CHAPTER 7 The battery LEARNING OBJECTIVES COU rune Ree ck Rea 1 list the work health and safety procedures when working with batteries 2 describe the environmental requirements for working with batteries RR OU CEU Re Cu em eee Cea RU oe Rec Se ck uc ee CCR COSy 6 list the battery classifications tae aca c eT ice 8 apply battery charging procedures Parente acr Deena ecu cacy CP eae ec recon The battery supplies current for the operation of the starter motor and for the ignition and fuel systems when the engine is being cranked for starting. It also supplies current for the lights, audio systems, instruments, security and other accessories that are used when the engine is not running. ‘Once the engine is started, the alternator supplies all the power requirements for the various electrical systems, including recharging the battery. However, the battery continues to have a stabilising effect on the electrical system. Wee eae Batteries contain gases that can explode when they are being connected to, or disconnected from, a charger. Lead acid batteries are hazardous because of their potential for causing: + burns to skin + eye damage + injury from manual handling (batteries can be heavy) + toxic fumes + fires and explosions. Do not operate battery testing and charging equipment unless you have read the manufacturer's safety information or have been trained in the correct procedures. The same applies to battery replacement and any other battery-related work.916 — Pant 7 Electrical basics Safety: Assess the risks before carrying out any work on battery systems in motor vehicles. Eien eine nnn Safety data sheets (SDS) for all dangerous goods should be available in every workplace. Discarded batteries should be stored in a safe location in a container for recycling. Ninety-nine per cent of the ‘material in a car battery can be recycled. ees een tend The lead acid battery has evolved to meet the requirements of the modern vehicle. As emission standards become more stringent, manufacturers have to set engines to idle stop start (ISS). This is TE S Figure 41.1. A battery plate grid a system where the engine cuts out when vehicle movement stops and starts again automatically when the throttle is depressed. This places extreme demands on the battery. ‘The introduction of electric vehicles (EV) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) has put pressure on the battery industry to develop higher-performance batteries. Many newer batteries are still based on the lead acid battery, with the exception of lithium battery technology that is used mainly in electric vehicles. Lead acid battery materials ‘The main materials used in the battery are spongy lead (a solid), lead oxide (a solid) and sulphuric acid (a liquid). These are brought together in such a way that they can react chemically to produce a flow of current. The lead oxide and spongy lead are held in plate grids to form positive and negative plates. Sulphuric acid is diluted with water to become the electrolyte. The plate grid (Figure 41.1) consists of a framework of lead alloy with horizontal and vertical bars. Plate grids are formed by the application of lead oxide pastes, which harden. The horizontal and vertical bars hold the hardened pastes in the plates. After the plates are assembled into the battery, itis given an initial forming charge. This changes the lead oxide in the negative plate to spongy lead and the lead oxide in the positive plate to lead peroxide. Battery assembly When the battery is being manufactured, several plates are spaced and welded to a strap to form a plate group. Plates of two different types are used: one for the positive plate group, the other for the negative plate group. A positive plate group is nested with a negative plate group, with separators placed between the plates to form an element (Figure 41.2). Separators are made from various materials including plastic, rubber and fibreglass. They are designed to hold the plates apart but must be porous vent plug ‘opening, negative plate ‘group separators cell terminal positive | plate esas positive N plate negative plate Figure 41.2 The groups of positive and negative plates are assembled with separators to form an element-—this becomes one cell when assembled into the battery caseCuarren41 The battery 917 ‘enough to allow the electrolyte to circulate between [ Ss them, During manufacture, the elements are placed in compartments in the battery case, which is made of either hard rubber or polypropylene. Each of the ‘compartments forms a cell. The top of the case is enclosed by a cover which is sealed to the case. 6 volts —— Each cell is a separate part of the battery, with its own electrolyte, However, the cells are | electrically connected in series inside the battery, with the positive terminal of a cell connected to the negative terminal of its adjacent cell. The end cells carry the main battery terminals, or posts. With series connections, the voltages of the cells [Link] are added. There are six cells in a 12-volt battery; §_—_______- the cell connections for 12 volts are shown in Figure 41.3 Battery cell connections—2-volt cells Figure 413. connected in series can provide 6 votts or 12 volts Battery terminals ‘The battery terminals, or posts, extend through the cover, with the positive terminal located at one end of the battery and the negative terminal at the other. The terminals can be in the form of posts, lugs or both (Figure 41.4), and it is