Semiconductor Basics

Semiconductor materials are the basic building blocks of all electronic devices from transistors, to
phones, to computers, and to the internet

Here in this tutorial we will look at the concepts behind semiconductor basics, the physics and the
differences between insulators and conductors.

If the resistor is the most basic passive component in electrical or electronic circuits, then we have to
consider the semiconductor diode as being the most basic active component. However, unlike a
resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as it has an exponential I-
V relationship and therefore can not be described simply by using Ohm’s law as we do for resistors.

Diodes are basic unidirectional semiconductor devices that will only allow current to flow through
them in one direction only, acting more like a one way electrical valve, (Forward Biased Condition).
But, before we have a look at how signal or power diodes work we first need to understand the
semiconductors basics of construction and concept.

Diodes are made from a single piece of Semiconductor material which has a positive “P-region” at one
end and a negative “N-region” at the other, and which has a resistivity value somewhere between that
of a conductor and an insulator. But what is a “Semiconductor” material. Firstly let’s look at what
makes something either a Conductor or an Insulator.

Resistivity
The electrical Resistance of an electrical or electronic component or device is generally defined as
being the ratio of the voltage difference across it to the current flowing through it, basic Ohm´s Law
principals. The problem with using resistance as a measurement is that it depends very much on the
physical size of the material being measured as well as the material out of which it is made. For
example, if we were to increase the length of the material (making it longer) its resistance would also
increase proportionally.
Likewise, if we increased its diameter or size (making it thicker) its resistance value would decrease.
So we want to be able to define the material in such a way as to indicate its ability to either conduct or
oppose the flow of electrical current through it no matter what its size or shape happens to be.

The quantity that is used to indicate this specific resistance is called Resistivity and is given the Greek
symbol of ρ, (Rho). Resistivity is measured in Ohm-metres, (Ω.m ). Resistivity is the inverse to
conductivity.

If the resistivity of various materials is compared, they can be classified into three main groups,
Conductors, Insulators and Semi-conductors as shown below.

Resistivity Chart

Notice that there is a very small margin between

the resistivity of the conductors such as silver and
gold, compared to a much larger margin for the
resistivity of the insulators between glass and
quartz.

This difference in resistivity is due in part to

their ambient temperature as metals are much
better conductors of heat than are insulators.

Conductors
From above we now know that Conductors are materials that have very low values of resistivity,
usually in the micro-ohms per metre. This low value allows them to easily pass an electrical current due
to there being plenty of free electrons floating about within their basic atom structure. But these
electrons will only flow through a conductor if there is something to spur their movement, and that
something is an electrical voltage.

When a positive voltage potential is applied to the material these “free electrons” leave their parent
atom and travel together through the material forming an electron drift, more commonly known as a
current. How “freely” these electrons can move through a conductor depends on how easily they can
break free from their constituent atoms when a voltage is applied. Then the amount of electrons that
flow depends on the amount of resistivity the conductor has.
Examples of good conductors are generally metals such as Copper, Aluminium, Silver or non metals
such as Carbon because these materials have very few electrons in their outer “Valence Shell” or ring,
resulting in them being easily knocked out of the atom’s orbit.

An Electrical Cable
uses Conductors
and Insulators

This allows them to flow freely through the material until they join up with other atoms, producing a
“Domino Effect” through the material thereby creating an electrical current. Copper and Aluminium is
the main conductor used in electrical cables as shown.

Generally speaking, most metals are good conductors of electricity, as they have very small resistance
values, usually in the region of micro-ohms per metre, (μΩ.m).

While metals such as copper and aluminium are very good conducts of electricity, they still have some
resistance to the flow of electrons and consequently do not conduct perfectly.

The energy which is lost in the process of passing an electrical current, appears in the form of heat
which is why conductors and especially resistors become hot as the resistivity of conductors increases
with ambient temperature.

Insulators
Insulators on the other hand are the exact opposite of conductors. They are made of materials,
generally non-metals, that have very few or no “free electrons” floating about within their basic atom
structure because the electrons in the outer valence shell are strongly attracted by the positively charged
inner nucleus.

In other words, the electrons are stuck to the parent atom and can not move around freely so if a
potential voltage is applied to the material no current will flow as there are no “free electrons” available
to move and which gives these materials their insulating properties.

