| New Zealand in the 1830s New Zealand was largely a Maori world in the 1830s. There were perhaps 100,000 Maori divided inta major iwi, or tribes. Relations between groups could be tense, and conflict was common. Maori traditions and social structures prevailed, but mote Europeans arrived in New Zealand throughout the decade. There were about 200 in the North Island in the early 1830s. By 1839, there may have been 2,000 throughout the country including around 4,400 in the North Island), attracted by trade and settlement, cetica Thinking Genre In Activity 8, you will make general about where main ideas are found in different gentes. When you generalize, Mest i a ‘you use specific How would you find the main ideas in the following types of writing? ‘easton foe Discuss your answers with a partner. ‘general rules. This Main idea: shows you understand ‘the Information in 1. anemail 3. an advertisement a thorough ; eae 2, abusiness letter 4. a newspaper editorial Qi C. Go online for more practice distinguishing main ideas from details. READING 2 | When Languages Die You are going to read an excerpt from the book When Languages Die, by linguistics professor K. David Harrison. In it, Dr. Harrison examines the traditional knowledge that is lost when a language becomes extinct (that is, when nobody speaks it anymore). Use the article to gather information and ideas for your Unit Assignment. PREVIEW THE READING A. What knowledge do you think can be lost when languages die? Make three predictions. I tesang and teasWhere in the world do you think languages are in danger of dying? Why do you think this is happening? Write for 5-10 minutes in response. Remember to use this section for your Unit Assignment, Work with a partner to find these words in the reading. Circle clues in the text that help you understand the meaning of each word, Then use a dictionary to define any unknown words. abandon (v) 2 indigenous (adj) scenario (n.) cure (n.) & in jeopardy (phr) shift (n) & exploit (v) in the face of (phe) substitute () | habitat (n) retain (x) 2 wake-up call (n. ph) © Ordord 3000" words D. Go online to listen and practice your pronunciation. WORK WITH THE READING © A. Read the book excerpt and gather information on what happens when a language disappears. iene ce 1 What exactly do we stand to lose when languages vanish? It has become a cliché! to talk about a eure for cancer that may be found in the Amazon rain forest, perhaps from a medicinal plant known only to local shamans’ (Plotkin 1993). But pharmaceutical 8 companies have spared no efforts to get at K. David Harrison this knowledge, and in many cases, have exploited it to develop useful drugs. An identified, named, described, or classified estimated $85 billion in profits per year is by modern science (Hawksworth & Kalin- made on medicines made from plants that ‘Arroyo 1995). Therefore, we need to look were first known to indigenous peoples to indigenous cultures to fill in our vast for their healing properties (Posey 1990). knowledge gap about the natural world. 2 Anastonishing 87 percent of the world’s But can they retain their knowledge in the plant and animal species have not yet been face of global linguistic homogenization®? "cliché: a phrase or saying thathas been used so many times _* homogenization: a process in which everything becomes acessories rcber coinage epee tit earch 2 shamans: traditional healers or medicine men 16 UNIT | What happens when a language disappears?3 ‘Much—if not most—of what we know about the natural world lies completely outside of science textbooks, libraries, and databases, existing only in unwritten languages in people's memories. Itis only one generation away from extinction and always in jeopardy of not being passed on. This immense knowledge base remains largely unexplored and uncataloged. We can only hope to access it if the people who possess and nurture it can be encouraged to continue to do so. If people feel their knowledge is worth keeping, they will keep it. If they are told, or come to believe, that it is useless in the modern world, they may well abandon it. Traditional Knowledge is not always easily transferred from small, endangered languages to large, global ones. How can that be true if any idea. is expressible in any language? Couldn't Solomon Islanders talk about the behavior patterns of fish in English just as easily as in Marovo, their native language? I argue that when small communities abandon their languages and switch to English or Spanish, there is also massive disruption of the transfer of traditional knowledge across generations. ‘This arises in part from the way knowledge 1s packaged in a particular language. Consider Western !Xoon, a small language of Namibia (the exclamation mark is a click sound). In !Xoon, clouds are called “rain houses.” By learning the word for cloud, a !Xoon-speaking child automatically gets (for free) the extra information that clouds contain and are the source of rain. An English child learning the word cloud gets no information about rain and has to learn on her own that rain comes from clouds. implicit: suggested without being directly expressed S ethnobotanical: describing customs and beliefs about plants and agriculture held by a group af people Languages package and structure knowledge in particular ways. You cannot merely substitute labels or names from another language and hold onto all of the implicit', hidden knowledge that resides in a taxonomy, or naming system. Still, each language