important to know their polarity so the battery can be correctly installed in the vehicle. For this reason, the terminals are made identifiable via a plastic washer coloured blue for negative and red for positive at the base of the lug; alternatively, the terminals and battery cover may be identified (+) or (-). Where the battery has round terminal posts, the positive post is larger than the negative post. Fewer batteries today have removable filler plugs as most are of a low-maintenance or maintenance- free construction, (Heavy-duty batteries for trucks are an exception.) A complete battery is shown in Figure 41.5. One end is cut away so that the internal construction can be seen. sands ema cust anand Se eps oo Sam seaed hecnttmins| eg teria 5 mes ur un wnut we AX Pa lage amet vn va o4 a Figure 41.4 Batteries may have several different terminals, and some will have dual connections918 — Paer7 Electrical basics vent plug, terminal << posts | positive plate elementrests sediment space Figure 41.5 Construction of a 12-volt battery (Teele emake ‘The electrolyte in the battery is made up of about 40 per cent sulphuric acid and 60 per cent water. When the plates are given a charge, chemical actions remove electrons from one group of plates and mass them at the other. This transfer of electrons is carried on until there is a nominal 2-volt potential between the two groups of plates. Action on discharge When a circuit with a load is connected to the battery, the acid in the electrolyte starts to combine a with the active material on the plates to form lead sulphate. This process continues until the active ‘material on both the positive and negative plates has been converted to lead sulphate. This reduces the quantity of sulphuric acid in the electrolyte, reducing its density. At this point, the battery is discharged. Action on charge The battery can be recharged by current from the altemator or a battery charger, which passes current through it in a reverse direction, reversing the chemical activity. The plates are now converted back to lead peroxide (positive plates) and spongy lead (negative plates). The suiphuric acid is removed from them during charging to combine with the electrolyte and so increase its density. The density of the electrolyte is related to the state of charge of the battery-—high when the battery is charged, 1OW Figs 44.6 Battery action (a) when ciscnarged, the when is shag Se ee These conditions are illustrated in Figure 41.6, hydrometer does not rse (b) when charged, the density where the electrolyte is being checked with a ofthe electrolyte is Incressed and the float rises (@) Discharged (0) ChargedCuspten41 The battery 919 hhydrometer. The float does not rise when the battery is flat bat floats quite high when the battery is charged, Battery voltage Passenger cars and light commercial vehicles have 12-volt batteries. This is the combined voltage of all the cells of the battery. Heavier vehicles, particularly those with diesel engines, have 24-volt clectrical systems. These use two 12-volt batteries or, in some instances, four 6-volt batteries. Where more than one battery is used, they are connected in series to provide the higher voltage. While the battery cell has a nominal voltage of 2 volts, a fully charged battery will give a reading of 2.1 volts per cell when checked without any load. This is referred to as the open-circuit voltage. A 12-volt battery will therefore have an open-circuit voltage of 12.6 volts or more when fully charged, Figure 41.7 The voltmeter connected to the battery Battery voltage can vary under different operating SRoWs the voltage readings conditions: 1 Open circuit. When tested without any load, a fully charged battery should have a voltmeter reading of 12.6 volts or more (Figure 417). 2. Starter operating. Under a heavy load and with the starter motor operating, the battery voltage could drop 10 95 volts or less. 3. Headlights on, Under a lighter load (es when the headlamps are switched on) battery voltage could be as low as 1! volts or less. 4. Alternator operating, With the engine running and the alternator operating, the battery voltage could rise as high as almost 15 volts. This will depend on the type of battery and whether it has a smart charging system. Handy hint: The alternator regulator limits the voltage during charging so that the system voltage does not become too high. For the correct voltage figures for a battery during operation, check the service manual. eee Gel batteries Gel batteries, also referred to as gel cells, are classified as deep cycle batteries. Gel batteries have the same basic construction as a lead acid battery but the electrolyte is made of silica gel mixed with sulphuric acid, ‘These batteries use recombination reaction to prevent the escape of hydrogen and oxygen gases. They are sealed and so can sit at any angle without spillage. Gel batteries incorporate a valve-regulated venting system called sealed valve regulated (SVR) or valve regulated lead acid (VRLA) in case of excess pressure, The combination of the gel and being sealed means there is no vaporisation of the electrolyte or spillage causing corrosion. Gel batteries are also resistant to extreme temperatures and shock. Ideal for aircraft, boats and automobiles, they can be mounted at any angle (but not upside down). ‘The main advantages of gel batteries are that they: + can be mounted on thelr side + ore long-lasting due to their abilty to transfer