7

Site Work

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 Site Work 173

7.1 INTRODUCTION TO SITE WORK

In every building construction project, there will be some work associated with
site work. Site work, which is classified under CSI Division 2, is usually consid-
ered as one of the major cost categories of any construction project. Site work
generally is more difficult to evaluate than work in other categories since every
job has different site conditions and, thus has different work requirements. All
construction work on a site begins with site work and ends with site work. Figure
7.1 lists the components of Division 2 work categories.
As can be seen in Figure 7.1, the work associated with this division is very
diverse, consisting of many specialized sets of tasks. These tasks are also very
dependent on existing site conditions, much more so than tasks in other work
divisions. For example, door installation will be basically the same from job to
job, but excavation work will vary much more widely between jobs, depending
on such unique site conditions as existing terrain and soil types. Therefore, it is
extremely important for an estimator to get the most accurate information about
existing site conditions before an estimate for work in this division can be exe-
cuted.

7.1.1 Specifications Reviews—Extent of the Work

Drawings and specifications are the primary sources of information for the esti-
mator in preparing take off and pricing. Although the drawings will be used more
extensively in the later stage of quantity take off, the specifications are more
important in the earlier stage of the estimate preparation. The specifications must
be reviewed as soon as possible to determine the extent of the work to be included
in the bid package. The specifications not only list all the works to be included
in the project, but also which work will be performed by each party and the terms
of compensation. Before commencing the estimating work, the contractor must

FIGURE 7.1 Major work components in Division 2: site work.

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 174 Chapter 7

understand the work for which he is responsible and under what conditions he
will be compensated.

7.1.2 Site Visits

Site visits are not often necessary for work in other divisions, but for site work
it is crucial. Again, this is due to the high dependency on existing conditions for
operations associated with site work. Site visits are one of the best ways for an
estimator to get more information about a site. Although much information is
documented in the site plans, the information is usually limited. Only by per-
forming site visits, can an estimator get a first-hand look at the site, thereby
getting a complete picture of the existing site and surrounding areas, which can
be important considerations in planning for site work operations, in estimating
productivity, and ultimately in estimating the cost of doing the work. For exam-
ple, during a site visit an estimator should consider the location for a haul road
and its needs, site accessibility, and available storage areas. Limitations on these
items can have a serious impact on the work plan and equipment selections.
Consequently, the estimate and the bid must take into account any potential lower
productivity and the higher cost of performing the work due to site constraints.
A sample site investigation report can be found in Appendix 5.
Although site work is the first work encountered during construction opera-
tions, the estimating process of site work may not be the first operation in prepar-
ing the estimate for the project. This is because unlike work in other categories,
the quantity of work associated with site work is often not directly presented in
the drawings. For example, in backfilling around a building basement, the volume
of the building must be determined first before the computation of the backfill
volume can be determined. The volume of the basement and the concrete footing
can be directly computed from the dimensions given in the drawing. On the other
hand, the volume of backfill cannot be directly computed from the drawings as
the dimensions of the excavation are not presented. To compute the volume of
backfilling will mean inferring the proper dimensions from other dimensions
listed in the drawing, such as footings and building dimensions. For this reason,
site work estimation is often performed after concrete work estimation, when the
quantities for the concrete basement and foundation system have been deter-
mined.

7.2 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION

When dealing with earthmoving or foundation work, it is important to gather as
much information as possible about the characteristics of the ground and the
subsurface soil condition. Although the drawings generally provide some infor-
mation about the ground and soil condition on a site, the information is limited

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 Site Work 175

and may have with it a disclaimer of responsibility for the accuracy or complete-
ness of information. In this way, complete reliance on just the drawings can put
a contractor at great risk. Therefore, alternative sources of information must be
consulted.
For construction work in urban or developed areas, general information
about the subsurface condition is usually available from utility companies and
transportation authorities. However, in most construction projects, owners often
hire qualified soil engineering firms to perform a subsurface investigation. Soil
boring, testing, test results, and any recommendations are usually presented in a
subsurface investigation report, which becomes part of the project specifications.
Apart from the determination of the type of soils to be encountered onsite,
another important factor the contractor should be looking for is the ground water
level. Ground water level can have an impact on the construction process if exca-
vation is to be carried out below it. The interaction with ground water will require
the additional work of dewatering the site, which is discussed in Section 7.6.
When dealing with subsurface or underground work, there is always the
risk of unforeseen conditions that may affect the work plan and operations. There-
fore, in order to minimize this risk, the most information possible about the sub-
surface condition of the site must be gathered.

7.3 SITE PREPARATION

Depending on existing site conditions, the amount of site preparation will vary
from job to job. Site preparation is the first construction activity that can take
place on a site, and may involve demolition work, but will typically consist of
site clearing, tree removal, and topsoil stripping. Such site preparation prepares
the site for subsequent site modification work and the eventual construction of
the new building.

7.3.1 Demolition Work

Demolition work is usually required where the chosen site has some old struc-
tures, such as building or pavement, that must be removed before the construction
of the new building. Demolition may also be necessary when not all of the ex-
isting structures need to be removed, such as on a renovation or expansion job.
On such work, new construction will typically take place adjacent to an existing
building and may be connected to it. In this case, the demolition work will be
more limited and selective in altering the existing structures. Demolition work
is a specialized trade and is usually subcontracted out to demolition or wrecking
contractors.
Demolition work involves the breaking down of all or parts of an existing
structure onsite, moving the debris and rubble to a stockpile area, loading and

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 176 Chapter 7

removing the debris and rubble, and disposing of it. In addition, a dustproof
partition or protection screen for falling debris may be required depending on
the location of the project and the surrounding areas. The take off for dem-
olition work will be categorized according to the type of structure as well as ma-
terials. Typically wall structures, whether masonry or concrete, are usually taken
off in cubic meters (m3). Floor and roof structures are usually taken off in square
meters (m2). Doors and windows can be taken off by counting the individual
pieces. The loading and removal of rubble and debris are usually taken off in
cubic meters (m3). Dust and fall protection screens are taken off in square
meters (m2).

7.3.2 Site Clearing

Site clearing is the removal of trees and vegetation on a site. Clearing operations
are necessary before undertaking earthmoving operations. Trees, shrubs, and
brush not only make earth handling very difficult, but their organic materials
must be removed since their decay over time can cause unexpected settlement
of the ground.
The take off for site clearing is in square meters or hectares. One hectare
is equal to 10,000 m2. Crawler tractors or loaders are the most commonly used
equipment for land clearing due to their high tractive power, which is ideal for
the heavy pushing work required. Tractors are normally fitted with bulldozing
blades for felling trees or fitted with rakes for grabbing and hauling branches
and roots. The use of chain saws can also facilitate clearing operations.
The approximate costs of clearing a site can be seen in Table 7.1. These
costs do not include disposal costs, which must be accounted for when required.
Certain trees may have landscape resale or firewood value and some cost can be
recovered through their sales, whereas those that have no market value can be
processed by the chipping machine to facilitate hauling and disposal. Wood chip
byproducts can also be sold to nurseries or landscaping companies.