and indigenous people is unique, and language shift takes place at different speeds and under very different conditions. Can we then predict how much traditional knowledge will successfully be transferred and how much will be lost? Some scientists have tried to do just that. ‘The Bari language (1,500-2,500 speakers) of Venezuela was studied by linguists who asked how much knowledge of the plant world was being lost and how much retained. The Bari live in a close relationship with the rain forest and have learned to use many of its plants for food, material goods, medicine, and construction of houses. One scientist found that the loss of Bari traditional knowledge corresponded with decreasing use of forest. resources and a shift from the traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyle, along with a shift to speaking Spanish. His conservative estimate of the rate of knowledge loss should be a wake-up call to all: “Iestimate that the real loss of ethnobotanical’ knowledge from one generation to the next may be on the order of 40 to 60 percent.” (Lizarralde 2001). This is a dire® scenario: Bari people who have limited connection with the forest have lost up to 45 percent of traditional plant names. Similar patterns of knowledge erosion’ may be observed among indigenous peoples all around thie world as they undergo a cultural shift away from traditional lifestyles and languages. © dire: very serious: terrible ? erosion: the process of gradually destroying or weakening ‘something over a period of time W BBS | eescngsnsweeng2° Some researchers offer hope for the persistence and resilience* of very basic forms of traditional knowledge. A study by anthropologist Scott Atran (1998) tested residents of Michigan on their knowledge of local animals. He concluded that elements of folk knowledge persist even when people have been schooled in modern scientific classification. Though folk knowledge may persist in modern cultures, we ate also losing traditional Knowledge at an alarming rate. This loss is accompanied by a severe reduction in number of species and range of habitats. Perhaps future technologies hold enough 10 resilience: the ability of something to return to its original ‘strength @ wxsuccars In Reading 2, the name(s) and year in parentheses form 2 citation. Citations tell you that an idea comes from another source. You can look in the publication's references list for full information about the source. References pp. 107-182, pp. 265-281 the sentences. Then write each promise that humanity will be able to survive without making use of this accumulated ecological knowledge. Perhaps we will grow plants in greenhouses and breed animals in laboratories and feed ourselves via genetic engineering. Perhaps there are no new medicines to be found in the rain forests. All such arguments appeal to ignorance: we do not know what we stand to lose as languages and technologies vanish because much or even most of it remains undocumented. So itis a gamble to think that we will never use it in the future. Do we really want to place so much trust in future science and pay so little attention ta our inherited science? tran, Scott (1998). Folk biology and the anthropology of science: Cognitive universals and ‘cultural particulars. Behavioral and Brain Seiences 21 547-609. Hawskworth, DL, and MT, Kalin-Arroyo (1995). Magnitude and distribution of biodiversity. In VE. Heywood (ed), Global Biodiversity Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Lizarralde, Manuel (2001, Biodiversity and loss of indigenous languages and knowledge in South America, InL. Maffl (ed), On Bioculeural Diversity. Washington, D.C: Smithson! Plotkin, Mark (1988) Tales af Shaman's Apprentice. Neve Var: Viking. Posey, Darrell A. (1990), Intellectual property rights and just compensation for indigenons knowledge. Anthropology Today 6(8): 18-16. Here are some words and phrases from Reading 2. Read bold word or phrase next to the correct. definition. You may need to change verbs to their base form and nouns to the singular form. 1. Some researchers hope that plants from the Amazon rain forest can provide a cure for cancer. To develop new drugs, some drug makers have exploited the knowledge that people of the Amazon have ahont native plants. ‘The indigenous people of the Amazon know more about its native plants than researchers from other countries do. 18 UNIT1 | What happens when language disappears?8. 9. 10. u. 2 People can still retain some traditional knowledge even if they give up some of their old ways of doing things. It can be hard for people to resist doing what others ask, but sometimes we must be strong in the face of pressure. . (Old ways of doing things are in jeopardy when the only people who know those traditions grow old and die. People may abandon their native languages if they think they are useless. You cannot simply substitute words from onc language into another, ‘Many groups have made a shift away from the traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Many scientists believe that recent changes should be a wake-up call that gets the attention of people all over the world. If we take the most negative view of the future, we can picture a disastrous scenario. ‘The loss of large parts of the rain forest has reduced the habitats of many native Amazon species. (phr.) in a dangerous position or situation and likely to be lost or harmed (n.) a description of how things might happen in the future (n.) a medicine or medical treatment