Ozone

Ozone (/ˈoʊzoʊn/), or trioxygen, is an inorganic molecule with the chemical formula O

3. It is a pale blue gas with a distinctively pungent
smell. It is an allotrope of oxygen that is much less stable than the diatomic allotrope O
2, breaking down in the lower atmosphere to O
2
(dioxygen). Ozone is formed from dioxygen by the action of ultraviolet (UV) light and electrical discharges within the Earth's atmosphere. It
is present in very low concentrations throughout the latter, with its highest concentration high in the ozone layer of the stratosphere, which
absorbs most of the Sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation.

Ozone's odour is reminiscent of chlorine, and detectable by many people at concentrations of as little as 0.1 ppm in air. Ozone's O3 structure
was determined in 1865. The molecule was later proven to have a bent structure and to be weakly diamagnetic. In standard conditions,
ozone is a pale blue gas that condenses at cryogenic temperatures to a dark blue liquid and finally a violet-black solid. Ozone's instability
with regard to more common dioxygen is such that both concentrated gas and liquid ozone may decompose explosively at elevated
temperatures, physical shock, or fast warming to the boiling point.[5][6] It is therefore used commercially only in low concentrations.

Ozone is a powerful oxidant (far more so than dioxygen) and has many industrial and consumer applications related to oxidation. This
same high oxidizing potential, however, causes ozone to damage mucous and respiratory tissues in animals, and also tissues in plants,
above concentrations of about 0.1 ppm. While this makes ozone a potent respiratory hazard and pollutant near ground level, a higher
concentration in the ozone layer (from two to eight ppm) is beneficial, preventing damaging UV light from reaching the Earth's surface.

Nomenclature

The trivial name ozone is the most commonly used and preferred IUPAC name. The systematic names 2λ4-trioxidiene and catena-trioxygen,
valid IUPAC names, are constructed according to the substitutive and additive nomenclatures, respectively. The name ozone derives from
ozein (ὄζειν), the Greek verb for smell, referring to ozone's distinctive smell.

In appropriate contexts, ozone can be viewed as trioxidane with two hydrogen atoms removed, and as such, trioxidanylidene may be used
as a systematic name, according to substitutive nomenclature. By default, these names pay no regard to the radicality of the ozone
molecule. In an even more specific context, this can also name the non-radical singlet ground state, whereas the diradical state is named
trioxidanediyl.

Trioxidanediyl (or ozonide) is used, non-systematically, to refer to the substituent group (-OOO-). Care should be taken to avoid confusing
the name of the group for the context-specific name for the ozone given above.

History
Christian Friedrich Schönbein (18 October 1799 – 29 August 1868)
Ozone

Names
A prototype ozonometer built by John Smyth in 1865
IUPAC name
Ozone

Systematic IUPAC name

In 1785, Dutch chemist Martinus van Marum was conducting experiments involving
Trioxygen
electrical sparking above water when he noticed an unusual smell, which he attributed to
the electrical reactions, failing to realize that he had in fact created ozone.[7][8] Other names
2λ4-trioxidiene; catena-trioxygen
A half century later, Christian Friedrich Schönbein noticed the same pungent odour and
recognized it as the smell often following a bolt of lightning. In 1839, he succeeded in Identifiers

isolating the gaseous chemical and named it "ozone", from the Greek word ozein (ὄζειν)
CAS Number 10028-15-6 (https://c
meaning "to smell".[9][10]
For this reason, Schönbein is generally credited with the
ommonchemistry.ca
discovery of ozone.[11][12][13][7] The formula for ozone, O3, was not determined until 1865 s.org/detail?cas_rn=
by Jacques-Louis Soret[14] and confirmed by Schönbein in 1867.[9][15] 10028-15-6)  

For much of the second half of the 19th century and well into the 20th, ozone was 3D model (JSmol) Interactive image (htt
considered a healthy component of the environment by naturalists and health-seekers. ps://chemapps.stola

Beaumont, California had as its official slogan "Beaumont: Zone of Ozone", as evidenced f.edu/jmol/jmol.php?
model=%5BO-%5D%5
on postcards and Chamber of Commerce letterhead.[16] Naturalists working outdoors
BO%2B%5D%3DO)
often considered the higher elevations beneficial because of their ozone content. "There
is quite a different atmosphere [at higher elevation] with enough ozone to sustain the ChEBI CHEBI:25812 (http
necessary energy [to work]", wrote naturalist Henry Henshaw, working in Hawaii.[17] s://www.ebi.ac.uk/ch
Seaside air was considered to be healthy because of its believed ozone content. The ebi/searchId.do?che
biId=25812)  
smell giving rise to this belief is in fact that of halogenated seaweed metabolites[18] and
dimethyl sulfide.[19]
ChemSpider 23208 (https://www.
chemspider.com/Ch
Much of ozone's appeal seems to have resulted from its "fresh" smell, which evoked
emical-Structure.232
associations with purifying properties. Scientists noted its harmful effects. In 1873  
08.html)
James Dewar and John Gray McKendrick documented that frogs grew sluggish, birds
gasped for breath, and rabbits' blood showed decreased levels of oxygen after exposure ECHA InfoCard 100.030.051 (https://