7.3.3 Selective Tree Removal and Tree Protection

Trees can be cut down in three ways: manually, by using a power tool (such as
a chainsaw), or by using heavy equipment (such as a loader). For instance, a tree
with a diameter of 200 to 300 mm, standing 6 to 7.5 m tall will require a crew
of three workers without any power tools 9 to 12 labor hours to cut down with
hand axes. However, if the same crew uses chainsaws, they can cut down the
same tree in only 2.25 to 3 labor hours. Even faster productivity can be achieved
by using heavy equipment. With a tractor, an operator can fell the same tree in
5 to 10 minutes (Walker, 1999). The cost of cutting down a tree will depend on
the method selected as well as the size of the tree. The use of tools and equipment
will involve a higher fixed cost for procuring the tools or mobilizing the equip-

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 Site Work
TABLE 7.1 Site Clearing Productivity and Cost

2000 Bare cost

02230 Site clearing Daily Labor Unit
Line item Description output (hrs) Hectare Labor Equip. Total

200 0010 Cut and chip light, trees to 150 mm diameter 0.40 119  2800 2700 5500

200 0150 Grub stumps and remove, trees to 150 mm diameter 0.81 29.7  735 1975 2710

200 0200 Cut and chip medium, trees to 300 mm diameter 0.28 169  4000 3850 7850

200 0250 Grub stumps and remove, trees to 300 mm diameter 0.40 59.3  1475 3975 5450

200 0300 Cut and chip heavy, trees to 600 mm diameter 0.12 39.5  9350 9000 18350

200 0350 Grub stumps and remove, trees to 600 mm diameter 0.20 119  2950 7950 10900

220 0010 Clearing brush with brush saw 0.10 79.1  1750 690 2440

220 0100 Clearing brush by hand 0.05 165  3675 1450 5125

220 0500 Clearing brush with dozer and brush rake 4.05 4 ↓ 101 199 300

Source: Means’ Building Construction Cost Data, Metric Edition, 2000.

177
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 178 Chapter 7

ment, therefore the number of trees to be cut down must justify these fixed costs.
See Table 7.2 for some cost comparisons.
However, not all trees on a site may need to be cleared. Some of the trees
may be designated so as to be kept on the site and must be protected from dam-
ages during construction operations. This is especially true for large trees with
aesthetic value, which can be difficult to remove or relocate. Tree protection
usually involves protecting the trunk by wrapping wooden planks around it and
tying the planks with wire. Alternatively, fences can be put up around a tree to
the drip line. The tree protection method and materials used are usually dictated
in the specifications.

7.3.4 Stripping Topsoil

Topsoil must be stripped from the site surface before subsequent earthwork opera-
tions. Topsoil is very expensive and usually varies from $15 to $20 per m3, de-
pending on the quality, which is more then twice the cost of bank run gravel or
common borrow. The stripping of topsoil should therefore be carried out in such
a way that the maximum quantity of topsoil can be recovered. The topsoil should
be stripped, any foreign material removed, and stored. The storage area should
be carefully selected to ensure protection of the stockpile from contamination
and erosion. In addition, the selected area must also be at a convenient location,
minimizing the haul distances. In this way, haul time can be reduced during
stockpiling and the subsequent redistribution of the topsoil to its final location.
In pricing topsoil stripping work, it is important to check if the topsoil can
be stockpiled onsite or if it has to be removed and later brought back to the site.
The average depth of the topsoil layer must also be determined so as to enable
the computation of the topsoil volume to be excavated and removed. Generally,
the depth of excavation ranges from 0.15 to 0.30 m and is usually defined in the
specifications. Topsoil take off is measured in cubic meters. It is computed by
multiplying the area to be stripped with the depth of the topsoil layer or excava-
tion. Work conditions such as physical restrictions, the distribution of areas to
be stripped and later filled, or terrain conditions can affect productivity and must
be considered in determining stripping productivity. A bulldozer or loader is typi-
cally used for stripping operations. Table 7.3 lists sample costs for topsoil strip-
ping, stockpiling, spreading, and dressing.

Example 7.1. Topsoil Stripping Take Off and Pricing

Assume the following.

Plot area to be stripped of topsoil ⫽ 6000 m2.

Depth of Excavation ⫽ 0.15 m.
The stripping will be carried out using a 150 kW dozer.

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 Site Work
TABLE 7.2 Selective Tree Removal and Productivity and Cost

2000 Bare cost

02230 Site clearing Daily Labor
Line item Description output (hrs) Unit Labor Equip. Total

Stump removal using hydraulic backhoe

280 1040 100 to 150 mm diameter 60 0.533 Each 12.65 9.45 22.10
280 0150 200 to 300 mm diameter 33 0.727  18.05 48.50 66.55
280 1100 350 to 600 mm diameter 25 0.960 ↓ 24.00 64.50 88.50
Remove selected trees, using chain saws and chipper
280 2050 100 to 150 mm diameter 18 2.667 Each 63.00 61.00 124.00
280 2100 200 to 300 mm diameter 12 4.000  94.50 91.00 185.50
280 2150 350 to 600 mm diameter 10 4.800 ↓ 114.00 109.00 223.00

Source: Means, Building Construction Cost Data, Metric Edition, 2000.

179
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TABLE 7.3 Productivity and Costs for Topsoil Stripping, Stockpiling, Spreading, and Dressing

2000 Bare cost

02310 Grading Daily Labor
Line item Description output (hrs) Unit Labor Equip. Total

Remove loam or topsoil and stockpile on site

460 0020 150 mm deep, 60 m haul 661 0.018 Cu.m 0.48 1.22 1.70
460 0100 150 mm deep, 90 m haul 398 0.030  0.80 2.03 2.83

460 0150 150 mm deep, 150 mm haul 172 0.070  1.86 4.69 6.55

460 0400 Spread from pile to rough finish grade, loader, 1.15 cu. m 153 0.078  2.09 1.98 4.07

460 0500 Spread from pile to rough finish grade, by hand 10.70 0.747  16.65 16.65

460 0600 Top dress by hand 8.79 0.910 ↓ 20.00 20.00

Source: Means’ Building Construction Cost Data, Metric Edition, 2000.

Chapter 7
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 Site Work 181

The topsoil will be stockpiled onsite. Based on the site conditions, the pro-
ductivity is estimated at 83 m3 /hr.
Mobilization and demobilization time is estimated at 4 hours.
Dozer Rate ⫽ $ 75 per hour.
Dozer Operating Cost ⫽ $25.85 per hour.
Equipment Operator Rate ⫽ $28.85 per hour.

Take Off.

Volume of topsoil to be stripped ⫽ 6000 m2 ⫻ 0.15 m ⫽ 900 m3.

Work hours required for topsoil stripping ⫽ 900 m3 ⫼ 83 m3 /hr ⫽ 11 hr.

Pricing.

Equipment Cost ⫽ [(11 hour ⫹ 4 hour) ⫻ $ 75 per hour] ⫹ (11 hour ⫻

$25.85 per hour) ⫽ $1,409.35.
Labor Cost ⫽ 15 hour ⫻ $28.85 per hour ⫽ $432.75.
Total cost approximately $2.05 per m3.

7.4 EARTHWORK
The major work in site work division is earthwork. This involves the rough grad-
ing of the site to achieve desired elevations, the excavation of the ground for
the construction and installation of the building structures, the backfilling and
compacting of the soil or fill materials, and the hauling of excavated soil or fill
materials. Earthwork represents one of the major efforts of site modification. It
is also one of the most equipment-intensive operations in a building construction
project.
The quantity measurement for work in this category is principally the vol-
ume of soil to be handled, which is measured in cubic meters (m3). Determining
the volume of soil to be handled is straightforward and less problematic than the
process of costing the work. This is because many factors can affect how the
work can be carried out, the productivity, and ultimately the cost of performing
the work. One of the most important factors is the type of soil to be handled.

7.4.1 Soil Characteristics and Their Effects on

Construction Operations
The types of soil encountered on a site can have a significant impact on the
operations associated with earthwork. Different types of soil have different mate-
rial properties, specifically their physical properties, stability, cohesiveness, per-
meability, and strength. These soil properties affect the workability and handling

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TABLE 7.4 Productivity Adjustment Factor

for Different Soil Conditions

Productivity
adjustment
Type of material factor

Moist loam/sandy clay 1.00

Sand/gravel 0.94
Hard clay 0.81
Rock—well blasted 0.61
Rock—poorly blasted 0.39

of the soil, thus the productivity of the earthmoving operations. Table 7.4 pro-
vides a suggested adjustment factor for the different soil conditions that can be
encountered onsite.
These soil properties can dictate how the construction works are to be car-
ried out. For example, for soft soil such as sandy clay, a small backhoe may
perform the excavation work very well. However, when excavating in rock is
required, blasting operations and bigger equipment may be used during excava-
tion. In this way, the type of soil encountered and desired productivity must be
considered in the selection of methods and equipment for earthwork operations.