heat to the outside + perform at a high level until the end of thelr Ife (performance drops rapidly thereafter) + are completely maintenance free. Absorbed glass mat batteries Absorbed glass mat (AGM) batteries (Figure 41.8) have low internal resistance and low self-discharge rates, ‘enabling faster recharge and a longer shelf life. When fully changed, they can be stored for extended periods of time and conveniently recharged using a range of AGM-compatible chargers. ‘AGM batteries contain a sponge-like material that suspends loose electrolyte within highly porous glass- fibre mat separators. This eliminates the hazards associated with acid spills or leaks, while the sealed,920 Par 7 Electrical basics maintenance-free design avoids the need for regular topping-up of electrolyte. AGM batteries use special pressure valves to keep them sealed, because any oxygen entering them will cause damage. The advantages of AGM batteries are that they: was + function at comparatively high and low : ~~ temperatures (including Arctic conditions) * ~ Le ese 9D) as “4 ain, + are lighter in weight than equivalent lead acid batteries + experience almost no heating due to low internal resistance + re completely maintenance free. ‘The main disadvantage of AGM. batteries is that they need to be charged after every use. If this is not done, they experience sulphation and are rendered useless. Valve-regulated lead acid batteries Valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA) is used in gel and AGM batteries to seal them, the valve allowing Figure 41.8 cut-away ofan absorbed glass mat excess pressure to escape. These batteries must not (aah) battery orrma parremes be vented as any oxygen entering them will destroy them. Figure 41.9 shows details of a VRLA valve. Calcium batteries Calcium batteries are a type of lead acid battery. Increasingly fitted to modern vehicles, their newer technology incorporates calcium to the grid plates, giving them more strength. ‘The advantages of calcium batteries are that they: + give longer service life and higher starting power + are resistant to corrosion + have no excessive gassing (production of gas from an electrode) + are more resilient to high temperatures. However, calcium batteries require a higher charging voltage (14.4 to 14.8 volts) and may not be suitable for older vehicles (newer vehicles have battery management systems (BMS) to manage the higher voltage). Calcium batteries also require a specialised charger and tester. Lithium-ion batteries Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are mostly used in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), hybrid electric vehicles (HEV), electric vehicles (EV) and smaller applications such as mobile phones. Different manufacturers is ae Figure 41.9 Details of a VRLA valve fitted to batteriesCharter 41 The battery 921 have selected different chemistries to suit the needs of their EVs. Many of the new jump starter packs are ‘manufactured using lithium polymer ion, ‘The anode and cathode are the same as previous versions of Li-ion batteries but the electrolyte is a gel/polymer compound. Lithium iron phosphate batteries Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO,) or lithium ferro phosphate (LFP) batteries are safer than other lithium-ion and lithium polymer batteries. They do not suffer from the memory effect of other lithium batteries and can ‘operate safely in a wider range of temperatures due to the added iron. LFP batteries are more widely used in large electric vehicles, electric bicycles, golf carts, battery cars, forklifts, clean cars, electric wheelchairs, power tools, solar and wind power storage equipment, emergency lights, warning lights and miners’ lamps. The advantages of lithium iron phosphate batteries are that they: + allow full power until they are almost fully discharged + med less voltage requiation + have a fong fife cycle + are more tolerant of abuse. Eaten —____—______] Figure 41.10 Two 6-volt batteries connected in parallel Batteries may be connected in various layouts. wail result in 6 volts but doubie the amp hours, When they are connected to form a larger pack of 6-volt, 12-volt, 24-volt and 48-volt application, care must be taken that they are of a similar condition and capacity. If an older battery is left ‘among a pack of new batteries, it may have a higher resistance or capacitance than the rest of the pack. ‘This may cause charging and starting problems (Figures 41.10, 41.11 and 41.12). Enos meceieions Batteries are benchmarked to the following three standards. The standard they adhere to will depend Figure 41.11 Two 12-volt batteries connected in series on their manufacturer. will double the voltage to 24 volts Figure 41.12 Batteries connected in series and parallel to create 48 volts922 —Paer7 Electrical basics Cold cranking amps ‘The most severe load imposed on an automotive battery occurs immediately after the starter is engaged and when it is just starting to turn (crank) the engine. This load or current draw is greatest when the engine is cold. The cranking current that can be provided by a battery is therefore important as it needs to maintain sufficient performance to supply other electronic and electrical equipment at a minimum level. ‘The actual test, which is an SAE performance test, measures the load in amps that a new, fully charged battery can deliver for 30 seconds while maintaining a voltage of 1.2 volts per cell or higher. The battery is, then