GUNPOWDER AND OTHER EXPLOSIVES

In the investigation of crimes involving firearms, several important problems may arise.
1. The first and probably of primary importance is the problem of determining
whether or not a person has fired a gun with bare hands within a pertinent period
of time.
2. The other is the means of determining the probable gunshot range, example: the
distance the firearm was held from the body of the victim at the time of discharge.
3. The third problem may come up when the time of firing of the gun becomes an
issue.

Basically, gunshot residue comes from the powder component of bullet, elements from
cartridge cases and gun barrel where the bullet passes. When these components are burned, certain
products of combustion are formed which includes partially burned and unburned particles.
Upon discharge of firearm, gunpowder (nitrates) may be deposited on a person at close
proximity; on the hands or body parts close to the fired weapon or may be found on the skin or
clothing of the person who discharge the gun, also on the entrance hole of garment or wound of the
victim, or on other target materials at the crime scene.

 Components of gunshot residue

1. Primer of lead residue
2. Gunpowder residue
3. Elemental component from cartridge cases residues

*GUNSHOT RESIDUE EXAMINATION

Purpose:
Gunshot residue examinations are performed to help the investigators in determining whether
a person has discharged a firearm or not; whether a firearm was discharged or not; and the possible
gunshot range or the distance of the shooter to the victim. Both hands of the suspect as well as those of
the victim, the firearms and clothing of the victim must be examined to determine the presence of
gunpowder nitrates.

*Primers - In guns, the flame is applied by means of a primer which produces flame on percussion.

*Primer residues - are firearm discharge residues of the primer resulting from the discharge of firearm.
- those residues resulting from the explosion of the primer when hit by the firing pin of
the
Firearm or it may be deposited on the surface of the firing hand

 Composition of primer .
1. Major primer elemental composition: Lead, Barium or Antimony
2. Trace element: Aluminum, Sulfur, Calcium, Potassium, Chlorine or Silicon
3. Inorganic Compound: Mercury Fulminates

A typical primer consists of a case containing an initiating explosive such as the following:
 Mercury fulminate
 Potassium chlorate or barium nitrate
 A fuel such as Antimony sulfide

  Composition of cartridge case, bullet coating and metal jacket.
1. Cartridge and primer cases; BRASS (7:3 Copper-zinc)
2. Bullet cores: lead, lead, antimony and few iron alloy
3. Bullet jackets: brass (9:1 copper-zinc), some are iron or aluminum alloy, some contain nickel.

 Collection of the Primer residues

 Swabbing technique using cotton (by Harrison)

 Swabbing by using torn strips of handkerchief ( by Curry)
 Swabbing by using filter paper ( by Scott and Guinn)
 Swabbing using gauze square or sponge (adopted by the NBI)

*Gunpowder Residues: - these are burned residues and partially burned particles formed as products of
combustion when the gunpowder exploded They are deposited on the target definite pattern depending
upon the distance between the target and the muzzle of the gun. Some of these residues may escape
around the breech of the gun and implanted on the exposed surface of the hand of the person firing the
gun, hence, this serve as the basis for the paraffin test.

 Composition of Gunpowder

1. Contains up to 23 organic compounds

2. Nitrocellulose with Nitrate and Nitrogen-containing compound as stabilizer such as
Diphenylamine

 Types of Gunpowder
1. Single based- when the basic ingredient is Nitrocellulose
2. Double based - when the ingredient are Nitrocellolose plus 1 to 40 % Nitroglycerine
3. Triple based- the ingredients are Nitrocellolose, Nitroglycerine and Nitroguanidine

Mass Spectrophotometer – is a device used to differentiate the 3 types of gunpowder

Types of powder used in the ammunition of small firearms.