7.4.2 Safety Considerations in Excavation

In the US, the regulations most profoundly affecting the construction operations
are those of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) of the
US Department of Labor. The Occupational Safety and Health Regulations of
1970 were enacted to provide a safe workplace and require employers to provide
a job environment that is free from hazards that can cause serious physical harm
or death to workers. Although local authorities often administer their own occupa-
tional safety and health programs, they generally adopt the federal OSHA regula-
tions or similar requirements. Three sets of regulations may apply to a project,
namely, those from federal, state, or local authorities, therefore, contractors are
advised to follow the strictest requirements.
For open cut excavation work, the type of material encountered will deter-
mine if excavation banks need to be sloped, and if so at what angle, or if shoring
or bracing are necessary. OSHA regulations affecting excavation work are de-
signed to protect employees in excavation, such as the design of a slope or the
design of an excavation support system. Generally, excavations greater than 1.5
m (5 ft) deep will require some form of cave-in preventions, such as shoring,
bracing, or side slopes. For excavations greater than 6.1 m (20 ft) in depth, OSHA
requires the protective system be designed by a registered professional engineer.

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 Site Work 183

TABLE 7.5 OSHA’s Maximum Allowable Slope for

Excavations Less than 6.1 Meter (20 Feet) Deepa

Angle
Material Slope ratio (Degrees)

Stable rock Verical 90

Type A soilb 0.75 H: 1 V 53
Type B soilc 1 H: 1 V 45
Type C soild 1.5 H: 1 V 34
a
Stable rock-natural solid mineral matter that can be excavated with
vertical sides and remain intact when exposed.
b
Type A soil has an unconfined compressive strength of at least
144 kPa (1.5 t/ft2), and includes caliche and hardpan but cannot
have imperfections such as adverse layering, fissures, or distur-
bance.
c
Type B soil has an unconfined compressive strength of at least 48
kPa (0.5 t/ft2), or may be angular gravel or dry rock, or type A
soild with some imperfections.
d
Type C soil may be weak cohesive material, or sand, submerged
or seeping soil, adversely sloping layering, etc.
Source: OSHA Regulations (Standards–29 CFR) Sloping and
Benching–1926 Subpart P, Appendix A & B.

OSHA’s maximum allowable side slopes for different soil types can be
seen in Table 7.5. Side slopes are expressed as a ratio based on the number of
horizontal distance to the number of vertical or depth distance.

7.4.3 Soil Swelling and Shrinkage

Earthwork operations, such as excavation, backfilling, and compaction, can affect
the density of the soil. This is because soil in its natural state is often compacted
to a certain density. Excavation processes loosen the soil, causing it to expand
or swell, thus resulting in increased volume. The hauling and backfilling of soil
and recompaction further changes soil density. Essentially, a 20 m3 hole in the
ground may result in more than 20 m3 of soil hauled away, and similarly a 20
m3 hole will require more than 20 m3 of fill material to backfill. Due to changes
in soil density, it is necessary to specify whether the volume is measured in
its original undisturbed position, in loose condition, or in the fill volume after
compaction. Bank measure or pit measure volume represents the original undis-
turbed volume of soil in the ground. Loose measure volume is the volume of
earth that has been excavated from the ground and may be stockpiled onsite or
placed on a truck. Compacted volume is the volume of earth after it has been
backfilled and compacted. The swelling and shrinkage of the soil will vary with

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 184 Chapter 7

TABLE 7.6 Soil and Swell Factorsa

Material Swell factor

Topsoil 1.25–1.35
Sandy loam 1.10–1.20
Sand and gravel 1.10–1.18
Clay 1.20–1.35
Blasted rock 1.40–1.60
a
Amount of moisture content can affect the
soil’s degree of swelling, especially for top soil
and sandy loam. Wet sandy loam may swell by
10% but dry sandy loam can swell by 20%.

the type of soil under consideration. Tables 7.6 and 7.7 show typical swelling
and compaction factors for different soil types.
Example 7.2. Soil Swelling Computation
Given that the soil type on a site is determined to be primarily clay, and a 1000
m3 bank measure of excavation is to be performed, the number of loose cubic
meters of soil to be hauled away by truck can be computed as follows.
Volume of Haul (loose measure) ⫽
In-Place Volume (bank measure) ⫻ Swell Factor. (7.1)
Example: 1,000 m ⫻ 1.30 ⫽ 1,300 m .
3 3

Therefore, if the capacity of the hauling unit is 12.6 m3, the number of loads can
be calculated as follows.
Number of Loads ⫽ Volume of Haul ⫼ Haul Unit Capacity. (7.2)
Example: 1,300 m3 ⫼ 12.6 m3 /load ⫽ 104 loads.
Example 7.3 Soil Shrinkage Computation
Given that the in-place backfill volume is computed to be 600 m3 and the gravel

TABLE 7.7 Soil Compaction Factors

Material Compaction factor

Topsoil 0.70–0.75
Sand and gravel 0.75–0.80
Crushed stone 0.80–0.85

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 Site Work 185

fill is specified, the volume of gravel to be brought to the site can be computed
as follows.

Volume of Fill (loose measure) Required ⫽

In-Place Volume (compacted) ⫼ Compaction Factor. (7.3)
Example: 600 m3 ⫼ 0.80 ⫽ 750 m3.

7.4.4 Earthmoving Production

Earthmoving operations are different from other construction operations primar-
ily because they are more equipment intensive and involve repetitive operations
of moving large volumes of material. The productivity of earthmoving operations
can thus be systematically estimated like other manufacturing production activi-
ties. Earthmoving production is dependent on the following three main factors:
payload capacity of equipment, average cycle time, and job efficiency. Payload
capacity is primarily related to the features of the equipment selected, such as
bucket size, blade size, or the power ratings of the equipment.
The average cycle time is affected by the equipment characteristics as well
as job conditions. For example, for an excavator, the digging cycle is composed
of four operations: load bucket, swing bucket, dump bucket, and swing back
bucket. Determining the time to perform each of these operations and totaling
the time taken will give the cycle time for one digging cycle. Generally, smaller
machines can move faster than larger machines, thus having shorter cycle times.
In addition, cycle time is also affected by job conditions, factors such as the type
of soil, depth or reach of excavation, presence of obstacles, and the like. As the
soil gets harder to dig, it generally takes longer to fill the bucket. As the excava-
tion of a trench gets deeper or the excavation area becomes larger, the bucket
has to travel farther or swing farther on each digging cycle, thus slowing down the
operation. The presence of obstacles, position of equipment, and the placement of
loading and dumping areas also affect the cycle time since they affect the degree
of equipment movement. Digging from a stockpile is faster than digging around
existing utilities. Working in large open areas also allows for faster movement
of equipment than working in enclosed and crowded areas where there are people
and machinery near by.
The last factor, job efficiency, relates to the management side of job condi-
tions. Job efficiency is used to adjust the calculated productivity to account for
equipment delay time or downtime in an operation. It directly relates to how
many minutes per hour the equipment actually operates. The delays can be due
to waiting for other equipment units, material shortages, or the use of unskilled
operators. These causes of delays are management issues that involve trade-off
decisions. For example, management can increase the number of hauling units
thus keeping the excavator busy and raising productivity, but in doing so in-

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 186 Chapter 7

TABLE 7.8 Job Efficiency Factor

Efficiency
Work time (min.) factor

60 1.00
55 0.91
50 0.83
45 0.75
40 0.67

Source: Caterpillar Performance Handbook

95.

creases the direct cost of operating the additional equipment. The trade-off must
be made between the increase in costs and the benefits that can be derived from
the higher productivity. Table 7.8 shows a sample job efficiency factor suggested
by Caterpillar for discounting the productivity of an excavator. The formula for
calculating earthmoving production is as follows.
Estimated Productivity (m3 /hr) ⫽ Cycle/hr ⫻ Average Payload
(7.4)
⫻ Job Efficiency Factor.
Example 7.4 Excavation Production Calculation
It is given that an excavator has an estimated average bucket payload of 1.5 m3
and the following operation times.
Load Bucket ⫽ 0.09 min.
Swing Bucket ⫽ 0.06 min.
Dump Bucket ⫽ 0.04 min.
Swing Bucket ⫽ 0.06 min.
If the equipment is estimated to be busy about 45 min per hour, what is the
estimated excavation productivity?
Cycle Time ⫽ 0.09 ⫹ 0.06 ⫹ 0.04 ⫹ 0.06 ⫽ 0.25 min.
Number of Cycles per Hour ⫽ 60 min ⫼ 0.25 min ⫽ 240 cycles.
Excavation Productivity ⫽ 240 cycle/hr ⫻ 1.5 m3 ⫻ 0.75 ⫽ 270 m3 /hr.