given a cold-cranking-amps (CCA) rating based on its performance. Ampere hour @20 Hr This measures a battery's storage capacity to deliver power over a 20-hour period in a controlled environment of 25°C. When the battery falls to 10.5 volts, it is deemed flat. The amount of current used to reach this, state is the rating, for example, 100 AH@20 Hr. Reserve capacity Reserve capacity (RC) is the time in minutes that a new, fully charged battery will supply a constant load of 25 amps without its voltage dropping below 10.5 volts for a 12-volt battery. EEC) With the introduction of new battery technology, the process of testing batteries has changed. Where previously there were just hydrometer and load tests, there are now additional tests to consider. A\, Satety: Never eaconnect a beter while an engines running as his wil destroy electronics State of health State of health (SOH) is a measurement that reflects the general condition of a battery and its ability to deliver the specified performance compared with a fresh battery. It takes into account such factors as charge acceptance, internal resistance, voltage and self-discharge. SOH measures the long-term capability of the battery and gives an indication (not an absolute measurement) of how much of the available lifetime energy throughput of the battery has been consumed, and how much is left. State of charge ‘A knowledge of the state of charge (SOC) is particularly important for large lithium batteries. Of all the common cell chemistries, lithium is the most chemically reactive and the only one which needs electronic BMS to keep the battery within a safe operating window and ensure a long life cycle, Control of the SOC is a major function of the BMS where lithium batteries are used and in ISS vehicles with AGM batteries. Battery tests ‘There is no one single method of testing all batteries. The testing procedure depends on the type of battery. Tests that can be done are: + internal resistance, reflecting capability to deliver current + selfdischarge, reflecting mechanical integrity and stress-related conditions + impedance and conductance testing + hydrometer testing, reflecting specific gravity and the state of the electrolyte + high-rate discharge testing, which is testing under load. A Safety: Standard battery testing equipment should not be used to test ISS batteries. Before a battery is tested, itis important that it is fully charged but has had the surface charge removed. Even a slightly discharged battery can give a false reading and suggest that the battery is faulty when all that is required is a recharge. A digital battery tester is the preferred option as they are safe to use and do notCharen 41 The battery 923 stress the battery. They are also easy to use and offer a quick diagnosis of many types of batteries (including ISS batteries) that do not operate in a fully charged stat Testing safety requirement Before testing a battery: + check which type of battery is to be tested + determine which is the positive and negative connection before connecting test equipment + refer to workshop manuals for the vehicle and the charger for any safely precautions and procedures. Visual inspection procedures To visually inspect a battery, it has to be removed from the vehicle to check the case and terminals fully. Look for any cracks or signs of weaknesses, such as abrasion caused by battery movement or incorre mounting. If there is any sign of a weakness in the case, replace the battery before it leaks acid onto the vehicle Hydrometer-testing lead acid batteries As previously stated, the electrolyte loses sulphuric acid to the plates as it is discharged, becoming less dense and more like water. Measuring the density of the electrolyte will therefore show the state of charge of the battery. There are fewer batteries on the market whose cells can be accessed for testing the electrolyte as ‘many batteries are now maintenance free A hydrometer is used to measure the electrolyte density, as shown in Figure 41.13. The bulb on the top of the hydrometer draws electrolyte from a battery cell up into the clear tube. The float inside the tube will float high in the electrolyte when it is dense (battery charged) and low in the electrolyte when it is Tess dense (battery discharged). The stem of the float is graduated to show the electrolyte density and the state of battery charge. Checking a battery Measure the density of the electrolyte in each cell with a hydrometer, All the readings should be approximately the same. If they are not, the following points apply. 1 tfone cell gives a reading much lower than the others, this indicates a fauity cel 2 Mall cells are low, then the battery is discharged It should be recharged and then tested, 3 Ifthe level ofthe electrolyte is so low that a Figure 41.13 Checking a battery with a hydrometer hydrometer reading cannot be taken, the cell should be topped up with water and charged for at least 30 minutes before an accurate reading willbe obtained High-rate discharge testing A high-rate discharge tester consists of a voltmeter for reading the battery voltage, an ammeter capable of reading high current (over 200 amps) and a carbon-pile rheostat for applying a load to the battery (Figure 41.14) ‘The connections are made to the battery and the load adjusted by turning the rheostat knob. The load is adjusted until the current shown on the ammeter is three times the ampere hour capacity of the battery So, for a 