1.Black powder – consists of an intimate mixture of charcoal, sulfur and Potassium or Sodium
Nitrate in the proportion of 15, 10 and 75 % respectively. This mixture is used as igniter in smokeless gun
propellant. When exploded the following reactions takes place:

2KNO + 3C + S 3 →‫ﮥ‬CO + K S + N

2. Smokeless Powder – consists of cellulose nitrate or mixture of glycerol nitrate combined with
cellulose nitrate and some stabilizers (nitrobenzene or graphite nitrates, dichromate and oxalates). When
exploded, the following reactions takes place:

C H O (NO ) → 9CO 3N + 7H O + CO 2

(Cellulose nitrate)

4C H (NO ) → 12CO + 10H O + 6N + O

(Glycerol nitrate)
 This reaction are accompanied by side reactions and the corresponding decomposition of the other
ingredients of the powder. In order to reduce side reactions, certain organic and inorganic
compounds are added to the powder which act as stabilizer.
It will be noted that nitrates are present in both smokeless and blackpowder, so that it is
expected to find nitrates in the residue of the barrel of the gun, in or around the wound, on the
surface of the clothing of the person who fired the gun at close range, and on the exposed surface of
the hand of the person firing the gun.

 Factors Affecting Powder Residues Collection

1. type and caliber of the ammunition 5. distance of the muzzle of the fun from
the target
2. length of the barrel of the gun 6. humidity
3. wind velocity 7. direction of firing
4. nature of the material into which the gun was fired

 DETECTION OF GUNSHOT RESIDUE

1. Paraffin Test
2. Lead residue detection – can detect up to 30 ft and always present on the opposite sides of
the penetrated target.
3. Gunpowder residue examination – can detect highly variable up to 20 cm, and up to 21
inches
4. Other examinations such as:
 Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA)
 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS)
 Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive Analysis (SEM-EDA)
 Inductively Coupled Plasma with Mass Spectrphotometry (ICP-MS)

* Dermal Nitrate Test or Paraffin Test 0r Diphenylamine Test (also called Lunge’s Test and
Gonzales Test)

This test is used to determine whether a person has discharged a firearm. The basis of this
test is the presence of Nitrates in the gunpowder residue.

This test was originated from Cuba when Dr. Gonzalo Iturrioz first used paraffin for the
purpose of collecting residues from discharged firearms. This was improved in 1933 by Teodoro
Gonzales of the Criminal Identification Laboratory of Mexico City and demonstrated the improved
technique of applying the paraffin in the United States. But was finally improved by Israel
Castellanos, Director of the Cuban National Bureau of Identification at Havana.

Paraffin wax - is the material used in making a cast for Paraffin test. It is a white, translucent,
tasteless, odorless solid consisting of a mixture of solid hydrocarbons of high molecular weight. It is
insoluble in water and acids but soluble in Benzene, ligroin, warm alcohol, chloroform, turpentine,
carbon disulfide and olive oil.

There are 2 theories/principles upon behind the Paraffin Test

 1. When the powder explodes, the nitrates form oxides of nitrogen which are caught by the exposed
surface of the hand and embedded in the pores of the skin. These oxides unite with salts of
perspiration to form complex salts
2. At the instant of discharge there is a certain amount of gases and a mixture of burned residue and
partially burned particles which escape around the breech of the gun. These particles strike the
exposed surface of the hand holding the weapon and become implanted into the skin
The test is carried out by making first a paraffin cast on the hand used in firing a gun. When the cast
has set, it is gently lifted off from the hand and the inner side is then saturated by Diphenylamine. If
particles of nitrates are present, a deep blue specks developed and appeared visible.