7.4.5 Rough Grading

Rough grading is the primary activity of deliberately changing the site terrain
from the natural grade elevations to the finished grade elevations. It involves
excavating, hauling, backfilling, and compacting operations. Areas with existing
elevations higher than the proposed elevation are excavated to the desired grade

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 Site Work 187

(cut area), and areas with existing elevations lower than the proposed elevation
are backfilled and compacted to the desired grade (fill area). If excavated materi-
als can be used to backfill they are loaded and hauled from the excavated area
to the backfilled areas, otherwise they must be disposed of. In cases where the
excavation material turns out to be less than fill material, suitable fill material
must be purchased and brought in for backfilling.
In taking off for rough grading or cuts and fills, an estimator turns to the
civil plan section of the drawings. Civil plans typically contain the site or survey
plan, plot plan, utilities layout plan, paving and site improvements plan, and land-
scaping plan. The site or survey plan provides the property dimensions, natural
contour of the site, the azimuths, and the trees and vegetation onsite. The plot
plan, on the other hand, shows the proposed finished grades, structure locations,
and landscaping layouts. It is primarily with these two plans that the rough grad-
ing take off is calculated.
The method used in taking off rough grading volume is sometimes referred
to as the cross-sectional method. This involves the division of the site into smaller
plots and determining the cut or fill volume for each of the plots. Thus the first
step in this method is to create grid lines over the entire rough grading area,
dividing the site into many small plots of land. Figure 7.2 shows a sample site
plan with existing contour lines, proposed contour lines, and the grid lines. A
contour line represents a line where all the points along the line have equal eleva-

FIGURE 7.2 Sample rough grading site plan.

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 188 Chapter 7

tions with reference to a certain datum or benchmark elevation. The spacing

between the grid lines determines the plot size. The selection of the grid line
spacing or the plot size is dependent on site conditions, such as the size of the site
and changes in elevations, as well as the desired level of accuracy. The smaller the
plot size, the more accurate the take off is. However, the trade-off is that more
work is involved in calculating the total volume as the smaller the grid spacing,
the more plots are needed to cover the entire rough grading area.
Taking off rough grading volume is a tedious operation. The drawing must
be carefully studied and many elevations must be determined and read from the
plan and recorded. Many computations must also be carried out to calculate the
volume of cut or fill for each plot and finally the total volumes. To facilitate
the take off, a special cut and fill worksheet form is often used for the rough
grading take off. This cut and fill work sheet can be seen in Figure 7.3.
The second step of the cross-section method is to determine all the eleva-
tions at each grid point intersection, existing as well as proposed. The elevation
at any point is determined by examining the nearest contour lines enclosing the
point. For example, if a point is midway between the contour lines of 110 and
120 m, the estimated elevation is 115 m. The elevations are labeled on the inter-
section as prescribed in Figure 7.4.
The third step of this method is to compare the two elevations. If an existing
elevation is higher than a proposed elevation, the difference is the cut depth,
which is recorded in the bottom left corner. However, if an existing elevation is
lower than a proposed elevation, the difference is the fill depth, which is recorded

FIGURE 7.3 Cut and fill worksheet form.

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 Site Work 189

FIGURE 7.4 Elevations labeling convention at grid intersection.

in the bottom right corner. At each intersection, there can be a cut depth, fill
depth, or no change in elevation.
The fourth step is to compute the cut or fill volume for each grid. There
are four possibilities for each grid, namely those with only cut volumes, with
only fill volumes, with both cut and fill, and with no cut and fill. It is important
that the cut and fill volumes be kept separate as both represent different types
of work in rough grading.
The fifth and final step of the method is to calculate the sum of all the cut
and fill volumes. The cut volume will be used to compute the excavation and
hauling cost, and the fill volume will be used for computing backfilling and com-
pacting cost. It is important to determine in the specifications whether the exca-
vated material can be used for general fill in rough grading or subbase for paving,
and also the disposition of excess excavated material. If reuse of excavated mate-
rial is possible, the difference in the two volumes will mean that either additional
fill materials need to be purchased or excess excavated material needs to be
hauled away and disposed of. Table 7.9 lists the costs for performing rough grad-
ing work.
Example 7.5 Cut Volume Computation
Refer to Figure 7.5 during this example. A cut volume can be seen at grid G5–
H5–H6–G6 where the proposed elevations at all four corners are lower than the
existing elevations. Consequently, all four corners have cut depths. The cut depth
is computed as follows.
Cut depth at G5 ⫽ Existing Elevation ⫺ Proposed Elevation. (7.5)
Example: 16.7 m ⫺ 15.2 m ⫽ 1.5 m.
Summing up the cut depth at the four corners and dividing by the number of
corners of the plot give the average cut depth for the plot.
Average Cut Depth ⫽ (1.5 m ⫹ 2.0 m ⫹ 2.4 m ⫹ 2.0 m) ⫼ 4 ⫽ 1.98 m.
The cut volume can be determined by multiplying the average cut depth
by the area of the plot.
Cut Volume ⫽ Average Cut Depth ⫻ Plot Area. (7.6)

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TABLE 7.9 Rough Grading Productivity and Cost

2000 Bare cost

Daily Labor
Line item Description output (hrs) Unit Labor Equip. Total

02315 Excavation and fill

100 1300 Dozer backfilling, bulk, up to 90 m haul, no compaction 917 0.013 Cu.m 0.35 0.88 1.23
100 1600 Compacting backfill, 150 to 300 mm lifts, vibrating roller 612 0.020  0.52 1.50 2.02
100 1700 sheepsfoot roller 573 0.021 ↓ 0.56 1.63 2.19
Excavating, bulk, dozer open site
410 2000 56 kW, 15 m haul, sand and gravel 352 0.034 Cu.m 0.91 0.79 1.70
410 2020 Common earth 306 0.039  1.05 0.91 1.96
410 2040 Clay 191 0.063  1.67 1.46 3.13

410 2200 56 kW, 45 m haul, sand and gravel 176 0.068  1.82 1.59 3.41

410 2200 Common earth 153 0.078  2.09 1.83 3.92

410 2240 Clay 96 0.126 ↓ 3.35 2.93 6.28
02320 Hauling
Hauling excavated or borrow material, loose volume
200 0020 4.58 cu. m truck, 0.5 km round trip, 5.0 loads/hr. 149 0.054 Cu.m 1.22 2.45 3.67
200 0040 1.5 km round trip, 3.3 loads/hr. 99 0.080  1.84 3.68 5.52
200 0100 3.0 km round trip, 2.6 loads/hr. 76 0.105 ↓ 2.39 4.78 7.17

Chapter 7
Source: Means’ Building Construction Cost Data, Metric Edition, 2000.

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 Site Work 191

FIGURE 7.5 Cut and fill volume computations example.

Example: 1.98 m ⫻ 100 m2 ⫽ 198 m3.

If a cut and fill worksheet is used, the line should be completed as seen in
Figure 7.6.
Example 7.6 Fill Volume Computation
An example of fill volume can be seen at grid B1–C1–C2–B2 in Figure 7.7
where the proposed elevations at all four corners are higher than the existing

FIGURE 7.6 Cut volume computation.