to "ozonized air", which "exercised a destructive action".[20][11] Schönbein himself reported echa.europa.eu/subs

that chest pains, irritation of the mucous membranes and difficulty breathing occurred as tance-information/-/
substanceinfo/100.0
a result of inhaling ozone, and small mammals died.[21] In 1911, Leonard Hill and Martin
30.051)
Flack stated in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B that ozone's healthful effects
"have, by mere iteration, become part and parcel of common belief; and yet exact EC Number 233–069–2
physiological evidence in favour of its good effects has been hitherto almost entirely
Gmelin Reference 1101
wanting ... The only thoroughly well-ascertained knowledge concerning the physiological
effect of ozone, so far attained, is that it causes irritation and œdema of the lungs, and IUPHAR/BPS 6297 (http://www.gui
death if inhaled in relatively strong concentration for any time."[11][22] detopharmacology.or
g/GRAC/LigandDispl
During World War I, ozone was tested at Queen Alexandra Military Hospital in London as a ayForward?tab=sum
possible disinfectant for wounds. The gas was applied directly to wounds for as long as mary&ligandId=62
15 minutes. This resulted in damage to both bacterial cells and human tissue. Other 97)

sanitizing techniques, such as irrigation with antiseptics were found preferable.[11][23]

MeSH Ozone (https://www.
nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mes

h/2014/MB_cgi?mod
Until the 1920s, it was not certain whether small amounts of oxozone, O4, were also
present in ozone samples due to the difficulty of applying analytical chemistry techniques e=&term=Ozone)

to the explosive concentrated chemical.[24][25] In 1923, Georg-Maria Schwab (working for PubChem CID 24823 (https://pubch
em.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
his doctoral thesis under Ernst Hermann Riesenfeld) was the first to successfully solidify
compound/24823)
ozone and perform accurate analysis which conclusively refuted the oxozone
hypothesis.[24][25] Further hitherto unmeasured physical properties of pure concentrated RTECS number RS8225000
ozone were determined by the Riesenfeld group in the 1920s.[24]
UNII 66H7ZZK23N (http
s://fdasis.nlm.nih.go
Physical properties v/srs/srsdirect.jsp?re
gno=66H7ZZK23
N)  
Ozone is a colourless or pale blue gas, slightly soluble in water and much more soluble in
inert non-polar solvents such as carbon tetrachloride or fluorocarbons, in which it forms a
CompTox Dashboard DTXSID0021098 (htt
blue solution. At 161 K (−112 °C; −170 °F), it condenses to form a dark blue liquid. It is (EPA)
ps://comptox.epa.go
dangerous to allow this liquid to warm to its boiling point, because both concentrated v/dashboard/chemic
gaseous ozone and liquid ozone can detonate. At temperatures below 80 K (−193.2 °C; al/details/DTXSID00
−315.7 °F), it forms a violet-black solid.[26] 21098)

Most people can detect about 0.01 μmol/mol of ozone in air where it has a very specific InChI

sharp odour somewhat resembling chlorine bleach. Exposure of 0.1 to 1 μmol/mol InChI=1S/O3/c1-3-2 
Key: CBENFWSGALASAD-UHFFFAOYSA-N 
produces headaches, burning eyes and irritation to the respiratory passages.[27]
Even low
InChI=1/O3/c1-3-2
concentrations of ozone in air are very destructive to organic materials such as latex, Key: CBENFWSGALASAD-UHFFFAOYAY
plastics and animal lung tissue.
SMILES
[O-][O+]=O
Ozone is weakly diamagnetic.[28]

Properties
Structure
Chemical formula O3

According to experimental evidence from microwave spectroscopy, ozone is a bent Molar mass 47.997 g·mol−1
molecule, with C2v symmetry (similar to the water molecule).[29] The O – O distances are
Appearance Colourless to pale
127.2 pm (1.272 Å). The O – O – O angle is 116.78°.[30] The central atom is sp² hybridized
blue gas[1]
with one lone pair. Ozone is a polar molecule with a dipole moment of 0.53 D.[31] The
molecule can be represented as a resonance hybrid with two contributing structures, Odor Pungent[1]
each with a single bond on one side and double bond on the other. The arrangement
Density 2.144 g L (at 0 °C)
possesses an overall bond order of 1.5 for both sides. It is isoelectronic with the nitrite
anion. Naturally occurring ozone can be composed of substituted isotopes (16O, 17O, 18O). Melting point −192.2 °C; −313.9 °F;
A cyclic form has been predicted but not observed. 81.0 K

Boiling point −112 °C; −170 °F;

161 K

Solubility in water 1.05 g L−1 (at 0 °C)

Solubility in other Very soluble in CCl4,

solvents sulfuric acid

Vapor pressure 55.7 atm[2]

(−12.15 °C or
Resonance Lewis structures of the ozone molecule
10.13 °F or
261.00 K)[a]

Magnetic +6.7·10−6 cm3/mol

Reactions susceptibility (χ)