for an illness (n,) a place where a particular type of animal or plant is normally found (phr) despite (problems, difficulties, ete.) (n. phr) an event that makes people realize that there is a problem they need to do something about (») to leave a thing or place; to stop supporting or believing in something (v) to use in place of (v) to use something in order to gain as much from it as possible (v) to keep (11) a change in position or direction (adj) belonging to a particular place rather than coming to it from somewhere else PBS | teasing andwriting 19C. Go online for more practice with the vocabulary. D. Each statement summarizes the main idea of a paragraph in Reading 2. Write the paragraph number next to the summarizing statement. ZL. 1, As the Bari people become divorced from their surroundings and their language, they lose a lot of traditional knowledge. _— 2. Some traditional knowledge survives even in modern societies in the United States. — 3. Scientists could find new treatments for serious diseases from plants that only indigenous people know about. _— 4, Information can be lost in translations from indigenous languages. _—. 5. We should not trust science to replace the knowledge that is being lost ‘nous communities. _— 6. Indigenous people know more about many plant and animal species than scientists. _— 7 This pattern of knowledge loss exists all over the world. —— 8. If information is lost in translation, it may be impossible to measure how much traditional knowledge is being lost __ 9, Traditional knowledge is in danger of disappearing if we do not encourage the people who hold it to preserve it. 10. In some languages, words contain extra information about the things they describe. Scan Reading 2 and write the correct numbers. 1. Number of speakers of Bari: _____1,500-2,500 _ 2. Proportion of the world’s plants and animals that are unknown to modern science: 3. Amount of profits made per year on medicines based on indigenous knowledge: 4, Lizarralde’s estimate of the loss of knowledge about plants and animals in Venezuela: 5. ‘The year of Scott Atran’s study in Michigan: 20 UNIT1 | What happens when a language disappears?F. Why does the author include these examples and statistics? Circle the answer that best connects each example or statistic to the main idea. 1. An estimated $85 billion in profits per year is gained on medicines made from plants that were first known to indigenous peoples for their healing properties. (Paragraph 1) a. to show that drug companies make too much money . to show that indigenous knowledge is valuable ¢. to show that drug companies treat indigenous cultures badly 2. An astonishing 87 percent of the world’s plant and animal species have not yet been identified, named, described, or classified by modern science. (Paragraph 2) a. to support the importance of traditional knowledge for modern science b. to criticize scientists for not studying more plants and animals c. to explain that the author is surprised about the number of unidentified species 3. Couldn't Solomon Islanders talk about the behavior patterns of fish in English just as easily as in Marovo, their native language? (Paragraph 4) a. to suggest that it is impossible to talk about the behavior of fish in English h. to suggest that Marovo can be translated into English without any loss c. to suggest that English words might not carry the same information as words in Marovo 4, In {Xoon, clouds are called “rain houses.” (Paragraph 5) a, to make fun of the !Xoon word for clouds b. to show how a language packages information in a word cc. to suggest that !Xoon is more useful than English 5. Bari people who have limited connection with the forest have lost up to 45 percent of traditional plant names. (Paragraph 8) a. to emphasize how cultural changes can lead to the loss of traditional knowledge b. to demonstrate that $5 percent of traditional plant names have been retained c. toctiticize the Bari people for forgetting traditional plant names G. Write answers to these questions in your own words, using information from Reading 2, Provide the paragraph numbers where you found the information. 1. What is “global linguistic homogenization”? Paragraph: PBESS | reatinganaviing 2122 a 2. Why is global linguistic homogenization a threat to indigenous knowledge? Paragraph: 3. What is the difference between the !Xoon and English words for cloud? Paragraph: 4, What does Dr. Harrison mean by the “transfer” of traditional knowledge, and why is it important? Paragraphs: 5. What was the purpose of the research conducted with the Bari people in ‘Venezuela? Paragraph: 6. Why does Dr. Harrison describe Atran’s research in Michigan as hopeful? Paragraph; 7. Which arguments does Dr. Harrison believe are “appeals to ignorance”? Paragraph: 8. Why does he believe such arguments are ignorant? Paragraph: —_ WRITE WHAT YOU THINK uss these questions in a group. Look back at your Quick Write on page 16 as you think about what you have learned. 1. Have you ever tried to translate directly between two languages or used an online translation program? How accurate was the translation? 2. Can you think of examples of words or idioms that lose meaning when translated into English? How can you express the same ideas in English? 3. Dr. Harrison clearly does not believe that science can replace all the indigenous knowledge that is being lost. Do you agree with him? Support your opinion with examples from the text or your experience. UNIT 1 | What happens when a language disappears?Think about the unit video, Reading 1, and Reading 2s you discuss these questions. Then choose one question and write a paragraph in response. 