NURSING RESEARCH MIDTERM REVIEWER

Research variable and Hypothesis

The variables of Research (Independent vs Dependent)

Variable

 -is anything that varies.

 -It refers to a characteristics or attributes of an individual or organization that can be measured
or observed.
 -any quality of a person, group or situation that varies or takes on different values, typically
numerical values. E.g. weight, age, body temperature, anxiety level, SES, attitude
 Most quantitative researchers seek to understand how and why things vary and to learn how
differences in one variable are related to one another.
 Example:
● -Lung cancer research is concerned with the variable of lung cancer
● -Researchers have studied what variables might be linked to lung cancer and have identified
cigarette smoking

Hypothesis

 A hypothesis is a prediction about the relationship between two or more variables. A good
hypothesis is worded in clear in concise language.
 Hypotheses are tentative statements about a given population.
 They serve as a tentative answer to one or more of the research questions, and are subjected to
a statistical test.

Independent Variable

 Affects the value of the dependent condition that produces the outcome
 “assumed cause” , influence or affect outcomes of a problem
 Symbol x, representing an arbitrary element in the domain
 What the researcher manipulates or varies . -Also called thetreatment, manipulated or predictor
variables.

References

Example: The researcher examined the effect of tactile stimulation on weight gain in premature infants
IV: effect of tactile stimulation
Example: A study examining the effect of nurse’s contraceptive counselling on unwanted births

IV: nurse’s contraceptive counselling

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

 Factor whose value is affected by the independent variable

 Variable that being measured or Outcome Variable -Outcome of the process or “assume Effect”
or the result of influence of the independent variable.
 Symbol y, representing an element in the domain
 Change that occurs in the study population -Also called the criterion, outcome, effect and
response variables.

Examples of dependent variables

Example: The researcher examined the effect of tactile stimulation on weight gain in premature infants
DV: weight gain in premature infants

Example: A study examining the effect of nurse’s contraceptive counselling on unwanted births

DV: unwanted births

Other Types of Variable

Types of Variables (Barrientos, 2011)

A. Extraneous or Exogenous Variable

 Orgasmic -A characteristic of the organism that can used to classify the organism for research
purpose
 Environmental -This are factors that affect or influence the phenomenon under study

B. Abstract or Continuous Variable

-These are factors that have different values which are quantitatively measured and statistically
tested through hypothesis

C. Dichotomous variables

-These are factors with only two values

D. Active Variables

-Factors which theresearchers creates and/or manipulate

E. Attributes Variables

-These are pre-existing characteristics of the subject, which the researcher simply observes and
measures
DEVELOPING A RESEARCH SIMULACRUM

PURPOSE OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW

A good synthetic review has three characteristics (Strike & Posner, 1983)

● It clarifies and perhaps resolves the problems within a field of study rather than glossing over those
problems.

● It resolves in a progressive shift that yields a new perspective on the literature with more explanatory
and predictive power than is offered by existing perspectives.

● It helps clarify terms and concept.

WHAT MATERIAL ARE USED FOR REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES?

● Reviewing related literature is library work. Secondary data abound in libraries for your use in your
thesis writing.

● Library has a designate section for unpublished materials. These unpublished materials include theses
and dissertations of previous researchers which they wrote sometime in the past. They may be
undergraduate students, masteral students, or even doctoral students of different colleges and
universities. The library has compilations of their works.

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

Independent Variable

● Affects the value of the dependent condition that produces the outcome “ assumed cause” of a
problem

● What the researcher manipulates or varies

Dependent variable

● Factor whose value is affected by the independent Variable

● Outcome of the process or “assume Effect”

● Change that occurs in the study population

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

● BLANK SPOTS- VARIABLES WITH NO/LESS RESEARCH VARIABLES

● BLIND SPOTS- WITH CONFLICTING IDEAS

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

● The significance of the study should state why the problem examined is essential, and what
significance the results have.