 Reasons for False Positive Reactions with Paraffin Test

1. If the hands are contaminated by certain substances with oxidizing property that are met in the
ordinary
course of life such as
a) Fertilizers e) firecrackers
b) Explosives f) urine
c) Tobacco g) cosmetics
d) food samples h) cigarettes

2. It is possible that the gun powder particles may have been blown on the hand directly from the
barrel of the gun being fired by anther person
3. An attempt to shield the body by raising the hand would in some instances result in implanting of
powder particles on the hand

There are also cases where a person has fired a gun but without obtaining positive result for
nitrates on his hands,
 that is if the gun used in firing is an automatic pistol. - This may be explained by the fact that
automatic pistol is almost completely enclosed and practically, all powder particles are forced
away from the hand of the person firing the gun.
 In the case of revolver, there is a considerable space between the chamber and the barrel which
permits a greater quantity of gas and other products of the explosion to escape near the hand of
the person firing the gun but inspite of this, numerous persons have shownnegative results to the
test even if they have fired a revolver.
 Direction and wind velocities may also contribute to a negative finding

GUNSHOT RANGE

Gunshot Range (GSR) Determination – also known as Gunshot Distance Determination

 Methods of Determining Gunshot Range

A. Distance Determination - this is the method of determining the distance between the firearm and
the target, based on the distance of the powder patterns or the spread of the shot pattern.

B. Bullet Comparison - is a type of examination using a microscope which is commonly used in

comparison of an empty shell containing characteristic marks from groves of the gun barrel and
firing pin of specific firearm used.
C. Hydroxyguinoline Test with Fluorescent photography – used to detect the presence of iron traces
in the barrel of the gun.

D. By Using Ferrozine Spray – this is to determine whether the victim was holding a firearm by
spraying the hands of the victim with ferrozine spray for the presence of iron oxides or traces of iron from
the gun.
Latent fingerprints can also be detected in cartridge and expended shell casing. Increase of
temperature and low humidity decreases persistence of fingerprints on metals

 Other Methods of Examination of GSR

 Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA)
 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS)
 Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-rayAnalysis (SEM-EDX)
 Inductively Coupled Plasma with Mass Spectrphotometry (ICP-MS)

 Importance of Distance Determination method

1. In connection to self-defense pleas

2. In the distinction between murder and suicide

 ASCERTAINING THE GUNSHOT RANGE

 Observations Noted in Ascertaining the Gunshot Range

1. Entrance and Exit Holes – contains gunpowder residue and is slightly burned
- The diameter of the entrance hole is smaller than the exit hole
- The exit hole is frayed outward while entrance hole is inward

2. Powder residue pattern such as; burning, singeing, smudging, tattooing

 Classification of Powder residue pattern on Gunshot distance :

 Burning - - produced at direct contact to the target

 Singeing - “ at about 1 to 2 inches
 Smudging - “ at about 2 to 8 inches
 Tattooing - “ at about 8 to 18 inches

o GUNSHOT WOUNDS

 Characteristics of Gunshot Wounds

A. Direct or Contact wounds – wounds made by the penetration of the bullet and the flame of
the expanding gases produced by the burning powder

 Observations Noted in Contact Wound:

1 Gaping hole where fabric is badly torn
2. Blackened area surrounding the bullet hole.
3. Singeing of the fibers at the entrance
4. Presence of partially burned powder residues around the entrance hole
 B. Wound inflicted at 2 to 36 inches (or hold close to the body of the victim)
 2 types of discolorations observed:
1. Smudging – produced when the gun is held from about 2 inches to a maximum of 8 inches. The
smoke and soot from the burned powder will be deposited around the hole of entrance producing a dirty,
grimy appearance (which is more pronounced when the ammunition used is black powder.

 Factors affecting the smudge size:

a. Age or caliber of the gun e. direction of firing

b. type of powder used f. wind direction
c. length of the barrel of the gun g. wind velocity
d. distance of muzzle of the gun from the body h. humidity

2. Powder Tattooing

Tattooing – a black coarsely peppered pattern produced when the gun was fired at slightly greater
distance from the target but within the range of the powder blast from about 36 inches where the particles
will be driven into the surface around the gun hole which are not evenly distributed.