50-ampere hour battery, a current of 150 Figure 44.14 Battery capacity test—the battery is tested amps is required. After 15 seconds, the voltmeter under load924 Pawn 7 Electrical basics should show a battery terminal voltage of 9.25 volts or more for a 12-volt battery. (Note that by using a current of three times the battery capacity, the size of the battery is taken into account during the test.) The cranking-current rating of the battery can be used instead of ampere hours. In this case, half the specified cranking current is used. Safety: Do not use this test on gel, AGM or Iithium batteries as the stress on the battery may damage it. Use an electronic tester sultable for the battery type. Electronic battery testing ‘The same test can be carried out using an electronic tester, without the need for a high-current draw from the battery. The test unit is connected to the battery as shown in Figure 41.15. The data of the battery being tested are then entered into the tester. Electronic testers test for resistance and conductance (the battery’s ability to conduct current) by passing a small AC voltage at a known frequency and amplitude across the cells and measuring the in-phase AC current. A paper readout of the results can be provided from a wireless printer (also shown in Figure 41.15). This type of testing can be used for different cell chemistries, with the equipment appropriately set. (Not all electronic testers are suitable for all types of batteries and a separate electronic tester may be required for each test.) Flectronic testing is accurate, reliable, safe and fast and does not affect the battery’s performance. It ‘can be carried out while the battery is in use to continuously monitor its performance, avoiding the need for load testing or discharge testing. Battery drain When a vehicle is put into ‘shut down’ or ‘sleep’, with its alarm system fully armed and the doors, hood and boot closed and the key removed, there is a small amount of current flow from the battery. This is known as parasitic load or quiescent drain and is normal if it is within the manufacturer's specifications. The small continuous current draw is to maintain on-board data (system and control module settings etc.) and to monitor its inputs to either unlock or flag intrusion. A flashing dash-top light will indicate that the vehicle is stil drawing power. These power drains should only be measured afier the required shut-down time has elapsed (this can be found in the workshop manual, and could be up to 60 minutes). Typically, the current draw will be around 20 to 40 milliamps. With this amount of current draw, it would take 20 to 30 days for the battery to reach 50 per cent state of charge. Battery leakage test To test for battery leakage, place the positive lead of a digital multimeter to the top surface of the battery cease and the negative to an earth on the vehicle. If any voltage is evident on the meter, there is leakage If leakage is detected, remove the battery, clean and refit it, and then retest. If leakage continues, replace the battery. Overcharging A battery that requires frequent topping up is probably being overcharged. This over-stresses the active ‘material in the plates, damaging them and shortening the life of the battery. Overcharging boils the water away from the electrolyte, and the electrolyte level is likely to fall below the tops of the plates, exposing them to the air. This will ruin the plates and could also affect the separators Figure 41.15 Electronic battery tester and wireless Dinter COURTESY CENTURY YUASA BATTERES PTY LTOCuarrea41 The battery 925 Handy hint: Where overcharging is suspected, the alternator output should be checked and {the voltage regulator replaced. Undercharging If the battery is discharged, it should be recharged, In addition, an attempt should be made to determine the cause of the discharged battery. Potential causes include malfunction of the alternator or regulator, defective connections in the charging circuit between the alternator and the battery or excessive load demands on the battery. A battery that has been allowed to stand idle for long periods could be flat from self-discharge. If a battery will not recharge, it could be defective due to its age Alternator check Where overcharging or undercharging is suspected, Figure 41.16 A voltmeter connected to the battery a quick check of the charging system can be made by _ terminals checks thatthe alternator is working connecting a voltmeter to the terminals of the battery as shown in Figure 41.16. Note that the connections are made positive to positive and negative to negative. With the engine stopped, the voltmeter should read approximately 12.6 volts or more. With the engine running at a reasonable speed, the voltmeter reading should be higher but not more than about 14.5 to 15 volts. The actual reading will depend on the state of charge of the battery and whether the vehicle has a smart charging system, which can have charge rates that are occasionally much higher. working. fu Hendy hints Yhis is quick method of checking whether the atternato Poor topping up If the electrolyte level is too high due to overfilling, electrolyte can be forced through the hole in the vent caps and cause corrosion of the terminals and other parts. If the level is allowed to get too low, the battery will become damaged internally. Sulphation Normally, the active materials in the plates are converted into lead sulphate while