Refractive index (nD) 1.2226 (liquid),

Ozone is among the most powerful oxidizing agents known, far stronger than O2. It is also 1.00052 (gas, STP,
unstable at high concentrations, decaying into ordinary diatomic oxygen. Its half-life 546 nm—note high
varies with atmospheric conditions such as temperature, humidity, and air movement. dispersion)[3]
Under laboratory conditions, Half-Life Time (HLT) will average ~1500 minutes (25 hours)
Structure
in still air at room temperature (24 °C), zero humidity with zero air changes per hour
(ACH).[32] As such, in typical office or home environment, where air changes per hour vary Space group C2v
between 5 and 8 ACH,[33] ozone has a half life of as short as thirty minutes.[34]
 2 O
3 → 3 O
2 Coordination Digonal
geometry
This reaction proceeds more rapidly with increasing temperature. Deflagration of ozone Molecular shape Dihedral
can be triggered by a spark and can occur in ozone concentrations of 10 wt% or higher.[35]
Hybridisation sp2 for O1
Ozone can also be produced from oxygen at the anode of an electrochemical cell. This
Dipole moment 0.53 D
reaction can create smaller quantities of ozone for research purposes.[36]
Thermochemistry
O3(g) + 2H+ + 2e− ⇌ O
2(g) + H
2O   E°= 2.075V[37]
Std molar
238.92 J K−1 mol−1
This can be observed as an unwanted reaction in a Hoffman gas apparatus during the
entropy (S⦵298)
electrolysis of water when the voltage is set above the necessary voltage.
Std enthalpy of
142.67 kJ mol−1
formation (ΔfH⦵298)
With metals
Hazards
Ozone will oxidize most metals (except gold, platinum, and iridium) to oxides of the
GHS labelling:
metals in their highest oxidation state. For example:
Pictograms
Cu + O
3 → CuO + O
2
Ag + O
3 → AgO + O
2

With nitrogen and carbon compounds

Ozone also oxidizes nitric oxide to nitrogen dioxide:

NO + O
3 → NO2 + O
2 Signal word Danger

This reaction is accompanied by chemiluminescence. The NO

2 can be further oxidized to
Hazard statements H270, H314
nitrate radical:
NFPA 704
NO
2 + O
3 → NO
3 + O
2 (fire diamond) 0
4 4
The NO
3 formed can react with NO
2 to form N
2O
5. OX

Solid nitronium perchlorate can be made from NO2, ClO2, and O

3 gases: Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):

NO
2 + ClO
2 + 2 O
3 → NO
2ClO
4 + 2 O
2 LCLo (lowest 12.6 ppm (mouse, 3
published) hr)

Ozone does not react with ammonium salts, but it oxidizes ammonia to ammonium
50 ppm (human, 30
nitrate:
min)

36 ppm (rabbit, 3 hr)

2 NH
3 + 4 O
3 → NH
4NO
3 + 4 O
2 + H
2O
21 ppm (mouse, 3
Ozone reacts with carbon to form carbon dioxide, even at room temperature: hr)

21.8 ppm (rat, 3 hr)

C + 2 O
3 → CO
2 + 2 O
2
24.8 ppm (guinea
With sulfur compounds pig, 3 hr)

4.8 ppm (rat, 4 hr)[4]

Ozone oxidizes sulfides to sulfates. For example, lead(II) sulfide is oxidized to lead(II)
sulfate: NIOSH (US health exposure limits):

PEL (Permissible) TWA 0.1 ppm (0.2

PbS + 4 O3 → PbSO4 + 4 O2
mg/m3)[1]
Sulfuric acid can be produced from ozone, water and either elemental sulfur or sulfur
REL C 0.1 ppm (0.2
dioxide:
(Recommended)
mg/m3)[1]
S + H2O + O3 → H2SO4
IDLH (Immediate 5 ppm[1]
3 SO2 + 3 H2O + O3 → 3 H2SO4 danger)

In the gas phase, ozone reacts with hydrogen sulfide to form sulfur dioxide:
Related compounds

H2S + O3 → SO2 + H2O Related compounds Sulfur dioxide

In an aqueous solution, however, two competing simultaneous reactions occur, one to Trisulfur

produce elemental sulfur, and one to produce sulfuric acid: Disulfur monoxide

Cyclic ozone
H2S + O3 → S + O2 + H2O
3 H2S + 4 O3 → 3 H2SO4
 Except where otherwise noted, data are given
With alkenes and alkynes for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C
[77 °F], 100 kPa).
Alkenes can be oxidatively cleaved by ozone, in a process called ozonolysis, giving  verify (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.ph
alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids, depending on the second step of the p?title=Special:ComparePages&rev1=451527
workup.

Ozone can also cleave alkynes to form an acid anhydride or diketone product.[38] If the reaction is performed in the presence of water, the
anhydride hydrolyzes to give two carboxylic acids.