1. ‘The professor at the end of the video says that language “is an integral part of our human nature” Does this claim affect your understanding of Tanguage loss? 2. What can be done to save languages such as Bari that are in danger of extinction? Would the strategies that worked for the Maori language work in other cultures? 3, Isbilingualism an option for endangered languagest Can a language such as English or Spanish exist alongside native languages? Veiner koee is ‘A thesaurus is a reference book that gives you synonyms, words with similar meanings, and antonyms, words with opposite meanings. Learning synonyms and antonyms is a good way to build your vocabulary, and it allows you to use ‘more variety in your writing and speaking. You should always be sure to check the meaning and use of new words carefully. The Oxford Learner's Thesaurus lists collocations and appropriate contexts for using each synonym correctly, Theadword the most requent a synonym in the group) knowledge nou —— Patt of spec inowladge- experince roy scholar synonyms for knowledge, timings wider siore listed in order of frequency ‘hse at af eer oie inomatn, understanding alse Gatyou lena tough econ or cpr general meaning ofallthe eanupeee, words inthe knowledge group soe evar et shows the words that often Gesmieletege enemas tercyicpoaeainy -collocate with the synonyms in fed een ae er ew the group (e.g, about great, gain) Imnowiedge (i dng] she lafomation, unending, a tua you gai Sug sing or doa Soudan oe ne st ine pe connmmorieniaeaton, fa option about larquage. © Tere wi beats of your | ___ generat Enowledge (= your knowledge shout things ‘with an explanation feacraly)o He has a wile knowlege of ae sory. antonym andthe headword| | cross-reference to another, to lookup for more entry thatis connected with information (ignorance) this word (Le, look up know under the headword learn) Apt fom Oxford eter’ Thesaun: Adena sony by Dana Lea © Ofod Univer Pres 2008. | Reading and Writing 23Complete each sentence with a word from the remainder of the thesaurus entry for knowledge. Use a different word in each sentence, Discuss your choices with a partner. knowledge noun knowledge «experience -Iteracy «scholarship = learning wisdom «lore ‘These at all wore forthe information, undersanding, and sls that you ean dhrough eduction or experience. wedge! toning/ wisdom about th ident wana flk trie ws oe $0 equiekrowedgeexpercnce/ tray earning wisdom to gain knonelge experience wisdom to fren your knowledge expeence/ learning knowledge [uy sing] the information, understanding, fd sls shat you gain throug staying sh oF doing Sth: You dona eal fo have speais knwldge expres fa opinion about language © There wil be ats of Your ‘general Knowledge (= your knowledge about things ‘bray. © He as wie Kid of ice sor. ‘experience (U tbe mnowledge and abity that you have ulnd through dalng sth fra period of Une: the process St gaining his 7 have oer ten year’ tea experience 2 bu you have any previous experience of hs pe of work? 0 she didnt get paid uc, bur was ll good ‘experince 0 eal learn by experience. GE inexpe IWeeracy [UI the aby to read and wee: The goverment ‘elgre siete tad and wes iar scholarship (U] the serious study of en academe subject ‘and the knowledge ané methods involved: Oxford Bete ne ofthe great centers of medieval shears. learning (0) owledge tat you get from reading and ‘studying: He sa teacher of ret duet acai. See ‘iso learned» nTalicTIA 2 wisdom [Ul the knowledge that a society or culture has ‘alned over along period of time: We Reed to combine Ancient wistom and modern knowledge "Soe aso Wise lore [0 knowledge ane information elaed toa paseular ‘bj, epeclly in thn not werkt, dowry the ‘Sores and traditions of a particlar group of people: an cere in ancient Cali: lore capt from OnondLeomerMesaun:A dctonarafsmanyms by anaes © Oxford University Pes 2008, 1. K. David Harrison's of living with indigenous people enables him to write persuasively about their cultures. ine is turning to traditional cultures for their 3. ‘The indigenous people of Australia retain traditional about the land and its history. 4, Studying textbooks is important, but this type of. can ignore facts that are not written down anywhere. 5. Young people are learning Maori preserve their culture. from elders to 6. Writing a book or article about one’ field is an example of 7. One way to save the Knowledge of the Bari is through campaigns so that it can be written and retained. What happens when a language disappears?for Success No two words have ‘exactly the same tneaning end use. Check the exact meaning of new words in a dictionary cr thesaurus before you use them. Write an appropriate synonym for each underlined word. Use your thesaurus or di nary. indigenous people in many countries have faced similar problems. : The shift from native languages to Spanish can be seen across Central and South America ‘Multiculturalism is the idea that people of different cultures and ethnicities can live and learn together. One opinion about multiculturalism is that it puts national unity in jeopardy. inguists say that half of the world’s languages, are dying. intil recently, native cultures kept knowledge by passing it from one generation to the next. [i] C. Go online for more practice with using a thesaurus. | Reading and Writing 25