 Factors affecting the size of the area of powder tattooing

a. caliber
b. powder charge
c. distance of firing

C. Wound inflicted at more than 36 inches distance:

Observations Noted:
 powder tattooing is seldom present
• nitrates (NO3) particles are present but not be sufficient for GSR

 Scorching or Singeing – is caused by flame that emerges from the muzzle of the gun and travels
only in short distance from it.. The presence of scorch is a proof that the firearm was discharged
very close to the target or a few inches away from the target. ( 3inches or more away from the
muzzle).

 Methods of Examination or Tests for Powder Residues

1. Chemical Test for Powder Residues (around the gunshot holes)
a. Paraffin cast method – consists of making paraffin cast
b. Swabbing technique – employs imbibition paper swabbed with 5-10% H-acid solution
2. Radiographic Examination of the Area Surrounding the Gunshot Hole:

This method show the spatial arrangement of minute metallic particles which may be impregnated
in the cloth and could not be detected by the microscopic examination.

3. Infra-Red Photograph of the Area Around the Gunshot Hole

This is employed by using infra-red film and infra-red technique

 This photograph reveals a smoke ring around the bullet hole which may not be noticed especially if
the hole is heavily stained with blood
FIREARM EXAMINATION
Methods Used to Determine the Probable Time the Gun or Firearm Has Been Fired or
Discharged

A. Lucas Test
A characteristic smell that decreases in intensity with lapse of time is present
immediately after firing but even after several weeks some slight smell remains. This is due to
oxidation of FeS2 to FeSO4

B. Odor of Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)

This is another product resulting from combustion of gunpowder which is present in
gaseous state and can be detected by means of Lead acetate paper test

C. Odor of the Barrel (rusting)

If the firearm has been discharged, iron salts are formed and can be detected inside
the barrel. This iron salts are soon oxidized resulting in the formation of rust or oxides of iron
that appeared as brown streak and patches

D. Presence of Nirates
Nitrates diminish after a lapse of time and can be detected by swabbing a portion
of residue in a barrel and mixing the residue with Diphenylamine solution (DPA).

E. Dermal Nitrate Test or Paraffin Test

This test is designed to determine the presence of gunpowder nitrates on the hands
of the alleged shooter
Collection, Preservation and Transit of Gunpowder Residue Specimen
 On clothing – should be handled carefully to prevent powder residues from dislodging
a. should be cut as large as possible surrounding the gunshot hole
b. all of the clothing in the path of the bullet should be collected if conditions and
appearance
of the wound point to a contact shot
c. do not wad the specimen or pack it loosely for shipment
d. secure the area to be tested between 2 layers of thick heavy cardboard fastened tightly to
prevent the
specimen from becoming justled
e. clothing heavily smeared with blood should be dried thoroughly before packing

 Gun recovered from the scene of crime and ammunition available should be preserved
 Person suspected to have discharged a firearm should be subjected to a paraffin test.
The examination should be performed immediately and in no case should it be
postponed 72 hours after the shooting.

Factors Affecting the Collection of Gunpowder Residues on Clothing

 1. Profuse bleeding which may wash away all traces of the residue
2. Rough handling or improper handling of specime
3. Dislodge of residues clinging to the clot

HAIR AND TEXTILE FIBER

In crimes involving physical or bodily contact, particles are often transferred to
the victims, suspect and weapon or other objects. Most common of these evidential
particles are hairs and fibers
The successful investigation of crimes of violence such as rape, murder, assault,
kidnapping, hit-and-run and others are frequently materially assisted by the result of the
examination of hairs and fibers.
Hairs are very resistant to decomposition and putrefaction, thus they often remain as a means
of identification long after others such as facial features and fingerprints have been destroyed.

 HAIR - is a special epithelial outgrowth or an appendage of the skin which occurs everywhere
on the body except on the palms of the hand and soles of the feet.