Usually ozonolysis is carried out in a solution of dichloromethane, at a temperature of −78 °C. After a sequence of cleavage and
rearrangement, an organic ozonide is formed. With reductive workup (e.g. zinc in acetic acid or dimethyl sulfide), ketones and aldehydes will
be formed, with oxidative workup (e.g. aqueous or alcoholic hydrogen peroxide), carboxylic acids will be formed.[39]

Other substrates

All three atoms of ozone may also react, as in the reaction of tin(II) chloride with hydrochloric acid and ozone:

Iodine perchlorate can be made by treating iodine dissolved in cold anhydrous perchloric acid with ozone:

Ozone could also react with potassium iodide to give oxygen and iodine gas that can be titrated for quantitative determination :[40]

Combustion

Ozone can be used for combustion reactions and combustible gases; ozone provides higher temperatures than burning in dioxygen (O2).
The following is a reaction for the combustion of carbon subnitride which can also cause higher temperatures:

3 C
4N
2 + 4 O
3 → 12 CO + 3 N
2

Ozone can react at cryogenic temperatures. At 77 K (−196.2 °C; −321.1 °F), atomic hydrogen reacts with liquid ozone to form a hydrogen
superoxide radical, which dimerizes:[41]

H + O
3 → HO2 + O
2 HO2 → H
2O
4

Ozone decomposition

Types of ozone decomposition

Ozone is a toxic substance,[42][43] commonly found or generated in human environments (aircraft cabins, offices with photocopiers, laser
printers, sterilizers...) and its catalytic decomposition is very important to reduce pollution. This type of decomposition is the most widely
used, especially with solid catalysts, and it has many advantages such as a higher conversion with a lower temperature. Furthermore, the
product and the catalyst can be instantaneously separated, and this way the catalyst can be easily recovered without using any separation
operation. Moreover, the most used materials in the catalytic decomposition of ozone in the gas phase are noble metals like Pt, Rh or Pd
and transition metals such as Mn, Co, Cu, Fe, Ni or Ag.

There are two other possibilities for the ozone decomposition in gas phase:
The first one is a thermal decomposition where the ozone can be decomposed using only the action of heat. The problem is that this type of
decomposition is very slow with temperatures below 250 °C. However, the decomposition rate can be increased working with higher
temperatures but this would involve a high energy cost.

The second one is a photochemical decomposition, which consists of radiating ozone with ultraviolet radiation (UV) and it gives rise to
oxygen and radical peroxide.[44]

Kinetics of ozone decomposition into molecular oxygen

The process of ozone decomposition is a complex reaction involving two elementary reactions that finally lead to molecular oxygen, and
this means that the reaction order and the rate law cannot be determined by the stoichiometry of the fitted equation.

Overall reaction: 2 O3 → 3 O2

Rate law (observed): V = K · [O3]2 · [O2]−1

It has been determined that the ozone decomposition follows a first order kinetics, and from the rate law above it can be determined that
the partial order respect to molecular oxygen is -1 and respect to ozone is 2, therefore the global reaction order is 1.

The ozone decomposition consists of two elementary steps: The first one corresponds to a unimolecular reaction because one only
molecule of ozone decomposes into two products (molecular oxygen and oxygen). Then, the oxygen from the first step is an intermediate
because it participates as a reactant in the second step, which is a bimolecular reaction because there are two different reactants (ozone
and oxygen) that give rise to one product, that corresponds to molecular oxygen in the gas phase.

Step 1: Unimolecular reaction    O3 → O2 + O

Step 2: Bimolecular reaction     O3 + O → 2 O2

These two steps have different reaction rates, the first one is reversible and faster than the second reaction, which is slower, so this means
that the determining step is the second reaction and this is used to determine the observed reaction rate. The reaction rate laws for every
step are the ones that follow:

V1 = K1 · [O3]               V2 = K2 · [O] · [O3]

The following mechanism allows to explain the rate law of the ozone decomposition observed experimentally, and also it allows to
determine the reaction orders with respect to ozone and oxygen, with which the overall reaction order will be determined. The slower step,
the bimolecular reaction, is the one that determines the rate of product formation, and considering that this step gives rise to two oxygen
molecules the rate law has this form:

V = 2 K2 · [O] · [O3]

However, this equation depends on the concentration of oxygen (intermediate), which can be determined considering the first step. Since
the first step is faster and reversible and the second step is slower, the reactants and products from the first step are in equilibrium, so the
concentration of the intermediate can be determined as follows:

Then using these equations, the formation rate of molecular oxygen is as shown below:

Finally, the mechanism presented allows to establish the rate observed experimentally, with a rate constant (Kobs) and corresponding to a
first order kinetics, as follows:[45]

where
Reduction to ozonides
−

Reduction of ozone gives the ozonide anion, O3. Derivatives of this anion are explosive and must be stored at cryogenic temperatures.
Ozonides for all the alkali metals are known. KO3, RbO3, and CsO3 can be prepared from their respective superoxides:

KO2 + O3 → KO3 + O2

Although KO3 can be formed as above, it can also be formed from potassium hydroxide and ozone:[46]

2 KOH + 5 O3 → 2 KO3 + 5 O2 + H2O

NaO3 and LiO3 must be prepared by action of CsO3 in liquid NH3 on an ion-exchange resin containing Na+ or Li+ ions:[47]