● It should include a statement on importance or felt needs, the possible contribution of the research to
new knowledge, and policy implications and other possible uses for its results.

SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

● The scope is expected to indicate a coherent area of study which is large enough to be important but
narrow enough to permit careful management.

● It should be specific, the management they received, their number, the nature of any subjects treated,
any limitations that exits in the reference population as well as the instrument or research design should
be clearly defined.

FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

● A framework is a set of concepts that are logically & sequentially arranged to explain and predict the
occurrence of certain phenomenon.

● It is the possible answer of the study.

Theoretical Framework

● Based on one existing theory why a problem under study exists

● Explain connection between a theory and the problem

Conceptual framework

● Defined concepts showing where, when, or how they fit together providing a structure for organizing
and describing the phenomenon of interest.

● Based from previous study result or from own experience

Definition of Terms

● Conceptual Definition- definition based from the dictionary.

● Operational Definition- based from Researcher’s own definition.

STEP 2

Conceptualizing a research design

WHAT IS A RESEARCH DESIGN?

● a detail blue print/structural framework used to guide research towards its objectives

● Strategy or approach in solving the problem

● Maybe experimental or non experimental, qualitative or quantitative

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN?

HISTORICAL RESEARCH.

● Is a qualitative research that aim is to examine the reasons and true state of past events. It attempts to
examine events of the past to relate “what existed” or “what was” and to sum up such events into
simplifications.

ETHONOGRAPHY/ANTHROPOLOGY RESEARCH.

● Is a scientific study of description of people and races, their activity, cultural context and of

● various meanings derived and attached to such cultural acts.

FEASIBILITY RESEARCH

● Is a study that presents the viability, profitability, sustainability, stability of a business proposal
if it will be established.

● It forecasts the capitalization, maintenance, and operation costs that cover materials, men,
management and marketing expenses.

PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH.

● A type of research that attempts to explore human perception and understanding to an event
of phenomenon in a single context and in multiple comprehension.

● It is an interview based study because the researcher himself serves as the instrument in
eliciting date or responses from the participants.

● The unstructured interview process is mainly used as it maximizes the use of time even
beyond two hours to disclose fully his experiences.
 ● The researcher shall be alert in documenting the commonalities and differences of meanings
attached to a similar situation or phenomenon.

SURVEY RESEARCH.

● It is used to study a representative characteristic of a population.

● It aims to capture a situation that occurs in a moment. It is conducted in various ways like personal
interview, telephone interview, through a paper – pen questionnaire, fax, mail and electronic mail.

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS 1. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

● Seek answer to who, what, where and how questions

● Describes a given situation or a given state of affairs In terms of specified factors.

● To describe what is prevalent regarding: a group of people, a community, a phenomenon, a situation, a

program and outcome

TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

1. DESCRIPTIVE - NORMATIVE SURVEY

“The term normative is sometimes used because surveys are frequently made to ascertain the normal or
typical condition or practice or compare local test results with a state or national norm”. (Good and
Scates, 1972).

2. DESCRIPTIVE - COMPARATIVE

“Comparative survey where the researcher considers at least two entities and establishes a formal
procedure for obtaining criterion data on the basis of which he can compare and conclude which of the
two is better”. (De Jesus et al., 1984).

3. DESCRIPTIVE - EVALUATIVE

The purpose of this type is to appraise carefully the merit of the current study.

CORRELATION RESEARCH

● To ascertain if there is a relationship

● To establish or explore:

● a relationship

● an association
● an interdependence

EXPLANATORY RESEARCH

● Answer the questions why and how?

● to explain why the relationship is formed

● To explain:

● Why a relationship, association or

● interdependence exists

● Why a particular event occurs

4. INTERVENTION OR EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

● Evaluates the effect or outcome of a particular Intervention or treatment

● Studies the “cause and Effect” relationship between certain factors or phenomenon under controlled
condition/s.