 Collection, Preservation and Transit of Specimen

 The floor of the room can be cleaned with a vacuum cleaner which may yield a number of
hairs from one or several persons
 Do not mix together hairs found in different places of the house/room where the crime was
committed.
 Don’t mix known samples of hair from different parts of the body.
 Hair samples should be placed in a folded paper or in white mailing envelope sealed with
scotch tape
 In cases where the suspect or the victim was taken to the hospital or if dead, to the morgue
for autopsy, secure the clothing immediately, but do not wrap together in one container
 Each item/package should be labeled individually
 In taking known specimen of hairs from the hair of a person for standard of comparison, at
least 20 strand or a dozen of hair be obtained.
 All foreign fibrous debris should be removed from the submitted specimen
 Fragmental hairs or underdeveloped hairs are not suitable
 Areas on an object containing hairs should be protected with cellophane or paper taped
over the area before wrapping the object from transmittal to laboratory
 Photograph the specimen before sending to the laboratory for examination.

 Two Kinds of Hair

1. Real hair – generally long and stiff
2. Fuzz hair – generally short, fine and sometimes curly and wooly

 Anatomically hair consists of three (3) parts namely:

1. Root - the part/portion embedded in the skin

2. Shaft - the most distinctive part or portion above the surface of the skin. It consists of the
following:
 a. Cuticle - the outermost covering of the shaft and consists of one layer of non-nucleated
polygonal cells which overlap like the scales of a fish.
b. Cortex - the intermediate and the thickest layer of the shaft, composed of elongated,
spindled-shaped fibrils which cohere that contain pigment granules in varying
proportions depending on a type of the hair.
c. Medulla or Core - the central canal of the hair which vary in size or diameter. It begins
more or less near the root that may be empty or may contain various sort of cells, more or
less pigmented.. The medulla can be continuous or interrupted

3. Tip or point - the distal end of hair, It may be pointed if uncut; may be blunt, rounded, or
frayed, if
it has been cut.

*The Structure and Parts of Human Hair

 The Root
The roots do not give much information as to the origin of the hair.

 Two kinds of root

1. Living root - root found on hair in full growth or on hairs that were pulled away by
force.
2. Dry root - root found on dead hair or on naturally fallen hair

The examination of the root will only give clue as to whether the hair s have been pulled
away
by force or have fallen out spontaneously and there are 3 possibilities:

1. All hairs have living roots – in this case they have not fallen out themselves but have been
pulled away
by force
2. All hairs have dry roots – in this case they have most certainly fallen out themselves.
3. Some hairs have living roots and some have dry roots – in this case they have been pulled
away by force, the living hairs with dry ones.

 The Medulla
The medulla or core or the central central canal of the hair can be continuous or
interrupted. It is continuous in large number of animals, very often interrupted in human,
monkey and horses. The diameter of the medulla is of little importance but the
 relationship between the diameter of the medulla and the diameter of the whole hair is of
great importance.

*Medullary Index – is the relationship between the diameter of the medulla and the
diameter of the whole hair. Its determination is performed under a microscope provided
with micrometer eyepiece.

 Two classification of hairs in terms of medulla

1. Hair without medulla

2. Hair with medulla

 Three types of Hairs in terms of Medullary Size

1. Hair with Narrow medulla - (medulla with diameter less than 0.5 micron) belongs to human
and
certain monkey
2. Hair with Medium medulla - (medulla with diameter approximately 0.5 micron) belongs to
hair of
cow, horse and other related animals
3. Hair with Thick medulla - (medulla with diameter larger than 0.5 micron) belongs to
almost animals

► Comparison Between Human and Animal Hair

Parts Human Animal

●Medulla - air networks in fine grains; cells visible - air network in form of large or
small
without treatment in water; fuzz without racks; cells easily visible; fuzz
with
medulla medulla
●Cortex - looks like a thick muff; pigment in the form - looks like a fairly thin hollow
cylinder;
of very fine grains pigments in the form of
irregular grains
large than of human
●Cuticle - thin scales, not protruding covering one - thick scales, protruding, not
covering
another to about 4/5 one another to same degree as
of human
► Other Aspects Of Hair Examination / Determination
 Variations in the Structure of Human Hair - Human hairs vary considerably depending
upon the race, age, sex , and parts of the body from which they came:

1. Characteristics by Race - the hairs from the scalp are the best for studying the variations presented
by
 race. In most instances it can be determined whether a human hair came from White, Negroid
Mongoloid or Caucasian race.