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 192 Chapter 7

FIGURE 7.7 Fill volume computation.

elevations. Consequently, it can be seen that all four corners have fill depths,
which are computed as follows.
Fill depth at B1 ⫽ Proposed Elevation ⫺ Existing Elevation. (7.7)
Example: 17.8 m ⫺ 16.3 m ⫽ 1.5 m.
The average fill depth for the plot can be determined by summing up the fill
depths at the four corners and dividing by the number of corners.
Average Fill Depth ⫽ (1.5 m ⫹ 1.1 m ⫹ 1.2 m ⫹ 1.6 m) ⫼ 4 ⫽ 1.35 m.
The fill volume can be determined by multiplying the average fill depth by the
area of the plot.
Fill volume ⫽ Average fill depth ⫻ Plot area. (7.8)
Example: 1.35 m ⫻ 100 m ⫽ 135 m
2 3

Example 7.7 Cut and Fill Volume Computation

For a grid with both cut and fill, where the four corners are not all cut depths
or all fill depths, there is an additional step of dividing the plot into only cut and
fill areas. This process involves the determination of the point with zero elevation
change along the line where there is a change from cut depth to fill depth. For
example, in Figure 7.8 line D4–E4 changes from cut depth at D4 to fill depth
at E4. Therefore, there must be a point along the line where there is zero cut or
fill. The point of zero change in elevation is determined by similar triangles as
shown in Figure 7.8.
Similarly, line D5–E5 also has a point with zero cut and fill and is similarly

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 Site Work 193

FIGURE 7.8 Determining the point with zero elevation change.

determined as also shown in Figure 7.8. These two points are then connected,
forming a line of zero change in elevation. This line divides the plot into two
distinct regions where there is only cut or only fill. The computation for the cut
and fill volumes are then computed in a similar manner as previously discussed
and can be seen in Figure 7.9.

FIGURE 7.9 Cut and fill volume computation.

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 194 Chapter 7

Example 7.8 Pricing Rough Grading Work

Table 7.9 shows the cost and productivity for rough grading. As an example
assume the following information.

Soil Type ⫽ sand and gravel.

Cut Volume ⫽ 4000 bank m3.
Fill Volume ⫽ 2900 bank m3.

The rough grading and backfilling will be performed by a 56 kW dozer. The

hauling distance is 45 m. The excavated material can be used for backfilling but
excess material must be disposed of. A 4.58 m3 hauling unit will be used for
hauling the excess soil. Round trip distance for hauling is 1.5 km.
The cut volume is more than the fill volume by 1100 m3. This excess vol-
ume will need to be hauled away for disposal. Assume a soil swelling factor of
1.14. The amount of loose soil can thus be calculated as 1254 m3. The pricing
of work associated with rough grading operations can be seen in Figure 7.10.

7.4.6 General Excavation

General or mass excavation refers to mass removal of soil onsite, such as during
an excavation for a basement. This operation is typically performed with the aid
of equipment such as excavators, shovels, or backhoes.
Unlike work in other divisions, the volume of excavation is often not pre-
sented directly in drawings and must be computed based on certain assumptions
and criteria relating to construction methods. The drawings generally provide the
dimensions of the basement walls, footings, and elevations, which allow for
the computation of the volume of inplace construction, such as the volume of
the basement and footings. However, the excavation volume can be much more
than just the volume of the inplace construction. The excavation must also pro-
vide for the excavation of side slopes and temporary working spaces for people
and material movement. Figure 7.11 shows the space requirements for mass
excavations.
A discussion of side slopes can be found in Section 7.4.2. Alternatively,
the excavation can be stabilized by other shoring methods discussed in Section
7.5. Working space is recommended at 0.3 m plus the distance of the footing
projection from the wall face or 0.75 m from the wall face, whichever is greater.
To calculate the excavation volume, an estimator needs to determine the
dimensions of the excavation, which are the length, width, and depth of the exca-
vation. The top length and width are the same as the bottom length and width
if the excavation is done with vertical sides. When side slopes are used, the top
dimensions are larger than the bottom by the amount of horizontal distance of
the side slope on both sides of the excavation. The top and bottom dimensions

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 Site Work 195

FIGURE 7.10 Pricing rough grading work.

FIGURE 7.11 Working space and side slope in excavation.

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 196 Chapter 7

are then added and divided by two to give the average length and width of the
excavation. The depth of the excavation usually extends from the top of the grade
after rough grading to the bottom of the fill material used under the basement
slab. With these excavation size dimensions, the volume of general excavation
can be computed as follows.
Volume of General Excavation ⫽ Average Length
(7.9)
⫻ Average Width ⫻ Depth.
Example 7.9 General Excavation Volume Computation
This example refers to Figures 7.12 through 7.14. Compute the volume for gen-
eral excavation for the basement construction as shown in Figure 7.12.
The primary step in excavation take off is to determine the size of the
excavation pit. In this example, side slopes are 1 to 1 and workspace allowance
is 0.5 m from the footing edge. From Figure 7.13, the bottom length, top length,
and average length of the excavation pit can be computed as follows.
Bottom Length ⫽ Wall to Wall Length of Basement
⫹ Footing Projection (7.10)
⫹ Working Space Both Sides.
Example: 15 m ⫹ 2(0.3 m ⫹ 0.5 m) ⫽ 16.6 m.

FIGURE 7.12 Plan view of building basement wall.

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 Site Work 197

FIGURE 7.13 Basement cross section (A–A view).

Top Length ⫽ Bottom Length

(7.11)
⫹ Horizontal Distance of Side Slope on Both Sides.
Example: 16.6 m ⫹ 2(6 m) ⫽ 28.6 m.
Average Length ⫽ (Top Length ⫹ Bottom Length) ⫼ 2. (7.12)
Example: (28.6 ⫹ 16.6) ⫼ 2 ⫽ 22.6 m.
Referring to Figure 7.14, the same procedures are carried out to determine
the bottom, top, and average widths of the excavation pit.
Bottom Width ⫽ 10 m ⫹ 2(0.3 m ⫹ 0.5 m) ⫽ 11.6 m.
Top Width ⫽ 11.6 m ⫹ 2(6 m) ⫽ 23.6 m.
Average Width ⫽ (23.6 ⫹ 11.6) ⫼ 2 ⫽ 17.6 m.

FIGURE 7.14 Basement cross section (B–B view).

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 198 Chapter 7

The general excavation volume can thus be computed as follows.

Volume of General Excavation ⫽ Average Length
(7.13)
⫻ Average Width ⫻ Depth.
Example: 22.6 m ⫻ 17.6 m ⫻ 6 m ⫽ 2387 m3.
When estimating productivity and pricing for general excavation opera-
tions, these factors must be considered:
Soil Type,
Distances Between Stockpile and Excavation Area,
Depth of Excavation,
Method: Man and Machine Selection, and
Mobilization and Demobilization Cost.
Table 7.10 shows sample productivity and cost for this work.
Example 7.10 Pricing General Excavation Work
With reference to Example 7.7, the excavation volume is determined to be 2387
m3. If a hydraulic crawler mounted backhoe with 1.53 m3 bucket is to be used
for the excavation, referring to Table 7.10, the total cost of the work can be
determined from line 02315 400 0260.
Total Cost ⫽ Excavation Volume ⫻ Unit Cost. (7.14)
Example: 2387 m ⫻ $ 1.83/m ⫽ $ 4368.
3 3

This cost assumes the soil is common earth and excludes the equipment mobiliza-
tion and demobilization costs.
In addition, Table 7.10 also gives the daily productivity for the line
item as 795 m3. Therefore, the excavation work can be estimated to take three
days.
Number of Days for Excavation ⫽ Excavation Volume
(7.15)
⫼ Daily Productivity.
Example: 2387 m3 ⫼ 795 m3 /day ⫽ 3 days.

