CRYSTAL DEFECTS (OF SOLID STATE ELECTRONICS)
An ideal crystal can be described in terms of a three-dimensionally periodic arrangement of points called lattice and an
atom or group of atoms associated with it.
Crystal lattice = Lattice + Motif
where the lattice is a 3D periodic arrangement of points and Motif is an atom or group of atoms. Any deviations from
the perfect arrangement of atoms in a crystal are called crystal defects. Hence, Crystal defects are imperfections in the
regular geometrical arrangement of the atoms in a crystalline solid.
Crystal defects have a significant impact on the properties of solid-state electronics or semiconducting properties. These
imperfections result from deformation of the solid, rapid cooling from high temperature, or high-energy radiation (X-
rays or neutrons) striking the solid. Some of these defects are beneficial, such as donors, acceptors, or luminescence
centers; as these determine the desired electronic and optical properties of the semiconductor. Other defects promote
nonradiative carrier recombination, carrier trapping, or excessive carrier scattering and are detrimental to device
performance. It is, therefore, critical to understand the different kinds of crystal defects that occur and how they affect
how materials behave.
TYPES OF CRYSTAL DEFECTS
1. Point Defects
Point defects have atomic dimensions and occur only at or around a single lattice point. They are not stretched in any
dimension in space. Different types of point defects in crystals include:
Substitutional Defects- Substitutional defects are caused by an impurity in a lattice location. The host atoms
are replaced or substituted for by solute or impurity atoms. The degree to which the solute dissolves in the
solvent depends on several characteristics of the atoms in both. The Hume-Rothery rules are used to express
these. Substitutional solid solutions may form according to these rules if the solute and solvent have a similar
radius of atoms (15% or less difference), crystal structure, electronegativity and valency.
Frenkel Defects- A Frenkel defect is a close pair of vacancies 1 and interstitial2 defects. When an ion goes into
an interstitial site, it produces a vacancy.
Schottky Defects- Schottky defects occur in ionic solids. The electrical neutrality of ionic compounds must
be balanced, nevertheless, to ensure that an equal number of anions and cations are absent. It lessens the
substance's density.
2. Line Defects
Line defects typically span a large number of atoms. Dislocations are line defects that only appear in crystalline
materials. A dislocation is a linear or one-dimensional imperfection in which certain atoms are misaligned.
Dislocations are particularly essential in materials science because they contribute to material mechanical strength. The
two fundamental forms of dislocations are:
Edge dislocation line- The edge dislocation line, which is defined along the end of the additional half-plane
of atoms, is the central focus of edge dislocation. The defect may run in a straight line through the crystal or it
may take an irregular path.
Screw dislocation- Screw dislocations can be created by tearing the crystal parallel to the slip direction. A
screw dislocation would display a slip pattern like a screw thread if it were followed around an entire circuit.
3. Planar or Interfacial Defects
Interfacial defects are two-dimensional barriers that generally separate sections of materials with various crystal
structures and/or crystallographic orientations. Different types of planar defects are:
Grain Boundaries- A grain boundary is a general planar defect in a polycrystalline solid that divides regions
of varied crystallographic orientation (i.e. grains).
Twinning- A twin boundary is a form of grain boundary that has mirror lattice symmetry; that is, atoms on
one side of the boundary are in mirror image locations of atoms on the other side. It is correct to refer to the
material region between these limitations as a twin.
1
Vacancy Defects
A missing atom at a lattice position causes a vacancy defect. The surrounding crystal structure's stability ensures that the
atoms do not just collapse around the void. The vacancy kind of defect can be caused by poor packing during the
crystallisation process, or by enhanced thermal vibrations of the atoms caused by high temperatures.
2
Interstitial Defects
When an atom occupies the interstitial location of the lattice structure, an interstitial defect develops. This interstitial
atom might come from the same crystal or another substance. Accordingly, there are two types of interstitial defects:
Self-Interstitial Defect- When an atom from the same crystalline solid occupies an interstitial location instead
of its original lattice site, this is known as a self-interstitial defect.
Interstitial Defect- A foreign atom occupying the interstitial location causes an interstitial defect.