 The white race - have light pigmented skins with hair of different texture and degrees of
pigmentation from light to dark. The color of the shaft varies from white, light brown, reddish or
blond, depending on the amount and distribution of the pigment present in the shaft

 Negroid races – possess evenly distributed dark pigmented skins with kinky black hair that vary
in diameter along the shaft. A thin cross section of the hair is oval in shape.
 Mongoloid race - possess hair that contains dense pigment distributed more evenly than Negro
race. The cross section of the hair is round to oval in shape and contains heavy black medulla .
Generally the hair is coarse and straight with little variation in diameter along the shaft.
 Caucasian race – possess hair usually straight or wavy and not kinky. It contains very fine to
coarse pigment which is more evenly distributed than is found in Negro and Mongolian.
 American Indian, Chinese and other Asiatics – have a moderately quantity of pigment in the
skin and posssess long straight coarse black hair like a horse’ mane. The shaft is large, deeply
pigmented and cylindrical or triangular on cross section with a centrally placed medullary canal.
 Hybrid persons resulting from a cross between different races such as Negro and white, may
show gradations of variation in pigment and form of hair between two parental types.
 Albino Individuals – possess white skin and hair without or lack pigment and almost without
medulla.

2. Characteristics byAge
The age of the individual influences to a certain extent many characteristics of his hair shaft.
a. The lanugo hairs of the fetus are very fine, do not possess a medulla and are almost
colorless.

b. In infancy and childhood the hairs are finer, lack a medullary cavity for the most part
until after puberty and contain less pigment than the adult hairs as well as rudimentary in
character.(Parents with distinct brown hair may have children who are blond until
puberty.)

c. Children’s hair through adolescence is generally finer and more immature than adult hair
but cannot be definitely differentiated with certainty.

d. The adult hair color persists normally until middle life sets in, and then gray and white
appear de to the loss of pigment from the shaft. The hair diameter in old people is
generally less than in younger adults.

3.Characteristics by Sex

a. The hair of men is generally larger in diameter, thicker, shorter in length, more wiry, and
darker than that
of women. Ordinarily, the male scalp hair are not allowed to grow as women but at present,
sex could
not be a criterion if length of hairs is considered.

b. The most striking sexual difference is the growth on the face, which in men is composed of
thick wiry
hairs and in women of downy fine hairs. (Women may have beards similar to men.)
4. Hairs from Different Parts of the Body
a. Scalp hair – they are mature than any other kind of human hair.
b. Hairs from the eyebrows, eyelids, nose and ears are about as thick as the scalp hair at the
root but are
much shorter, stubby and have wide medulla. A medullary cavity is present consistently.
c. Beards are coarse, very stiff, curved and larger than those of the scalp hair. They are triangular
in cross
section and taper to a point gradually when allowed to grow undisturbed
d. Moustache are usually in shape at cross section and very stiff.
e.Hairs from the axilla or axillary hair are fairly long with unevenly distributed pigment. They
vary
considerably in diameter along the shaft and have frequently a bleached appearance.
. The ends are sharper and not so curly compared to pubic hair

f. Limb hair is similar in trunk hairs but not so long and as coarse than as the scalp hair
and
usually contain less pigment

g. Pubic hair are fairly long and uneven, showing a caliber which alternately increases or
decreases or
thickness. The medullary canal is extrinsically placed and the hair has a tendency to curl

h. The hairs on the trunk and the extremities vary in thickness, have less pigment than hairs
elsewhere
and possess a fine medullary cavity or none at all.