STEP 3 SELECTING A SAMPLE

Sampling

Sampling is the process of choosing a representative

● Portion of a population or some elements in a population that will represents the entire population.

BASIC TYPES OF SAMPLING

1. Non probability sampling. Is arbitrary and is generally subjective. Data gatherers choose sample cases,
as they wish or whatever they find them.

2. Probability sampling. Based on concept of random selection, procedure that assures that all elements
in the population are given an equal chance of being selected as a sample unit.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

1. ACCIDENTAL SAMPLING. A sampling opportunity in which the researcher takes the respondents from
those he meets unexpectedly
2. PURPOSIVE SAMPLING. This is also called judgmental sampling. A deliberate selection of individuals by
the researcher based on predefined criteria.

3. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING. A process of selecting respondents in the easiest and most expeditious
way.

4. QUOTA SAMPLING. It is a non randomized selection of respondents from the cross selection of the
population.

5. NETWORK SAMPLING. This Is a referral sampling that stems from one or few identified samples who
after being involved in the study will lead the researcher to other samples who possess the same
attributes.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

1. Simple Random Sampling. This is similar to the lottery method that provides every one in the
population the equal chance to be picked as sample. a. Drawing of lots b. Using table of random digits

2. Systematic Sampling. This is used if a high density of a population is at stake. a. arranged alphabetical
or chronological ( age, experience, academic rank) b. nth name may be selected in the construction of
sample

3. Stratified Random sampling. A technique in which the expansive population is divided into
manageable smaller subgroups or strata from which samples are taken. Subgroup or strata

PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

4. CLUSTER SAMPLING. Identification of some references of limiting population to smaller units like
phases, blocks, areas or rows.

5. MULTISTAGE SAMPLING. . A refinement of the cluster sampling procedure making it more scientific is
the multi-stage sampling. The researcher, using the multi-stage sampling, can effect savings of time,
money, and effort. In addition, precision can be achieved with the sample thereby reducing the sampling
error. Be sure that your sample will be composed of members with heterogeneous characteristics
DETERMINING THE SAMPLE

There is no general rule regarding the sample size. However, the higher the percentage of the sample,
the higher the validity of the study. The bigger the population, the lesser percentage of the sample is
taken.

For a specific calculation of the sample for the purpose of adequate sampling, the use of the Sloven’s
Formula presented below is advised as given by Pagoso.

where:

n- sample

N- population

1- constant

e- sampling error

Therefore, the sample may be calculated when the population of the study is already known. Using .05
or .01 as the sampling error, the Sloven’s Formula may easily be applied.

LOCALE AND POPULATION OF THE STUDY

SETTING POPULATION/ PLACE

● The researcher using the descriptive-survey method can choose a subject firm or institution whose
facilities he could use for data gathering purposes.

● This subject firm or institution is otherwise known as the research setting or venue.

DESCRIPTION OF THE RESPONDENTS/ SAMPLE OF THE STUDY

● The researcher now knows exactly who his respondents shall be – the people who will provide him
with the needed primary data.

● The classification-information part of the questionnaire or the bio-data questions can help the
researcher describe his respondents. Hence, the respondents may be described by certain physical,
social, economic, or educational characteristics as age, gender, civil status, profession or occupation,
educational attainment, or length of employment.
Types of Questionnaire

Ranking questions – it refers to an opinion question where the respondent is asked to rank
comparatively the items listed either in ascending or descending order.

● As a good supervisor, how will you assess the importance of the following factors in

● promoting harmonious superior-subordinate relationship? Use the numbers 1-5 in

Dichotomous question – there are only two possible answers to these questions like the Yes-No type.
Ranking the following items from the most important to the least important

● Do you believe that the frequency of sex encounters by couples is an important determinant of a
happy marriage? ______Yes ______ No

RESEARCH SAMPLING

Methodology

Description of the Respondents

● The researcher(s) must explain how and where the subjects are taken and the bring description

● of the respondents.