7.4.7 Special Excavations

Special excavation refers to the additional excavation of lesser quantities than
the general excavation required for a project. Typically, special excavation refers
to those portions of the work that require excavation to be carried out manually.
However, it can also refer to any excavation requiring special equipment other
than that used in general excavation. In addition, hand trimming and the cleaning
and grading of excavation surfaces after machine excavation may also be included

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 Site Work
TABLE 7.10 General Excavation Productivity and Cost

2000 Bare cost

02315 Excavation and fill Daily Labor
Line item Description output (hrs) Unit Labor Equip. Total

Excavation, bulk, bank measure, common earth piled

400 0020 For loading onto trucks add backhoe, hydraulic, crawler mounted 15%
400 0200 0.76 m3, capacity ⫽ 57 m3 /hr 459 0.035 Cu.m 0.95 1.17 2.12
400 0260 1.53 m3, capacity ⫽ 100 m3 /hr 795 0.020  0.55 1.28 1.83
400 0300 2.29 m3, capacity ⫽ 120 m3 /hr 979 0.016 ↓ 0.45 2.17 2.62
400 4000 For soft soil or sand, deduct 15%
401 4100 For heavy soil or stiff clay, add 60%
Source: Means’ Building Construction Cost Data, Metric Edition, 2000.

199
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 200 Chapter 7

in this category. In this way, special excavation work is always estimated sepa-
rately from the general excavation because it is usually a more expensive opera-
tion.
Examples of special excavations include the excavation of utilities trenches,
footings, and grade beams. The excavation of utilities trenches may call for the
use of a trencher or backhoe, provided that the excavation volume is high enough
to justify the cost of acquiring the equipment. Alternatively, hand excavation is
usually employed when the excavation volume is small. In addition, hand excava-
tion also allows for greater precision in shaping the excavation to the desired
dimensions. However, hand excavation is an expensive operation due to its low
efficiency and the high cost of labor. Table 7.11 gives the productivity and costs
associated with special excavation work. It can be seen from the table that the
estimated productivity for common labor excavating a trench is about 3 to 6 m3
per day, depending on the soil types involved. On the other hand, if a backhoe
is used the productivity can be as high as 115 m3 per day. It can also be seen in
the table that the unit cost for hand excavation can be as high as 10 times the
unit cost for machine excavation; therefore, when possible, all hand excavation
should be kept to a minimum.
Take off for special excavations is similar to general excavation take off,
except that most of the time the exact dimensions of the structure (such as the
footings and grade beams) can be used. There are generally no requirements for
working spaces and side slopes for special excavations due to their relatively
smaller scales. For trimming work of excavation surfaces, a vibrating compactor
may be utilized. The take off for trimming is usually done by the square meter
of the areas involved, such as the sides and bottom of the excavation.

Example 7.11 Take off for Special Excavations

Figure 7.15 shows detailed dimensions of a grade beam excavation. The first step
in the take off is to determine the total length of the grade beam, using the exact
dimensions. Imaginary cuts can be made to the grade beam dividing it into five
separate simple rectangular pieces with equal cross-section areas as seen in Figure
7.16. The total length of the pieces can then be tallied. The volume for the special
excavation can be determined by multiplying this total length by the cross-section
of the excavation. The take off for this special excavation for the grade beam is
also shown in Figure 7.16.

7.4.8 Backfilling
Backfilling is the process of putting soil back into an excavated area after the
installation or construction of the required structures, such as the footings or
basement of a building (see Fig. 7.17). Backfill can be the original excavated
material or it can be special fill material that is purchased and brought in as

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 Site Work
TABLE 7.11 Special Excavation Productivity and Cost

2000 Bare cost

02315 Excavation and fill Daily Labor
Line item Description output (hrs) Unit Labor Equip. Total

440 0010 Excavating, structural, hand, pits to 1.8 m deep, sandy soil 6.12 1.308 Cu.m 29.00 29.00
440 0100 Heavy soil or clay 3.06 2.616  58.00 58.00
Excavating, trench or continuous footing, common earth 

900 0050 0.3 to 1.2 m deep, 0.29 m3 tractor loader/backhoe 115 0.139  3.55 1.77 5.32

900 1400 By hand with pick and shovel to 2 m deep, light soil 6.12 1.308  29.00 29.00

900 1500 Heavy soil 3.06 2.616 ↓ 58.00 58.00
900 2100 Trim sides and bottom for concrete pours, common earth 139 0.173 Sq. m 3.96 0.44 4.40
900 2300 Hardpan 55.74 0.431 Sq. m 9.85 1.09 10.94

Source: Means’ Building Construction Cost Data, Metric Edition, 2000.

201
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 202 Chapter 7

FIGURE 7.15 Grade beam excavation details.

required by the specifications. The backfilling process involves moving the fill
material from a stockpile into the excavation. Thus the location of the stockpile
can have a significant impact on backfilling operations. The nearer the stockpile
is to the backfill area, the less time it takes to perform backfilling. In addition, the
specifications may require backfilling with compaction. In this case, the backfill is
laid in layers of specified thickness, or lifts. After each lift has been spread, it

FIGURE 7.16 Computation of special excavation volume for grade beam.

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 Site Work 203

FIGURE 7.17 Backfill.

is compacted before the next lift is placed and compacted. This process repeats
itself until the required level is achieved.
Backfill volume is determined by taking the difference between the mass
excavation volume and the volume taken up by the new construction.

Example 7.12 Backfill Take Off and Pricing

Referring to the example on general excavation volume computation, as-

sume the general excavation volume is 2387 m3. The new construction volume
is equal to the volume taken up by the new construction, which in this example
is the footing volume plus the volume enclosed by the basement.

Footing Volume ⫹ Volume Enclosed by Footing.

Example: [15 m ⫹ 2(0.3 m)] ⫻ [10 m ⫹ 2(0.3m)] ⫻ 0.5m ⫽ 82.7 m3.

Volume Enclosed by Basement (above footing).

Example: 15 m ⫻ 10 m ⫻ (6 m ⫺ 0.5 m) ⫽ 825 m3.

Total New Construction Volume ⫽ 82.7 m3 ⫹ 825 m3 ⫽ 908 m3.

Backfill Volume ⫽ 2387 m3 ⫺ 908 m3 ⫽ 1479 m3.

Assuming backfilling is carried out with a dozer and that compaction is required
in 150 mm layers using a vibrating plate, the cost for this work can be determined
as follows. Referring to Table 7.12, Line 02315 100 1300, the cost of backfilling
with a dozer is 1479 m3 ⫻ $1.23/ m3 ⫽ $1819. Referring to Table 7.12, Line
02315 100 0600, the cost of compacting the backfill with a vibrating plate is
1479 m3 ⫻ $5.41/m3 ⫽ $8001.

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TABLE 7.12 Backfilling Productivity and Cost

2000 Bare cost

02315 Excavation and fill Daily Labor
Line item Description output (hrs) Unit Labor Equip. Total

100 0010 Backfill by hand, no compaction, light soil 10.70 0.747 Cu. m 16.65 16.65
100 0100 Heavy soil 8.41 0.951  21.00 21.00
100 0300 Compaction in 150 mm layers, hand temp, add 15.75 0.508  11.30 11.30

100 0400 Roller compaction operator walking, add 76.46 0.157  4.18 1.23 5.41

100 0500 Air tamp, add 145 0.276  6.25 1.24 7.49

100 0600 Vibrating plate, add 45.87 0.174  3.88 1.53 5.41

100 1300 Dozer backfilling, bulk, up to 90 m haul, no compaction 917 0.013  0.35 0.88 1.23

100 1600 Compacting backfill, 150–300 mm lifts, vibrating roller 612 0.020  0.52 1.50 2.02

100 1700 Sheepsfoot roller 573 0.021 ↓ 0.56 1.63 2.19

Source: Means’ Building Construction Cost Data, Metric Edition, 2000.