CsO3 + Na+ → Cs+ + NaO3

A solution of calcium in ammonia reacts with ozone to give ammonium ozonide and not calcium ozonide:[41]

3 Ca + 10 NH3 + 6 O
3 → Ca·6NH3 + Ca(OH)2 + Ca(NO3)2 + 2 NH4O3 + 2 O2 + H2

Applications

Ozone can be used to remove iron and manganese from water, forming a precipitate which can be filtered:

2 Fe2+ + O3 + 5 H2O → 2 Fe(OH)3(s) + O2 + 4 H+

2 Mn2+ + 2 O3 + 4 H2O → 2 MnO(OH)2(s) + 2 O2 + 4 H+

Ozone will also oxidize dissolved hydrogen sulfide in water to sulfurous acid:

3 O
3 + H2S → H2SO3 + 3 O2

These three reactions are central in the use of ozone-based well water treatment.

Ozone will also detoxify cyanides by converting them to cyanates.

CN− + O3 → CNO + O2

Ozone will also completely decompose urea:[48]

(NH2)2CO + O3 → N2 + CO2 + 2 H2O

Spectroscopic properties

Ozone in Earth's atmosphere

Health effects

Production

Ozone production demonstration, Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory, 1926

Ozone generators, or ozonators,[132] are used to produce ozone for cleaning air or removing smoke odours in unoccupied rooms. These
ozone generators can produce over 3 g of ozone per hour. Ozone often forms in nature under conditions where O2 will not react.[27] Ozone
used in industry is measured in μmol/mol (ppm, parts per million), nmol/mol (ppb, parts per billion), μg/m3, mg/h (milligrams per hour) or
weight percent. The regime of applied concentrations ranges from 1% to 5% (in air) and from 6% to 14% (in oxygen) for older generation
methods. New electrolytic methods can achieve up 20% to 30% dissolved ozone concentrations in output water.

Temperature and humidity play a large role in how much ozone is being produced using traditional generation methods (such as corona
discharge and ultraviolet light). Old generation methods will produce less than 50% of nominal capacity if operated with humid ambient air,
as opposed to very dry air. New generators, using electrolytic methods, can achieve higher purity and dissolution through using water
molecules as the source of ozone production.

Coronal discharge method

A homemade ozone generator. Ozone is produced in the corona discharge

This is the most common type of ozone generator for most industrial and personal uses. While variations of the "hot spark" coronal
discharge method of ozone production exist, including medical grade and industrial grade ozone generators, these units usually work by
means of a corona discharge tube or ozone plate.[133][134] They are typically cost-effective and do not require an oxygen source other than
the ambient air to produce ozone concentrations of 3–6%. Fluctuations in ambient air, due to weather or other environmental conditions,
cause variability in ozone production. However, they also produce nitrogen oxides as a by-product. Use of an air dryer can reduce or
eliminate nitric acid formation by removing water vapor and increase ozone production. At room temperature, nitric acid will form into a
vapour that is hazardous if inhaled. Symptoms can include chest pain, shortness of breath, headaches and a dry nose and throat causing a
burning sensation. Use of an oxygen concentrator can further increase the ozone production and further reduce the risk of nitric acid
formation by removing not only the water vapor, but also the bulk of the nitrogen.

Ultraviolet light

UV ozone generators, or vacuum-ultraviolet (VUV) ozone generators, employ a light source that generates a narrow-band ultraviolet light, a
subset of that produced by the Sun. The Sun's UV sustains the ozone layer in the stratosphere of Earth.[135]

UV ozone generators use ambient air for ozone production, no air prep systems are used (air dryer or oxygen concentrator), therefore these
generators tend to be less expensive. However, UV ozone generators usually produce ozone with a concentration of about 0.5% or lower
which limits the potential ozone production rate. Another disadvantage of this method is that it requires the ambient air (oxygen) to be
exposed to the UV source for a longer amount of time, and any gas that is not exposed to the UV source will not be treated. This makes UV
generators impractical for use in situations that deal with rapidly moving air or water streams (in-duct air sterilization, for example).
Production of ozone is one of the potential dangers of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation. VUV ozone generators are used in swimming pools
and spa applications ranging to millions of gallons of water. VUV ozone generators, unlike corona discharge generators, do not produce
harmful nitrogen by-products and also unlike corona discharge systems, VUV ozone generators work extremely well in humid air
environments. There is also not normally a need for expensive off-gas mechanisms, and no need for air driers or oxygen concentrators
which require extra costs and maintenance.

Cold plasma

In the cold plasma method, pure oxygen gas is exposed to a plasma created by DBD. The diatomic oxygen is split into single atoms, which
then recombine in triplets to form ozone.
It is common in the industry to mislabel some DBD ozone generators as CD Corona Discharge
generators. Typically all solid flat metal electrode ozone generators produce ozone using the dielectric barrier discharge method. Cold
plasma machines use pure oxygen as the input source and produce a maximum concentration of about 24% ozone. They produce far
greater quantities of ozone in a given time compared to ultraviolet production that has about 2% efficiency. The discharges manifest as
filamentary transfer of electrons (micro discharges) in a gap between two electrodes. In order to evenly distribute the micro discharges, a
dielectric insulator must be used to separate the metallic electrodes and to prevent arcing.