the-battery is being discharged and reconverted into active material while the battery is being recharged. However, ifthe battery is allowed to stand for long periods in a discharged condition, the lead sulphate becomes converted into a hard, crystalline substance that is difficult to reconvert into active materials by normal charging processes. A battery in this condition would be replaced. Damaged case A cracked or damaged case could result from excessively loose or tight hold-down clamps. A bulged case could be caused by overtight hold- down clamps, high temperatures or age. The plates ‘warp as the battery ages and this can distort the c Corroded terminals Corrosion is a condition that occurs on. battery terminals and is due to acid in electrolyte vapour (Figure 41.17). It can occur more on some batteries than others. Any corrosion should be removed from the battery post and terminals. Cable terminals Figure 41.17 corroded battery terminals is the most should be disconnected from the battery posts and common battery problem926 —Paar7 Electrical basics the posts and terminals cleaned. After the clamps are replaced, they should be coated with a light grease or petroleum jelly to retard corrosion. Corroded battery carrier ‘Some vapour from the battery electrolyte escapes through the vents in the filler plugs as the battery is being charged, and the battery mounting may become corroded from the effects of the acid. Corrosion can be cleaned off (when the battery is removed) with a wire brush or a common baking-soda solution. The soda solution is applied and, after the foaming stops, flushed off with clean water. weeny hint: Dirty battery connections are the most common cause of a starter falling to operate, Dirty battery case fit not cleaned periodically, the top of the battery can collect a coating of grime with traces of electrolyte. This should be cleaned off with a wet rag, Ifa baking-soda solution is used on the battery, care should be taken thatthe solution does not get into the cells and ruin the battery. Battery failure Batteries deteriorate over time and with use. The active material of the plates is gradually reduced by the actions of charging and discharging and by vibration. Eventually, the plates lose so much of their capacity that the battery is no longer of any use. What appears to be a sudden failure of a battery is usually due to the slow corrosion of grids and electrical connections until the electrical circuit through one of the cells is finally broken. The battery will then have an open circuit. Battery charging Always read the manufacturer's instructions before attempting to charge a battery and ensure you use a good quality, Australian-approved battery charger. The battery type and the internal technologies will determine which type of charger is required Safety: Identify what type of battery is to be charged and take any necessary precautions before proceeding. Ifthe battery s to be charged while in the vehicle, it should be isolated by removing both battery cables before connecting the battery charger. Gel and AGM batteries Batteries fitted with a VRLA (gel and AGM) have special charging requirements. Over-charging or constant charging will damage the battery by drying out the electrolyte as it will cause the hydrogen and oxygen to bbe vented. Only use battery chargers that are designed for these batteries Lead acid and calcium batteries Safety: When recharging, lead acid batteries produce hydrogen gas, which Is explosive. Charge batteries in a well-ventilated area, away from flames and sparks. ‘A slow charge is the best way to charge a lead acid battery because the chemical reaction required in both plates takes time. Fast charging only converts the lead sulphate on the outside of the plates, and if not controlled can damage the plates. Slow charging ‘The charger has two leads with battery clips for attaching the charger to the battery (Figure 41.18). These are marked positive (+) and negative (~). ‘The (+) clip is connected to the (+) battery terminal, and the (—) clip is connected to the (—) battery terminal (positive-to-positive and negative-to- Figure 41.18 A battery charger Is connected to the negative connections). battery with positive to positive and negative to negativeCunpten 41 The battery 927 ‘The charger provides a slightly higher voltage than the battery, so that current flows from the charger to the battery. For normal slow charging, this is adjusted to provide a charging rate of 4 to 6 amps. The charging is continued until the battery is gassing freely and there is no further rise in density for two hours. The charging voltage is held at a constant value. The battery, as it approaches a charged condition, increases in resistance to the charging current. This causes the current input to taper off gradually until, when the battery is fully charged, it will be reduced to a few amps. Fast chargers ‘These operate by charging the battery at a high rate for a short period (up to 30 minutes) so that it is brought up to a reasonable state of charge before its temperature increases excessively. Provided that temperatures can be controlled, fast charging does not appear to damage the battery. The temperature when charging should not exceed 60°C. To bring a battery up to full charge, itis necessary to complete charging by a slow- charging method. Handy hint: Batteries in doubtful condition should not, in general, be fast charged as complete failure could result. Eanes ‘Most manufacturers list several alternatives for battery selection. The advent of computerised systems such as BMS has made reference to the manufacturer’s minimum requirements vital when selecting a battery. ‘This is because batteries such as the silver calcium battery have a higher charge rate, so fitting a standard lead acid battery may have detrimental effects. When calcium is used in a battery, it will generally be maintenance free. Hybrid batteries are now available. These use new technology in old-style chemistry, such as glass matt separators and thicker plates. They enhance the durability of the battery in harsher conditions, for example in boats, motorbikes or heavy trucks, where vibration and pounding are a problem. Always follow the manufacturer’s recommendations when fitting new batteries. This is particularly important with ISS battery management systems or intelligent battery sensors. Never fit a conventional battery in a vehicle with ISS technology as this may disable the ISS functionality and lead to premature battery failure. Vehicles with these systems must have the system reset because of the memory held by their computers. Resetting the system ensures that the sensors and computer management system are compatible with the battery’s properties. ‘When selecting a battery for replacement, always consult the manufacturer's recommendations to make sure you get the correct type. Also consider: + terminal location and type + case size + cold cranking amps (CCA) or performance + the battery mounting method + the application or type of vehicie. Tre Battery repla If a new battery is to be installed, it must have a rating that is the same or greater than the original battery. ‘The cold cranking amps rating is the easiest way to compare battery ratings. ‘The battery must be fit for the purpose it is going to be used for. Off-road and commercial vehicles require stronger internal construction because of vibration and jolting on rough roads. Recreational vehicles, for example mobile homes, use deep-cycle batteries that are designed to be completely discharged and recharged. Car batteries are not suitable for this type of use, nor for marine applications. ‘The external dimensions of the battery and the type of posts must also be suitable. While most modern vehicles will take a fairly standard type of battery, others may need a squat (lower height) battery, or one with lugs or smaller posts. The method of holding the battery in its mounting can vary, and some batteries hhave a bottom or side ledge so they can be clamped in the carrier. neni Installing a battery Apart from being clean and secure in its mounting, the battery must be installed the right way, that is with its negative terminal connected to earth. The alternator or other electrical equipment could be damaged if928 —Panr7 Electrical basics the battery were installed with its polarity reversed. Figure 41.19 shows the points to be checked on an installed battery during service. Handy hint: & ‘battery saver’ should be installed before removing the battery to save ‘computer codes and personal settings on ‘audio and climate control systems. ‘The procedure for installing a battery is: 1 Identity the positive and negative cables. 2 Identify the positive and negative posts of the battery and install the battery in its carrier so that the posts are in the right position for the cables. 3 Fitthe holding clamp on the battery so it does not move when the terminals are fitted, Do not over- tighten the clamp. 4 Fit the terminal of the positive cable to the Positive battery post first. 5 Fit the terminal of the negative cable to the Negative battery post. 6 Tighten the battery terminals firmly and apply @ light coating of grease to protect them against corrosion ‘terminals clean and Cables in good concition 6. hold-down clamp secure cover clean ‘5. battery tay clean Figure 41.19 Battery and mounting—points to be checked during service cw HoLDENLTD Handy hint: To prevent short-circuiting the battery, the negative (earth) terminal should be removed first and replaced last. Battery shroud Some vehicles provide a shroud into which the battery is fitted. Figure 41.20 shows the arrangement of a shroud that has an air scoop. This directs cooler outside air through the shroud and around the battery. Batteries are mounted in the engine compartment, the boot or behind seats; the shroud provides some protection from the heat of the engine. Eenenm ea Baca | When replacing the battery in many later-model vehicles, particularly ISS vehicles, there will be a procedure to be followed to get some of the electronic and electrical systems working correctly, as shown in Figure 41.21. The reason for this is, that the BMS has stored information that relates to the old battery. This information may have put the vehicle into a power save mode which will affect items such as the air-conditioner, electric/hydraulic steering systems, advance keyless entry systems and stability control systems. Another consideration is the clearing of detected trouble codes (DTC). Reference to the correct workshop manual will need to be made to obtain the correct procedure for each vehicle. This may be also required even if you remove the negative cable which has the battery sensor attached. Some vehicles have two different-sized batteries fitted. One is used to start the vehicle and the other to run the electrics and Figure 41.20 battery shroud with an air scoop FOROCuneree 