e. Differences in cross section

e.2. Hairs of the beard are triangular with concave sides.
e.3. Hairs from the torso are usually oval or kidney-shaped

* 4 Phases of the Examination of the Hair

1. Microscopically
Hairs should first be observed under the microscope in the condition that they are obtained.
Attention should be given to any foreign material that might be on the hair such as blood, semen, dye or
dust particles. The hairs should also be examined for evidence of natural or artificial curl.
Hairs should be cleaned. (Mixture of equal portion of alcohol and water or with soap and water)

2. Examination of Cuticle
The scales forming the cuticle of hairs should be examined.

3. The Overall Appearance of the Hair – should be observed, paying particular attention to the
color variations, shape, size and distribution of pigment, the type of medullary formation, the
characteristics of the root and tip ends, and the characteristics of the cortical cells
4. Examination of the Cross Section of the Hair – should be examined with the aid of a microtome,
noting the shape, size, appearance, distribution of pigment and the proportion of the parts of the hair

 Other Features of Hair to be Observed Under the Microscope

1. Color
Melanin- the brownish-black pigment in hair. It is a chemical substance
responsible for
the color of the hair.
Red hair is due to Iron content of hair.

2. Length by actual measurement

3. Character of the hair

4. Width breath

5. Character of the Hair Tip if Present

6. Manner by w/c Hair had been cut

7. Condition of Root or Base or Bulb of Hair

8. Character of the Cuticle

9. Character of the Cortex

10. Presence of Dye or Gel on Hair

11. Character of the Medulla

12. Determination of whether Naturally or Artificially Curled

 Certain Questions can be the Basis for Further Examination of Hair.

1. Is the material , hair or something else?
2.Is the hair from animal or from human?
3. Can sex, race and age of a person from it was removed be ascertained?
4. Can the method by which it was removed from the body be determined?
5. Has the hair received or undergone unusual treatmen?
 TEXTILE FIBERS
Textile – is derived from the Latin word “textiles” and the French word “texere” meaning to weave.
Textile fibers – fibers that can be converted into yarns.
Yarn – consists of fibers or filaments which have been twisted together.
Thread – consists of 3 or more yarns, tightly twisted, singed, polished in a smooth condition for use in
sewing.
 2 Broad Divisions of Textile Fibers:
I. Natural Fibers
A. Animal Fibers
1. Wool
2. Silk
3. Reclaimed and Extracted Animal Fibers
B. Vegetable Fibers
1. Seed fibers
2. Woody fibers
3. Leaf fibers
4. Fruit or nut fibers (cotton, piña, josie, abacca)
C. Mineral Fibers
1. Asbestos
II. Synthetic Fibers
A. Organic Synthetic Fibers
1. Cellulosic (Rayon) 2. Non-cellulosic
a. Regenerated celluloses a. Nylons
ex: cellulose nitrate b. Casein fibers
cupra ammonium c. Resin fibers
viscose
b. Cellulose Esters
ex: cellulose acetate

B. Inorganic Synthetic Fibers

1. Mineral fibers
a. Spun glass fibers
b. Metallic ex: fine wire filaments steel wool tinsel threads

Methods for Fiber Identification

The identification of fibers is based on the type, color, and matching characteristics through
microscopic, microchemical examination/analysis and melting point determinations.
  The Three Principal Groups of Classification /Identification
A. Simple Preliminary Macroscopic Tests
B. Microscopic Examination
C. Tests Employing Chemical Reagents, Solvents and Stains

*Simple Preliminary Macroscopic Tests – is used only for rough preliminary classification of fibers or
fiber
groups and differentiation of fibers with similar physical and chemical characteristics.
*Microscopic and Tests Employing Chemical Reagents, Solvents and Stains – are used for both
identification
and quantitative determination of fibers.