Electrolytic

Electrolytic ozone generation (EOG) splits water molecules into H2, O2, and O3.
In most EOG methods, the hydrogen gas will be removed to
leave oxygen and ozone as the only reaction products. Therefore, EOG can achieve higher dissolution in water without other competing
gases found in corona discharge method, such as nitrogen gases present in ambient air. This method of generation can achieve
concentrations of 20–30% and is independent of air quality because water is used as the source material. Production of ozone
electrolytically is typically unfavorable because of the high overpotential required to produce ozone as compared to oxygen. This is why
ozone is not produced during typical water electrolysis. However, it is possible to increase the overpotential of oxygen by careful catalyst
selection such that ozone is preferentially produced under electrolysis. Catalysts typically chosen for this approach are lead dioxide[136] or
boron-doped diamond.[137]

The ozone to oxygen ratio is improved by increasing current density at the anode, cooling the electrolyte around the anode close to 0 °C,
using an acidic electrolyte (such as dilute sulfuric acid) instead of a basic solution, and by applying pulsed current instead of DC.[138]

Special considerations

Ozone cannot be stored and transported like other industrial gases (because it quickly decays into diatomic oxygen) and must therefore be
produced on site. Available ozone generators vary in the arrangement and design of the high-voltage electrodes. At production capacities
higher than 20 kg per hour, a gas/water tube heat-exchanger may be utilized as ground electrode and assembled with tubular high-voltage
electrodes on the gas-side. The regime of typical gas pressures is around 2 bars (200 kPa) absolute in oxygen and 3 bars (300 kPa)
absolute in air. Several megawatts of electrical power may be installed in large facilities, applied as single phase AC current at 50 to
8000 Hz and peak voltages between 3,000 and 20,000 volts. Applied voltage is usually inversely related to the applied frequency.

The dominating parameter influencing ozone generation efficiency is the gas temperature, which is controlled by cooling water temperature
and/or gas velocity. The cooler the water, the better the ozone synthesis. The lower the gas velocity, the higher the concentration (but the
lower the net ozone produced). At typical industrial conditions, almost 90% of the effective power is dissipated as heat and needs to be
removed by a sufficient cooling water flow.

Because of the high reactivity of ozone, only a few materials may be used like stainless steel (quality 316L), titanium, aluminium (as long as
no moisture is present), glass, polytetrafluorethylene, or polyvinylidene fluoride. Viton may be used with the restriction of constant
mechanical forces and absence of humidity (humidity limitations apply depending on the formulation). Hypalon may be used with the
restriction that no water comes in contact with it, except for normal atmospheric levels. Embrittlement or shrinkage is the common mode of
failure of elastomers with exposure to ozone. Ozone cracking is the common mode of failure of elastomer seals like O-rings.

Silicone rubbers are usually adequate for use as gaskets in ozone concentrations below 1 wt%, such as in equipment for accelerated aging
of rubber samples.

Incidental production

Ozone may be formed from O

2 by electrical discharges and by action of high energy electromagnetic radiation. Unsuppressed arcing in
electrical contacts, motor brushes, or mechanical switches breaks down the chemical bonds of the atmospheric oxygen surrounding the
contacts [O
2 → 2O]. Free radicals of oxygen in and around the arc recombine to create ozone [O
3].[139] Certain electrical equipment generate
significant levels of ozone. This is especially true of devices using high voltages, such as ionic air purifiers, laser printers, photocopiers,
tasers and arc welders. Electric motors using brushes can generate ozone from repeated sparking inside the unit. Large motors that use
brushes, such as those used by elevators or hydraulic pumps, will generate more ozone than smaller motors.

Ozone is similarly formed in the Catatumbo lightning storms phenomenon on the Catatumbo River in Venezuela, though ozone's instability
makes it dubious that it has any effect on the ozonosphere.[140]
It is the world's largest single natural generator of ozone, lending calls for it
to be designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[141]

Laboratory production
A laboratory method for the preparation of ozone by using Siemen's Ozoniser.

In the laboratory, ozone can be produced by electrolysis using a 9 volt battery, a pencil graphite rod cathode, a platinum wire anode and a 3
molar sulfuric acid electrolyte.[142] The half cell reactions taking place are:

3 H2O → O3 + 6 H+ + 6 e− (ΔE° = −1.53 V)

6 H+ + 6 e− → 3 H2 (ΔE° = 0 V)
2 H2O → O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e− (ΔE° = 1.23 V)

In the net reaction, three equivalents of water are converted into one equivalent of ozone and three equivalents of hydrogen. Oxygen
formation is a competing reaction.

It can also be generated by a high voltage arc. In its simplest form, high voltage AC, such as the output of a neon-sign transformer is
connected to two metal rods with the ends placed sufficiently close to each other to allow an arc. The resulting arc will convert atmospheric
oxygen to ozone.