Insulators also have very high resistances, millions of ohms per metre, and are generally not affected by
normal temperature changes (although at very high temperatures wood becomes charcoal and changes
from an insulator to a conductor). Examples of good insulators are marble, fused quartz, PVC plastics,
rubber etc.
Insulators play a very important role within electrical and electronic circuits, because without them
electrical circuits would short together and not work. For example, insulators made of glass or
porcelain are used for insulating and supporting overhead transmission cables while epoxy-glass resin
materials are used to make printed circuit boards, PCB’s etc. while PVC is used to insulate electrical
cables as shown.

Semiconductor Basics
Semiconductors materials such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) and gallium arsenide (GaAs), have
electrical properties somewhere in the middle, between those of a “conductor” and an “insulator”. They
are not good conductors nor good insulators (hence their name “semi”-conductors). They have very
few “free electrons” because their atoms are closely grouped together in a crystalline pattern called a
“crystal lattice” but electrons are still able to flow, but only under special conditions.

The ability of semiconductors to conduct electricity can be greatly improved by replacing or adding
certain donor or acceptor atoms to this crystalline structure thereby, producing more free electrons than
holes or vice versa. That is by adding a small percentage of another element to the base material, either
silicon or germanium.

On their own Silicon and Germanium are classed as intrinsic semiconductors, that is they are
chemically pure, containing nothing but semi-conductive material. But by controlling the amount of
impurities added to this intrinsic semiconductor material it is possible to control its conductivity.
Various impurities called donors or acceptors can be added to this intrinsic material to produce free
electrons or holes respectively.

This process of adding donor or acceptor atoms to semiconductor atoms (the order of 1 impurity atom
per 10 million (or more) atoms of the semiconductor) is called Doping. The as the doped silicon is no
longer pure, these donor and acceptor atoms are collectively referred to as “impurities”, and by doping
these silicon material with a sufficient number of impurities, we can turn it into an N-type or P-type
semi-conductor material.

The most commonly used semiconductor basics material by far is silicon. Silicon has four valence
electrons in its outermost shell which it shares with its neighbouring silicon atoms to form full orbital’s
of eight electrons. The structure of the bond between the two silicon atoms is such that each atom
shares one electron with its neighbour making the bond very stable.

As there are very few free electrons available to move around the silicon crystal, crystals of pure silicon
(or germanium) are therefore good insulators, or at the very least very high value resistors.

Silicon atoms are arranged in a definite symmetrical pattern making them a crystalline solid structure.
A crystal of pure silica (silicon dioxide or glass) is generally said to be an intrinsic crystal (it has no
impurities) and therefore has no free electrons.

But simply connecting a silicon crystal to a battery supply is not enough to extract an electric current
from it. To do that we need to create a “positive” and a “negative” pole within the silicon allowing
electrons and therefore electric current to flow out of the silicon. These poles are created by doping the
silicon with certain impurities.
A Silicon Atom Structure

The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of a ‘normal’ pure crystal of Silicon.

N-type Semiconductor Basics

In order for our silicon crystal to conduct electricity, we need to introduce an impurity atom such as
Arsenic, Antimony or Phosphorus into the crystalline structure making it extrinsic (impurities are
added). These atoms have five outer electrons in their outermost orbital to share with neighbouring
atoms and are commonly called “Pentavalent” impurities.

This allows four out of the five orbital electrons to bond with its neighbouring silicon atoms leaving
one “free electron” to become mobile when an electrical voltage is applied (electron flow). As each
impurity atom “donates” one electron, pentavalent atoms are generally known as “donors”.

Antimony (symbol Sb) as well as Phosphorus (symbol P), are frequently used as a pentavalent
additive to silicon. Antimony has 51 electrons arranged in five shells around its nucleus with the
outermost orbital having five electrons. The resulting semiconductor basics material has an excess of
current-carrying electrons, each with a negative charge, and is therefore referred to as an N-type
material with the electrons called “Majority Carriers” while the resulting holes are called “Minority
Carriers”.