Chapter 7
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7.5 EXCAVATION SUPPORT

When the construction of side slopes is not possible due to the presence of adja-
cent buildings or space limitations, alternative methods of excavation support
must be used. The purpose of excavation support is to provide for a safe excava-
tion into which construction of the new structure can take place. Factors that can
affect the selection and installation of the excavation support system are the soil
type encountered, the elevation of the water table, the depth of excavation to be
supported, the proximity of existing structures, and finally the cost and time re-
quired for the installation of the chosen system. In the simplest form, the take
off and pricing for this work involve the determination, in square meters, of the
area of earth-retaining structure required to support the excavation. The following
subsections discuss the three most commonly used forms of excavation support:
steel sheet piling, soldier piles and horizontal sheeting, and a reinforced concrete
diaphragm wall. Sample costs for each system can also be seen in Table 7.13.

7.5.1 Steel Sheet Piling

A sheet piling system is made up of rows of sheet piles that interlock with one
another to form a continuous wall. Steel sheet pile can come in many rolled
shapes and weights. Z sections are the most commonly used, sheet piles have
special joints that act as interlocks to join other sections together to form an earth-
retaining support structure. The steel sheet piles are driven one by one into their
positions with conventional pile-driving equipment. Once all the sheet piles are
driven, mass excavation of the site can commence.
Taking off for sheet piling work involves the determination of the type of
sheet pile to be used, the sheet pile lengths required, and the perimeter or length
of the site to be supported. The number of sheet piles required can be computed
by dividing the total length of the sheet pile walls by the width of each sheet
pile. The number of sheet piles required is used in the determination of the total
cost of the sheet piles as well as in the pile driving costs. The sheet piles are
typically priced by weight in metric tons. The total weight of the piles can be
computed by multiplying the unit weight of the pile with the total pile lengths
required for the project. Additional costs of mobilization and demobilization must
also be included in the estimate. It must also be determined if the sheet pile can
later be withdrawn or if it is to be left in place after construction. Sheet pile can
be the most economical if soil conditions permit the withdrawal of the sheet
pile.

7.5.2 Soldier Piles and Horizontal Sheeting

The soldier pile and horizontal sheeting system consists of vertical members
called soldier piles with horizontal sheeting members or lagging set between the

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 206
TABLE 7.13 Productivity and Costs for Different Excavation Support Systems

2000 Bare cost

02250 Shoring and underpinning Daily Labor
Line item Description output (hrs) Unit Mat. Labor Equip. Total

Sheet piling, steel, not incl. wales,

400 1200 4.5 m deep excavation, 100 kg/m2, left in place 91.32 0.701 sq. m 97.50 19.75 21.00 138.25
400 1300 Pull and salvage 60.94 1.050  26.00 29.50 31.50 87.00
400 1500 6 m deep excavation, 130 kg/m2, left in place 89.19 0.718  122.00 20.00 21.50 163.50

400 1600 Pull and salvage 59.46 1.076 ↓ 34.00 30.50 32.50 97.00
02260 Excavation support/protection
Excavate slurry trench in wet soils,
700 0500 Backfilled with 21 MPa concrete, reinforced, minimum 16.44 3.406 sq. m 75.50 84.50 121.00 281.00
700 0600 Maximum 6.41 8.736  253.00 216.00 310.00 779.00
Soldier beams and lagging, H piles with 75 mm wood sheeting 

850 1300 No hydrostatic head, 5 m deep, 1 line of braces, minimum 58.99 1.899  106.00 51.00 28.00 185.00

850 1400 Maximum 53.42 2.097  114.00 56.50 31.00 201.50

850 1600 5 to 7 m deep with 2 lines of braces, minimum 42.27 2.650  159.00 71.50 39.00 269.50

850 1700 Maximum 38.55 2.905  177.00 78.50 43.00 298.50

850 2500 Tie-back method, add, minimum  20%

850 2550 Maximum ↓ 60%

Source: Means’ Building Construction Cost Data, Metric Edition, 2000.

Chapter 7
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 Site Work 207

FIGURE 7.18 Soldier piles and horizontal sheeting.

verticals, as seen in Figure 7.18. Soldier piles, usually bearing piles or wide flange
sections, are driven into the ground before excavation begins. The spacing be-
tween the piles is generally in the range of 1.8 to 3.0 m on center. Horizontal
sheeting or lagging is installed between these piles. The laggings are usually
made up of thick wooden planks, in the range of 75 mm thick, but can also be
precast concrete members. The laggings are installed as excavation progresses.
Similarly, the take off for the soldier pile and horizontal sheeting system
involves the determination of the type of pile and lagging to be used, the pile
lengths required, and the length or perimeter of the site that requires support.
The number of soldier piles required can be computed by dividing the total sup-
port length by the center-to-center spacing between the soldier piles. The number
of soldier piles is used to compute the cost of the pile as well as the pile driving
costs. The take off for the lagging involves the determination of the total square
meter of the sheeting required for the excavation support, and is computed by
multiplying the depth of the support with the total horizontal length of the sup-
port. Typically, the soldier pile and horizontal sheeting system are left in place
after construction finishes. Mobilization and demobilization costs for the pile-
driving equipment must be included in the estimate.

7.5.3 Reinforced Concrete Diaphragm Wall

or Slurry Wall
A reinforced concrete diaphragm wall, or slurry wall, is constructed by excavat-
ing a deep trench up to 9 m in length. During the excavation and wall construction
process, the trench is temporarily supported by bentonite slurry or drilling mud.

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 208 Chapter 7

FIGURE 7.19 Slurry wall construction sequence.

On reaching the desired depth, the excavation is stopped and steel reinforcements
are lowered into the trench, followed by concrete placed through tremie pipes.
The placing of the concrete slowly displaces the bentonite slurry, which at the
same time is pumped out of the trench and collected for recycling and future
reuse. The sequence of slurry wall construction can be seen in Figure 7.19. Stop-
end steel tubes are used to form the edge of the wall panel, thereby allowing for
clean edge construction. After the concrete has hardened, the tubes are withdrawn
and a new panel can be sequentially constructed alongside the previous panel,
thus forming the diaphragm wall.

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 Site Work 209

Typically, diaphragm walls are designed to be part of the permanent struc-

ture. This portion of construction work is highly specialized and requires special
excavation equipment and inhouse knowhow of construction methods. Therefore,
this work is usually subcontracted out to firms specializing in this kind of work.

7.6 CONSTRUCTION DEWATERING

Normally, every construction site is equipped with pumping equipment for the
removal of water from the excavation areas. The procurement and operating costs
of pumping equipment are generally included in the project’s site overhead cost.
However, on projects requiring deep excavation and where the site investigation
report indicates an excessively high groundwater level, reliable and efficient wa-
ter removal techniques of construction dewatering must be used.
Construction dewatering is the process of taking water out of a particular
area where construction operations will take place. The purpose of dewatering
is to control the surface and subsurface hydrologic environment in such a way as
to permit the structure to be constructed “in the dry” (Ratay, 1989). Construction
dewatering is often needed where there are problems with the groundwater or
surface water that could be an impediment to the construction operations.
There are three common methods of construction dewatering: sumps and
ditches, wellpoints, and relief wells. The sumps and ditches method is the most
basic of the three and is used for water collection, whether surface water, storm
water, or ground seepage. In most construction projects, sumps are necessary
because of the limited ability of the soil to accept major quantities of storm water
and because surface water falling within excavation limits will accumulate at the
deepest places and needs to be removed quickly. Submersible pumps are used
to drain water from the sumps.
The wellpoint method consists of installing a series of properly sized
wellpoints around the perimeter of the excavation area that needs dewatering.
A wellpoint is a small pipe up to 63 mm in diameter, with a screen at the bottom
and the top connected to a header pipe. The header, in turn, is connected to one
or more pumps depending on the volume to be dewatered. Wellpoints are ideal
for dewatering water-bearing permeable soil, such as sand and gravel. Wellpoints
are placed around the site to intercept seepage flowing into the excavation area
and also to lower the water table in the vicinity of the dewatering area. Once
employed, the wellpoint system will need to be operated constantly in order to
stabilize groundwater conditions. This dewatering method is specialized work
and is often subcontracted to a dewatering specialist.
The relief well method has some similarity to the wellpoint method in that
the wells are similarly placed around the perimeter of the excavated area to inter-
cept and collect excess water. However, relief wells are much bigger, with a
diameter range of 450 to 900 mm, and are spaced much farther apart. The shafts

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 210 Chapter 7

of the wells are perforated to collect groundwater. A submersible pump is often

placed in the well to evacuate water as it collects. Similarly, pumping must be
maintained at all times to stabilize groundwater conditions around the excavation.
These items have a direct impact on the cost of dewatering operations:

Type of dewatering system,

Size of dewatering system,
Volume of dewatering involved,
Duration of dewatering,
Depth of installations,
Weather conditions, and
Surface and subsurface conditions.
In planning and estimating for dewatering work, these items must be con-
sidered:
Mobilization (equipment requirement and availability, installation, power
needs);
Storage and staging area;
Accessibility;
Construction schedule; and
Demobilization.