It is often desirable to contain the ozone. This can be done with an apparatus consisting of two concentric glass tubes sealed together at
the top with gas ports at the top and bottom of the outer tube. The inner core should have a length of metal foil inserted into it connected to
one side of the power source. The other side of the power source should be connected to another piece of foil wrapped around the outer
tube. A source of dry O
2 is applied to the bottom port. When high voltage is applied to the foil leads, electricity will discharge between the
dry dioxygen in the middle and form O
3 and O
2 which will flow out the top port. This is called a Siemen's ozoniser. The reaction can be
summarized as follows:[27]

Applications

Industry

The largest use of ozone is in the preparation of pharmaceuticals, synthetic lubricants, and many other commercially useful organic
compounds, where it is used to sever carbon-carbon bonds.[27] It can also be used for bleaching substances and for killing microorganisms
in air and water sources.[143] Many municipal drinking water systems kill bacteria with ozone instead of the more common chlorine.[144]
Ozone has a very high oxidation potential.[145] Ozone does not form organochlorine compounds, nor does it remain in the water after
treatment. Ozone can form the suspected carcinogen bromate in source water with high bromide concentrations. The U.S. Safe Drinking
Water Act mandates that these systems introduce an amount of chlorine to maintain a minimum of 0.2 μmol/mol residual free chlorine in
the pipes, based on results of regular testing. Where electrical power is abundant, ozone is a cost-effective method of treating water, since it
is produced on demand and does not require transportation and storage of hazardous chemicals. Once it has decayed, it leaves no taste or
odour in drinking water.

Although low levels of ozone have been advertised to be of some disinfectant use in residential homes, the concentration of ozone in dry air
required to have a rapid, substantial effect on airborne pathogens exceeds safe levels recommended by the U.S. Occupational Safety and
Health Administration and Environmental Protection Agency. Humidity control can vastly improve both the killing power of the ozone and
the rate at which it decays back to oxygen (more humidity allows more effectiveness). Spore forms of most pathogens are very tolerant of
atmospheric ozone in concentrations at which asthma patients start to have issues.

In 1908 artificial ozonisation the Central Line of the London Underground was introduced as an aerial disinfectant. The process was found
to be worthwhile, but was phased out by 1956. However the beneficial effect was maintained by the ozone created incidentally from the
electrical discharges of the train motors (see above: Incidental production).[146]

Ozone generators were made available to schools and universities in Wales for the Autumn term 2021, to disinfect classrooms after COVID-
19 outbreaks.[147]
Industrially, ozone is used to:

Disinfect laundry in hospitals, food factories, care homes etc.;[148]

Disinfect water in place of chlorine[27]

Deodorize air and objects, such as after a fire. This process is extensively used in fabric restoration

Kill bacteria on food or on contact surfaces;[149]

Water intense industries such as breweries and dairy plants can make effective use of dissolved ozone as a replacement to chemical
sanitizers such as peracetic acid, hypochlorite or heat.

Disinfect cooling towers and control Legionella with reduced chemical consumption, water bleed-off and increased performance.

Sanitize swimming pools and spas

Kill insects in stored grain[150]

Scrub yeast and mold spores from the air in food processing plants;

Wash fresh fruits and vegetables to kill yeast, mold and bacteria;[149]

Chemically attack contaminants in water (iron, arsenic, hydrogen sulfide, nitrites, and complex organics lumped together as "colour");

Provide an aid to flocculation (agglomeration of molecules, which aids in filtration, where the iron and arsenic are removed);

Manufacture chemical compounds via chemical synthesis[151]

Clean and bleach fabrics (the former use is utilized in fabric restoration; the latter use is patented);[152]

Act as an antichlor in chlorine-based bleaching;

Assist in processing plastics to allow adhesion of inks;

Age rubber samples to determine the useful life of a batch of rubber;

Eradicate water-borne parasites such as Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium in surface water treatment plants.

Ozone is a reagent in many organic reactions in the laboratory and in industry. Ozonolysis is the cleavage of an alkene to carbonyl
compounds.

Many hospitals around the world use large ozone generators to decontaminate operating rooms between surgeries. The rooms are cleaned
and then sealed airtight before being filled with ozone which effectively kills or neutralizes all remaining bacteria.[153]

Ozone is used as an alternative to chlorine or chlorine dioxide in the bleaching of wood pulp.[154] It is often used in conjunction with oxygen
and hydrogen peroxide to eliminate the need for chlorine-containing compounds in the manufacture of high-quality, white paper.[155]

Ozone can be used to detoxify cyanide wastes (for example from gold and silver mining) by oxidizing cyanide to cyanate and eventually to
carbon dioxide.[156]