41 The battery 929 keep all the functions of the vehicle working. The | ~ advantage here is that the start battery would still operate if, for example, a car was stuck in traffic for an extended time with the air conditioner on | FRONT (a circumstance that might flatten the battery). | rs Enea rice cess | The use of jumper leads for emergency starting i not just a case of connecting two batteries together, and it can be dangerous if not done correctly. With the amount of electronic equipment that is now fitted to vehicles, extra precautions must be taken to prevent damage to electronic components from high voltages, To counteract this, special jumper leads are available. These have light-emitting diodes to show that the cables are connected with the correct polarity. They also have voltage-spike protection, Always follow the information in the particular vehicle handbook or service manual Figure 41.21 When replacing batteries in an ISS vehicle, the correct procedures must be followed Safety: The safest way to deal with a flat battery is to replace it with a charged battery. With jumper leads, voltage spikes can be generated under some conditions. These are sudden surges of high voltage that can damage electronic components. Jump-starting procedure ‘The following points summarise the recommended procedure for using jumper leads: 1 Both the booster battery andthe discharged battery must be ofthe same voltage. 2 ithe booster battery sfted in another vehicle, the vehicles should not be touching. Goth batteries must have the same polarity in the vehicle (negative to earth 3. Switch off the ignition, the lights and al other electrical equipment. 4. Check that the vent caps of both the booster battery and the discharged battery ae tight and place a cloth over the filer caps of both batteries. 5 With the red jumper lead, connect the postive terminal ofthe discharged battery to the postive terminal of the booster battery. (The sequence of connecting the Batteries is shown in Figure 41.22) | postive ] Jumper cascnarges cable (ec) sooster | batty | cloth negative ‘engine Jumper cable (Diack) Figure 41,22 Connecting a booster battery for emergency starting—the connecting sequence is shown as 1, 2, 3, 4930 Paar 7 Electrical basics 6 Attach one end of the black jumper lead to the negative terminal of the booster battery and the other end to an earth on the engine away from the battery (not to the negative battery terminal). Both vehicles would normally have their batteries installed with negative to earth. 7 Start the engine of the vehicle with the booster battery and let it ile for a few minutes. Then start the engine of the vehicle with the discharged battery. 8 Allow both engines to run for a few minutes to allow the batteries to stabilise. 9 Disconnect the jumper leads carefully in the reverse order to that used when connecting them. 40. Dispose of the cloths used to cover the filler holes (they could contain acid). Safety: The cloths are placed over the filer caps to absorb the gas that comes from the cap vent holes. This Is an explosive gas that could be ignited by a spark. SUMMARY Now that you have completed this chapter you can transfer your knowledge into practical situations within an automotive service and repair context. You will be able to: + dently the hazards presented by batteries and resulting environmental requirements + describe basic battery construction + explain the chemical actions that take place during charging and dischay + list the correct voltages ofa fully charged battery + lst the properties of gel and AGM batteries + explain the precautions that should be taken when charging batteries with VRLA + explain the part calcium plays n the construction ofa battery «Identify ithiur-ion and ithium polymer batteries + explain what the diferent cassiiations of batteries mean + ist the testing requirements of different batteries + listthe types of battery fault + describe the charging requirements ofthe different types of batteries «lst the items to be considered when selecting a replacement battery + describe the battery replacement procedure and explain the need for ecelbration + describe the procedure forjump-startng a vehicle using jumper leads REVIEW QUESTIONS What isthe purpose of the battery? Name the parts of a battery. Why's a section of the battery referred to as a lead-acid cell? What actions occur when a battery is being charged? What are ompere hours? What is meant by density? By means of a sketch, show how the cells of a battery are connected together to provide 12 volts. Show the polarity of each cel Explain how the density ofthe electrolyte Is checked, 9 A 124olt battery in good condition is tested with a voltmeter while under heavy load. What isthe voltmeter likely to show? 10 Describe the various ways in which specifications for batteries are given. 14. State the items that would be checked when servicing a battery. 12. What are some of the possible causes of a discharged battery? 13 fan engine will not start because of a discharged battery, what can be done to rectify the problem? 14 Outline the procedure to be used when connecting batteries with jumper leads for emergency starting. 45. What particular safety precautions should be observed wien using jumper leads? 46 On some modem vehicles a calibration process is required when a battery Is replaced. Why is this necessary? 47, When selecting a replacement battery for a vehicle what should be considered? Nouswns