPLACEMENT i.e. if there is no
movement, so if you continually press upon a wall while remaining at a constant position which
does not move then work is not done!

WORK W is therefore equal to Force time Displacement/distance moved in the direction of the
force where F is the force, d is the displacement

work = force x
displacement or W = F x d

 The SI unit for force is newton (N).

 The SI unit for distance is meter (m).

 The SI unit for work is joule (J).

EXAMPLES :-

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A fork lift moves 34m carrying a 1023N box across the warehouse floor. How much work is
done by the fork lift?

W=Fxd

W = (1023N) X (34m)

W = 34,782 J

The forklift does 34,782J of work

POWER

5.11 define power and apply definition;

Power is the rate at which work is done. It is the work/time ratio.
Power = Work / time
or
P=W/t
The standard metric unit of power is the Watt. As is implied
by the equation for power, a unit of power is equivalent to a
unit of work divided by a unit of time. Thus, a Watt is
equivalent to a Joule/second.
[Link]

If you are given the distance/displacement, the Force and the Time, you can also calculate the
power.

EXAMPLES:-

When doing a chin-up, a physics student lifts her 42.0-kg body a

distance of 0.25 meters in 2 seconds. What is the power delivered by
the student’s biceps?

W = F X d = (411.6 N) X (0.250 m)
W = 102.9 J
The power is the work/time ratio which is (102.9 J) / (2 seconds) = 51.5 Watts (rounded)

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KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

5.6 define potential energy;

5.7 calculate the change in gravitational potential energy using:
5.8 define kinetic energy;
5.9 calculate kinetic energies

Work, energy and power all play a role in our everyday lives. Energy is needed to do work. The
law of conservation of energy states that

Energy cannot be created nor destroyed; it can only be converted from one form to
another.

There are two categories of energy, kinetic energy and potential energy. The difference between
them is whether the energy is being transferred (kinetic) or stored (potential). They are
interconvertible.

When energy cause motion it is called kinetic energy and the unit is Joule.

[Link]

The kinetic energy of an object is dependent both the mass of the object and its velocity.

Question 1: A car is moving with the velocity of 10 m/s and is having mass of 250 Kg. Calculate
its Kinetic energy?
Solution:

Given: Mass of the body m = 250 Kg,

Velocity v = 10 m/s,
Kinetic energy is given by K.E = 12 mv2
= 12 × 250 Kg (10 m/s)2
= 12500 Kgm2/s2.

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Question 2: A man is carrying a trolley of mass 6 Kg and having Kinetic energy of 40 J.

Calculate its Velocity with which he is running?
Solution:

Given: Mass m = 6 Kg,

Kinetic energy K.E = 60 J,
Velocity v = [Link]−−−−√
= 2×40J6Kg−−−−−√
= 13.33−−−−√
= 3.65 m/s.
The man is running with the velocity of 3.65 m/s.
[Link]

POTENTIAL ENERGY

The energy possessed by virtue of its state or position is called potential energy. One example
where energy is being stored as potential energy is Gravitational Potential Energy. The change in
a body’s gravitational potential energy can be found by multiplying the mass by acceleration due
to gravity and the height.

Potential Energy Example

Case 1:

A cat had climbed at the top of the tree. The Tree is 20 meters high and the cat weighs 6kg. How
much potential energy does the cat have? m = 6 kg, h = 20 m, g = 9.8 m/s2(Gravitational
Acceleration of the earth)

Substitute the values in the below potential energy formula:

Potential Energy: PE = m x g x h = 6 x 9.8 x 20
Potential Energy: PE = 1176 J

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Case 2:

On a 3m ledge, a rock is laying at the potential energy of 120 J. What will be the mass of the
rock. PE = 120 J, h = 3m, g = 9.8 m/s2(Gravitational Acceleration of the earth)

Step 1:

Substitute the values in the below Velocity formula:

[Link]

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PRESSURE
PRESSURE

6. HYDROSTATICS
6.1 define pressure and apply definition;
6.2 relate the pressure at a point in a fluid to its depth and the density;
6.3 apply Archimedes’ principle to predict whether a body would float or sink in a given fluid.

Pressure is the force exerted over a given area. The SI unit of pressure is Pa regardless of it being
pressure on solids, liquid pressure or atmospheric/gaseous pressure.