When stimulated by an external power source, the electrons freed from the silicon atoms by this
stimulation are quickly replaced by the free electrons available from the doped Antimony atoms. But
this action still leaves an extra electron (the freed electron) floating around the doped crystal making it
negatively charged.

Then a semiconductor material is classed as N-type when its donor density is greater than its acceptor
density, in other words, it has more electrons than holes thereby creating a negative pole as shown.
Semiconductor Basics – The Antimony Atom and Doping

The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the donor impurity atom Antimony.

P-Type Semiconductor Basics

If we go the other way, and introduce a “Trivalent” (3-electron) impurity into the crystalline structure,
such as Aluminium, Boron or Indium, which have only three valence electrons available in their
outermost orbital, the fourth closed bond cannot be formed. Therefore, a complete connection is not
possible, giving the semiconductor material an abundance of positively charged carriers known as holes
in the structure of the crystal where electrons are effectively missing.

As there is now a hole in the silicon crystal, a neighbouring electron is attracted to it and will try to
move into the hole to fill it. However, the electron filling the hole leaves another hole behind it as it
moves. This in turn attracts another electron which in turn creates another hole behind it, and so forth
giving the appearance that the holes are moving as a positive charge through the crystal structure
(conventional current flow).

This movement of holes results in a shortage of electrons in the silicon turning the entire doped crystal
into a positive pole. As each impurity atom generates a hole, trivalent impurities are generally known
as “Acceptors” as they are continually “accepting” extra or free electrons.

Boron (symbol B) is commonly used as a trivalent additive as it has only five electrons arranged in
three shells around its nucleus with the outermost orbital having only three electrons. The doping of
Boron atoms causes conduction to consist mainly of positive charge carriers resulting in a P-type
material with the positive holes being called “Majority Carriers” while the free electrons are called
“Minority Carriers”.

Then a semiconductor basics material is classed as P-type when its acceptor density is greater than its
donor density. Therefore, a P-type semiconductor has more holes than electrons.
Semiconductor Basics – The Boron Atom and Doping

The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the acceptor impurity atom Boron.

Semiconductor Basics Summary

N-type (e.g. doped with Antimony)

These are materials which have Pentavalent impurity atoms (Donors) added and conduct by “electron”
movement and are therefore called, N-type Semiconductors.

In N-type semiconductors there are:

 1. The Donors are positively charged.

 2. There are a large number of free electrons.
 3. A small number of holes in relation to the number of free electrons.
 4. Doping gives:
o positively charged donors.
o negatively charged free electrons.
 5. Supply of energy gives:
o negatively charged free electrons.
o positively charged holes.

P-type (e.g. doped with Boron)

These are materials which have Trivalent impurity atoms (Acceptors) added and conduct by “hole”
movement and are therefore called, P-type Semiconductors.

In these types of materials are:

 1. The Acceptors are negatively charged.

 2. There are a large number of holes.
 3. A small number of free electrons in relation to the number of holes.
  4. Doping gives:
o negatively charged acceptors.
o positively charged holes.
 5. Supply of energy gives:
o positively charged holes.
o negatively charged free electrons.

and both P and N-types as a whole, are electrically neutral on their own.

Antimony (Sb) and Boron (B) are two of the most commonly used doping agents as they are more feely
available compared to other types of materials. They are also classed as “metalloids”. However, the
periodic table groups together a number of other different chemical elements all with either three, or
five electrons in their outermost orbital shell making them suitable as a doping material.

These other chemical elements can also be used as doping agents to a base material of either Silicon
(Si) or Germanium (Ge) to produce different types of basic semiconductor materials for use in
electronic semiconductor components, microprocessor and solar cell applications. These additional
semiconductor materials are given below.

Periodic Table of Semiconductors

Elements Group 13 Elements Group 14 Elements Group 15

3-Electrons in Outer Shell 4-Electrons in Outer Shell 5-Electrons in Outer Shell

(Positively Charged) (Neutrally Charged) (Negatively Charged)

(5) (6)

Boron ( B ) Carbon ( C )

(13) (14) (15)

Aluminium ( Al ) Silicon ( Si ) Phosphorus ( P )

(31) (32) (33)

Gallium ( Ga ) Germanium ( Ge ) Arsenic ( As )

(51)

Antimony ( Sb )