 Methods of Identification and Quantitative Separation given by the year-book 1942

A. Burning Test
B. Color Test
C. Solubility
D. Microscopic Examination

*Burning Test – shows definitely whether the fiber is mineral weighted silk, animal or vegetable. This
test is carried out by pulling out a single fiber and applying a flame to the end, noting the manner in
which it burns and the odor of the fumes.
Ordinarily, the animal fibers such as wool and silk burn very slowly and emit an odor like that of
burning feathers. Fibers of vegetable origin burn rapidly with the accompanying odor.

*Color Test – makes use of Millon’s reagent which is a solution of 1 part metallic mercury in 1 part
fuming nitric acid.

*Solubility Test – employs the ability of certain reagents or chemicals to dissolve some fibers and thus
differentiate hairs from natural silk; regenerated cellulose and cellulose derivatives; pure cellulose and
lignocellulose vegetable fibers.

*Microscopic Examination – is employed when the fibers have been separated into groups by the first
three tests.
 Methods of Fiber Analysis Recommended by the Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory:
A. Burning or Ignition Tests
B. Fluorescence Analysis
C. Microscopic Analysis
D. Chemical Analysis

The first 2 are of importance only for preliminary study. The microscopic and chemical analysis
or the combination of these 2 is used for final identification.

 Burning or Ignition Tests – is used to differentiate fiber of either group as those fibers
containing sulfur (wool and hair) and those containing no sulfur (silk) by observing the effect of
the fumes on lead acetate which turns black if H 2S is present.

 Ignition Test is done by holding the fiber with a forceps touching one end of the fiber to a small
flame and
observing the way the fiber burns taking note of the appearance of the burnt part and when
ignition is
 stopped; and the color of the ash.

 Fluorescence Analysis – frequently useful in ascertaining the general appearance to which a

fiber belongs or the possible difference in origin of 2 or more questioned samples when it is
necessary to preserve the material intact or when it is desirable to avoid a lengthy chemical or
microscopic analysis.
 Vegetable fibers exhibit a yellow fluorescence in ultra-violet light, whereas the
 Animal fibers show a bluish fluorescence. This is carried in condition especially when
the fibers are not dyed or treated with other dressing material.

 Chemical Analysis – this is made to supplement the microscopic examination and confirm the
results obtained.
A. Staining Test – the fiber is stained with picric acid, Millon’s reagent, Stannic
chloride or
Iodine solution.

B. Dissolution Test – if the fiber is white or light colored, it is treated with the following
chemicals: If dyed, it is first decolorized by boiling in ether, 1%
HCl, acetic
acid, dilute KOH
 Chemical Reagents:
1. 10% NaOH 4. Conc. H 2SO4
2. 5% Oxalic acid 5. Conc. and dilute NH4OH
3. Sat. Oxalic acid 6. Conc. HNO 3
 Key to Fiber Identification
I. Animal Fibers
Fibers of animal origin burn slowly and give off odor like that of burning feather. When removed
form the flame, they do not continue to burn readily and a charred bead remains at the end of the fiber.
Fumes turn red litmus paper blue.
 Wool: Odor is strong and disagreeable. Fumes turn lead acetate black or brush.
 Silk: Odor not so pungent. Fumes have no effect on lead acetate.

II. Vegetable Fibers

Fibers burn rapidly with a flame and give off but little smoke or fumes. Charred bead not present
when fiber is removed from the flame. Fumes turn blue litmus red
 . Artificial Silk (highly lustrous threads)
1. Acetate silk: Fumes with acid-like odor or very pungent.
Black residue upon burning.
2. Viscose silk, Nitro-cellulose and Cuprate silks
Fumes with little or no odor. White residue upon burning

 Cotton and Linen (threads with little or no luster)

1. Cotton: Burnt end of thread curls slightly and has tufted appearance.
2. Linen: Burnt end blunt and straight.