Water disinfection

Since the invention of Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD) plasma reactors, it has been employed for water treatment with ozone.[157]
However, with cheaper alternative disinfectants like chlorine, such applications of DBD ozone water decontamination have been limited by
high power consumption and bulky equipment.[158][159] Despite this, with research revealing the negative impacts of common disinfectants
like chlorine with respect to toxic residuals and ineffectiveness in killing certain micro-organisms,[160] DBD plasma-based ozone
decontamination is of interest in current available technologies. Although ozonation of water with a high concentration of bromide does
lead to the formation of undesirable brominated disinfection byproducts, unless drinking water is produced by desalination, ozonation can
generally be applied without concern for these byproducts.[159][161][162][163] Advantages of ozone include high thermodynamic oxidation
potential, less sensitivity to organic material and better tolerance for pH variations while retaining the ability to kill bacteria, fungi, viruses, as
well as spores and cysts.[164][165][166] Although, ozone has been widely accepted in Europe for decades, it is sparingly used for
decontamination in the U.S due to limitations of high-power consumption, bulky installation and stigma attached with ozone toxicity.[158][167]
Considering this, recent research efforts have been directed towards the study of effective ozone water treatment systems[168] Researchers
have looked into lightweight and compact low power surface DBD reactors,[169][170] energy efficient volume DBD reactors[171] and low power
micro-scale DBD reactors.[172][173] Such studies can help pave the path to re-acceptance of DBD plasma-based ozone decontamination of
water, especially in the U.S.
Consumers
Devices generating high levels of ozone, some of which use ionization, are used to sanitize and deodorize uninhabited buildings, rooms,
ductwork, woodsheds, boats and other vehicles.

Ozonated water is used to launder clothes and to sanitize food, drinking water, and surfaces in the home. According to the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration (FDA), it is "amending the food additive regulations to provide for the safe use of ozone in gaseous and aqueous
phases as an antimicrobial agent on food, including meat and poultry." Studies at California Polytechnic University demonstrated that 0.3
μmol/mol levels of ozone dissolved in filtered tapwater can produce a reduction of more than 99.99% in such food-borne microorganisms
as salmonella, E. coli 0157:H7 and Campylobacter. This quantity is 20,000 times the WHO-recommended limits stated above.[149][174]
Ozone
can be used to remove pesticide residues from fruits and vegetables.[175][176]

Ozone is used in homes and hot tubs to kill bacteria in the water and to reduce the amount of chlorine or bromine required by reactivating
them to their free state. Since ozone does not remain in the water long enough, ozone by itself is ineffective at preventing cross-
contamination among bathers and must be used in conjunction with halogens. Gaseous ozone created by ultraviolet light or by corona
discharge is injected into the water.[177]

Ozone is also widely used in the treatment of water in aquariums and fishponds. Its use can minimize bacterial growth, control parasites,
eliminate transmission of some diseases, and reduce or eliminate "yellowing" of the water. Ozone must not come in contact with fishes' gill
structures. Natural saltwater (with life forms) provides enough "instantaneous demand" that controlled amounts of ozone activate bromide
ions to hypobromous acid, and the ozone entirely decays in a few seconds to minutes. If oxygen-fed ozone is used, the water will be higher
in dissolved oxygen and fishes' gill structures will atrophy, making them dependent on oxygen-enriched water.

Aquaculture

Ozonation – a process of infusing water with ozone – can be used in aquaculture to facilitate organic breakdown. Ozone is also added to
recirculating systems to reduce nitrite levels[178] through conversion into nitrate. If nitrite levels in the water are high, nitrites will also
accumulate in the blood and tissues of fish, where it interferes with oxygen transport (it causes oxidation of the heme-group of
2+
3+

haemoglobin from ferrous (Fe ) to ferric (Fe ), making haemoglobin unable to bind O
2).[179] Despite these apparent positive effects, ozone
use in recirculation systems has been linked to reducing the level of bioavailable iodine in salt water systems, resulting in iodine deficiency
symptoms such as goitre and decreased growth in Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis) larvae.[180]

Ozonate seawater is used for surface disinfection of haddock and Atlantic halibut eggs against nodavirus. Nodavirus is a lethal and
vertically transmitted virus which causes severe mortality in fish. Haddock eggs should not be treated with high ozone level as eggs so
treated did not hatch and died after 3–4 days.[181]

Agriculture

Ozone application on freshly cut pineapple and banana shows increase in flavonoids and total phenol contents when exposure is up to 20
minutes. Decrease in ascorbic acid (one form of vitamin C) content is observed but the positive effect on total phenol content and
flavonoids can overcome the negative effect.[182] Tomatoes upon treatment with ozone shows an increase in β-carotene, lutein and
lycopene.[183] However, ozone application on strawberries in pre-harvest period shows decrease in ascorbic acid content.[184]

Ozone facilitates the extraction of some heavy metals from soil using EDTA. EDTA forms strong, water-soluble coordination compounds
with some heavy metals (Pb, Zn) thereby making it possible to dissolve them out from contaminated soil. If contaminated soil is pre-treated
with ozone, the extraction efficacy of Pb, Am and Pu increases by 11.0–28.9%,[185] 43.5%[186] and 50.7%[186] respectively.

Alternative medicine

The use of ozone for the treatment of medical conditions is not supported by high quality evidence, and is generally considered alternative
medicine.[187]

See also

Provide possible

References
Further reading

External links

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