● The agency and frequency of subjects must be mentioned

● Subjects must be adequate

Sample Description of the Respondents

The respondents of the study were the ninety (100) students currently enrolled in Nursing Care
Management (NCM) 101. The respondents already passed the prerequisite subjects specifically Nursing
Care Management 100 and Computer 1.

Adequate Sampling

1. The size of sample must be determined before the conduct of the study.

2. There are no fixed rules but there are recommendations:

3. When the population is homogenous, a smaller sample is enough; if heterogeneous, a

4. larger sample is recommended

5. The size of sample varies inversely as the size of the population 6. For greater accuracy, a larger
sample is recommended
Types of Sampling Design

Types of Probability Sampling

 Simple Random Sampling –can be done through the lottery method or table of random
numbers
 Systematic Sampling –uses the sampling interval formula sampling interval = total
population/desired sample size
 Stratified Sampling –used to ensure that different groups of the population are adequately
included in the sample.
 Cluster Sampling –used in large scale surveys; sampling larger groupings then smaller groupings
 Multi-stage Sampling –the selection of the sample is accomplished in more than 2 steps

Types of Non-Probability Sampling

Accidental or Convenience Sampling – obtained when the researcher selects whatever sampling units
are conveniently available

Purposive Sampling – the sample depends upon the subjective judgment of the researcher.

Quota Sampling – researcher(s) have an assignment of a “quota” or a certain number that must be
covered by the researcher including several criterias.

Snowball Sampling – starts with known sources of information who or which will in turn give other
sources of information.

Networking Sampling – this is used to find socially devalued urban populations such as addicts,
alcoholics, child abusers and criminals because they are usually hidden from outsiders.
Sample Diagram for Sampling

ETHICAL DIMENSIONS of RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Ethics

- Ethical principles that govern the complex nature of human behavior.

- A declaration of right or wrong,; reflects the “should” of human behavior
- Science of ideals – guides our judgment concerning morality of human acts
- Study of moral conduct or principles of underlying desirable types of human conduct.

Ethics determines:

- Why one act is better than the other;

- To have an orderly social life

ETHICAL DILEMMAS IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH

Unethical researches that have been highly publicized for their unethical treatment of human subjects

- The Nazi Medical Experiments were conducted on prisoners of war and racially “valueless”
people who were confined to concentration camps by the Third Reich.
 - The Tuskegee Syphilis Study was conducted to determine the natural course of syphilis in the
adult black man.
o By the end of the study, only 74 of the test subjects were still alive. Twenty-eight of the
men had died directly of syphilis, 100 were dead of related complications, 40 of their
wives had been infected, and 19 of their children had been born with congenital syphilis.
- The Willowbrook Study involved deliberately infecting children with the hepatitis virus.
- The Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital Study involved injecting patients with live caner cells to
determine the patients’ rejection response to these cells.

TWO HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS THAT HAVE STRONG IMPACT ON THE CONDUCT OF RESEARECH

BENEFICENCE

Beneficence encompasses the maxim: Above all, do no harm.

THE PRINCIPLE OF BENEFICENCE

- Freedom from harm

- Freedom from exploitation
- Benefits from research
- Risk/benefit ratio
The risk/benefit ratio

JUSTICE

Justice includes participants’ right to fair treatment and their right to privacy.

PRINCIPLE OF JUSTICE

- The right to fair treatment

- The right to privacy
o Anonymity confidentiality

RESPECT for human dignity

Respect for human dignity includes participants’ right to self-determination and their right to full
disclosure.

PRINCIPLE OF RESPECT FOR HUMAN DIGNITY

- The right to self-determination

- The right to full disclosure

INFORMED CONSENT
 - Means that participants have adequate information regarding the research, are capable of
comprehending the information, and have the power of free choice, enabling them to consent to
or decline participation voluntarily.

ELEMENTS OF INFORMED CONSENT