PRESSURE ON SOLIDS
On solids the force is measured in Newtons N and the area in m2 . With the same force applied
the pressure can be changed depending on the contact pressure on the surface.

The smaller the area, the greater the pressure

The greater the area, the less pressure

This is because the larger surface area spreads the effect of the force [spreads the load]. Observe
the following examples:-

A The thumb is putting a B The thumb is putting a

force onto the head of force on the board. The
the pin. The force is area of the thumb is
transferred to the point much larger than the
of the pin. This is a area of the pin point,
very small area, so so there is only a small
there is a very large pressure on the board.
pressure on the board, The thumb does not go
and the pin goes in. into the board.

Examples of a small area giving a large pressure:

Sharp knife. Sharp Ice skates.

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Examples of a large area giving a small pressure:

Snow shoes. Camel’s wide hoofs on sand.

This knowledge allows you to understand the benefit of keeping a knife and scissor sharp in
order to reduce the force you would have to apply to peel or cut. It also influences your decision
to choose appropriate shoes during a rainy day in that you would not choose a narrow heeled
shoe to wear on the soil but a flat wide based shoe.

We can work out the pressure on a solid surface by using this formula:

pressure = force ÷ area

Pressure can be measured in:

• newtons per square metre (N/m2)

• newtons per square centimetre (N/cm2)
• pascals (Pa) , the SI unit
=1 N/m2 =1 Pa
PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS AND GASES

Both gases and liquids are fluids. Fluids can flow. Pressure in fluids acts in all directions. The
particles in fluids are moving all the time and hitting the walls of containers or other things they
come into contact with. The force of the collisions causes pressure which acts in all
[Link] swimmer is floating because pressure in the water provides a force called
upthrust, which balances the force of gravity. As you go deeper into the sea, pressure increases
because there is more water above you pressing down. Dams are made with thicker walls at the
bottom to withstand the pressure.

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Observe the water in the can experiment where

holes are pierced 5cm apart. Using the formula
for pressure in liquids as

[Link]

USES OF PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS

AND GASES
Gases can be compressed. The pressure in
a compressed gas is higher because there
are more molecules moving around and
hitting the walls of the container.
Pneumatic tyres contain compressed air
and this keeps the tyre inflated and helps
to soften a bumpy ride.

Liquids cannot be compressed. Liquids are used in hydraulic systems which can be used to
increase the size of a force. Hydraulics are used in car braking systems and to lift heavy
machinery and vehicles. It is useful to note that all points on the same horizontal level in a
fluid at rest, have the same pressure. It is the area that alters the effect of the force.

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Example

Pressure = force ÷ area

The pressure on the water is 25 N .

5 cm2
5cm²= 0.0005m2
Converting to SI unit Pa ;This is 25 N/ 0.0005m2 = 25N / 5 X 10-4 = 50000 = 5 X 104Pa this
pressure remains the same throughout the liquid.

The area at the end of the other syringe is 12 cm2.

Force = pressure X area

The output force is 5 X 104Pa X 0.0012 m2 = 60 N

Adapted from Exploring Science QCA Copymaster File 9 © Pearson Education Limited 2003

Archimedes' Principle

 If the weight of the water displaced is less than the weight of the object, the
object will sink

 Otherwise the object will float, with the weight of the water displaced equal to
the weight of the object.

Archimedes' Principle explains why steel ships float

Fluid pressure increases with depth because of the (gravitational) weight of the fluid above.
This increasing pressure applies a force on a submerged object that increases with depth. The
result is buoyancy.

WATCH HOW TAKING A BATH LEAD TO ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE

[Link]

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List of Physical Constants & Formulae

speed = distance/time m/s

Gradient of a line as graph = y2 – y1 ÷ x2 – x1

Kinetic energy = 1⁄2 × mass × velocity2 ; K.E = 12 mv2

GPE (J) = mass (kg) x gravitational field strength (or 'g') (N/kg) x height (m)

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CSEC PHYSICS LAB FORMAT

Experiment #____

Date: ________

Title: _________________

Objectives:

Apparatus

Diagram of apparatus (if required)

Procedure: (reported speech, 3rd person)

Results

Calculations

Data Analysis

Precautions

Sources of Error

Conclusion

READING LIST

Campion College e-learning 3rd Form Physics

Physics Revision Guide

Investigating Science for Jamaica Book 3

[Link]

View the following website for suggestions about careers using Physics
[Link]/careersusingphysics

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