7.7 PILES FOUNDATION

Piles can be classified as displacement or replacement piles. Displacement piles
refer to piles that are driven into the ground, thus displacing the soil around
them. Displacement piles can be timber, steel, or reinforced precast concrete.
Replacement piles refer to bored piles where the soil is removed from the boring
to the shape of the piles and piles are cast in place directly within the boring.
Take off for piling work involves the determination of pile type and installa-
tion procedures, the required pile length, and the number of piles required. In
pricing piling work, piles can be priced by their numbers or by the total length
of pile installation. Factors affecting the productivity and cost for pile installation
are pile size and depth, as well as the type of soil encountered. For driven pile,
the selection of a pile hammer can also be an important consideration. For bored
pile construction, the presence of water in the excavation can significantly in-
crease the cost of pile installation. Movement of the equipment necessary to drive
or excavate piles at all the locations onsite must also be considered. The higher
the degree of movement required, the less productive is the pile installation opera-
tion as the equipment spends more time moving rather than driving or drilling.
Lastly, the cost estimate for piling work must include the mobilization and demo-
bilization cost of the pile-driving or drilling equipment.

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 Site Work 211

FIGURE 7.20 Flexible pavement section.

7.8 PAVING AND SURFACING

A building construction project will typically require some paving work for park-
ing and circulation areas around the building. Pavement can be classified as flex-
ible or rigid. Flexible pavement is constructed in layers and can be seen in Figure
7.20. The base course is laid over the compacted subgrade and compacted. The
base course can be crushed stone or bank run gravel. The binder course is then
applied over the base course and finally the pavement is topped by the wearing
course. The last two layers are made up of bituminous concrete or asphalt. As-
phalt paving is a specialized task requiring special equipment, therefore it is al-
ways subcontracted out.
Rigid pavement refers to concrete pavement that is constructed in a similar
manner to the construction of a concrete slab on grade. Taking off for paving
involves determining the different types of paving required and the associated
paving areas. The take off is always done in square meters of the surface area
of the pavement. The thickness of the pavement and its components must also
be determined for pricing purposes. The productivity and cost for selected paving
works can be seen in Table 7.14.

7.9 SITE IMPROVEMENTS AND LANDSCAPING

Site improvement and landscaping add the final touches to a project. Work in
these categories is usually subcontracted out to equipment suppliers or landscape
specialists. Due to the fact that this work is often carried out during the last stages
of a construction project, getting a subcontractors’ bid for this work is often a
challenge. Subcontractors are often unwilling to submit a firm price on the sched-
ule bid date as they know that they will not be performing the work in the very
near future, but possibly months or years away.
Site improvement involves the installation of a sprinkler irrigation system,
fences and gates, a retaining wall, hand rails and guide/guard rails, and site fur-
nishings or any playfield equipment. Landscaping involves the planting of trees,
vegetation, lawn, and grass on the site.

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 212
TABLE 7.14 Productivity and Costs for Paving

2000 Bare cost

02720 Unbound base courses Daily Labor
Line item Description output (hrs) Unit Mat. Labor Equip. Total

Base course for roadways and large paved

areas
200 0100 20 mm stone compacted, 150 mm deep 4181 0.015 sq. m 7.10 0.40 0.76 8.26
200 0302 Crushed 40 mm stone base, compacted to 150 4515 0.014  5.75 0.37 0.70 6.82
mm deep 

200 0370 Bank run gravel, spread and compacted, 150 5017 0.006 ↓ 2.63 0.17 0.31 3.11
mm deep
200 8900 For small and irregular areas, add 50% 50%
02740 Flexible pavement
Asphaltic concrete pavement for highways and
large paved areas
300 0080 Binder course, 40 mm thick 6459 0.014 sq. m 2.24 0.33 0.27 2.84
300 0160 75 mm thick 4101 0.021  4.43 0.52 0.43 5.38

300 0300 Wearing course, 25 mm thick 8842 0.011  1.76 0.27 0.23 2.26

300 0380 50 mm thick 5305 0.018 ↓ 3.59 0.45 0.38 4.42
2750 Rigid pavement
Concrete payment including joints, finishing,
and curing
100 0020 Fixed form, 3.7 m pass, unreinforced, 150 2508 0.035 sq. m 18.95 0.87 0.73 20.55
mm thick 


Chapter 7
100 0300 250 mm thick 1756 0.050 33.00 1.25 1.05 35.50

100 0510 For small and irregular areas, add ↓ 100%
Source: Means’ Building Construction Cost Data, Metric Edition, 2000.

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 Site Work 213

Take off for site improvement varies by the item under consideration. Fenc-
ing and guard rails are taken off by the types and total lengths of the installations,
whereas site furnishings such as benches are taken off by the number of items
required. The area for landscaping can be taken off in square meters by deducting
all structural areas, paving, and site improvement areas from the total site area.
Alternatively, the dimension of the landscaping areas can be determined and the
enclosed areas directly computed. Trees and vegetation must be taken off by their
numbers, species, and sizes. In addition, the local planting season must also be
determined so that the landscaping work can be scheduled to accommodate the
season, which tends to lower the subcontractor’s price.

7.10 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What are some of the site conditions that can affect the productivity
and costs in site work?
2. How is work in Division 2: Site Work more dependent on existing
site conditions than work in other categories, such as Division 9: Fin-
ishing?
3. What are some of the activities associated with site preparation?
4. Why is it important to strip topsoil from the site?
5. List some of the critical factors associated with site conditions that
can affect earthwork operations.
6. What is the primary safety concern in excavation work?
7. At what depth must the excavation have some form of cave-in protec-
tion?
8. At what depth must the excavation supports be designed by a regis-
tered professional engineer?
9. Explain soil swelling and soil shrinkage.
10. How can soil swelling and shrinkage affect take off and pricing?
11. What is bank measure volume?
12. What are two main factors affecting soil swelling?
13. List the factors affecting earthmoving production.
14. What is equipment operation cycle time?
15. What are the factors that can affect equipment cycle time?
16. What is job efficiency factor?
17. What is rough grading?
18. Describe the cross-sectional method as it relates to rough grading.
19. What are contour lines?
20. What are cut areas and fill areas?
21. What is general excavation?
22. Why is it a good idea to perform concrete foundation take off before
the take off for general excavation?

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 214 Chapter 7

23. Why is it necessary to excavate more than the required shape for
basement construction?
24. List factors that can affect general excavation operations.
25. What is considered special excavation?
26. Give some examples of special excavation work.
27. Why must the take off for special excavation be separate from take
off for general excavation?
28. Why is it desirable to keep hand excavation to a minimum?
29. What is backfilling?
30. What are some methods used in excavation support?
31. What is construction dewatering?
32. What are the common methods used in construction dewatering?
33. List factors influencing the productivity and costs of piling operations.
34. What are the two main types of pavement?

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.