Chapter 10: Endocrine System (8) Control of Reproductive

Anatomy and Physiology Functions

(9) Uterine Contraction and Milk
Endocrine System Glands
Release
(10) Immune System Regulation

 The target tissues have receptors

for a specific hormone.
 Hormones produce a particular
response in the target tissues.
Humoral Regulation
Characteristics

Water-soluble hormones:
 includes proteins, peptides,
amino acids
 most common
 Examples - growth hormone,
Cell Secretion Types
antidiuretic, prolactin
Autocrine Lipid-soluble hormones:
Types of Hormones
 released by cells and a have  includes steroids and
local effect on same cell type eicosanoids
 Examples - LH, FSH, Neural Regulation
 Example - eicosanoids
Paracrine androgens
 released by cells that affect other
cell types in
close proximity  Blood-borne chemicals can
 Example - somatostatin directly stimulate the release of
Neurotransmitter and some hormones.
Neuromodulators  These chemicals are referred to as
 secreted by nerve cells humoral stimuli because they
 Example - nervous system circulate in the blood,
function Control
Humoral refers to body
of Hormone fluids,
Release
Hormones and Neurohormones including blood. Inhibition of Hormone Release
 secreted into blood and bind to  Hormone release can also be
under neural control.  Humoral inhibition of hormone
receptor sites
 Following action potentials, release generally involves the
 Example - epinephrine and
neurons release a actions of companion hormones.
insulin
neurotransmitter into the  Usually each of the companion
Endocrine System Function synapse with the cells that hormones performs an opposite
produce the hormone. function.
(1) Metabolism  For example, to raise blood
 Hormone release can also be
(2) Control of Food Intake and pressure, the adrenal cortex
controlled by other hormones.
Digestion secretes the hormone
 It occurs when a hormone is
(3) Tissue Development aldosterone in response to low
secreted that, in turn,
(4) Ion Regulation blood pressure, but to lower it
stimulates the secretion of
(5) Water Balance the heart atria secrete atrial
other hormones.
(6) Heart rate and Blood pressure natriuretic peptide.
 The same three types of stimuli
regulation  They work together to maintain
(humoral, neural, and
(7) Control of Blood Glucose and homeostasis of blood pressure.
hormonal) can stimulate or
other nutrients  Neurons inhibit targets just as
inhibit hormone release.
often as they stimulate targets.
  If the neurotransmitter is Lipid-Soluble Hormone Receptors
inhibitory, the target endocrine
gland does not secrete its
hormone.  Lipid-soluble hormones bind to
 In control of hormone release nuclear receptors due to their lipid
by other hormones, some solubility and small molecular
hormones are inhibitory size, allowing to easily pass
hormones, that reduce the through the cell membrane and
release of the hormone being nuclear membrane.
controlled.  Nuclear receptors can also be
 For example, thyroid hormones located in the cytoplasm, but then
can control their own blood move to the nucleus when
levels by inhibiting their activated.
anterior pituitary tropic  When hormones bind to nuclear
hormone. receptors, the hormone-receptor
complex interacts with nuclear
Regulation of Blood Hormone DNA to regulate specific gene
Levels transcription.
 Two major mechanisms maintain
hormone levels in the blood within
Water-Soluble Receptors
a homeostatic range: negative
feedback and positive feedback Hormone Receptors  Water-soluble hormones, such as
 Most hormones are regulated protein and peptide types, cannot
 A hormone can stimulate only the
by a negative-feedback pass through the cell membrane.
cells that have the receptor for that
mechanism, whereby the  Interactions are with membrane-
hormone.
hormone’s secretion is bound receptors, that are proteins
 The portion of each receptor
inhibited by the hormone itself that extend across the cell
molecule where a hormone binds
once blood levels have reached membrane, with their hormone-
is called a receptor site.
a certain point. binding sites exposed on the cell
 The receptor site has
 Some hormones are regulation membrane’s outer surface.
specificity, allowing only one
by positive feedback, as  When the hormone binds to the
hormone to bind to it.
exemplified by tropic hormone receptor, it turns on intracellular
 Some hormones, such as
action. enzymes that ultimately cause the
epinephrine, can bind to a
“family” of receptors that are response dictated by the hormone-
structurally similar. receptor interaction.
Negative and Positive Feedback  This specificity is due to
Target Tissue Specificity and
molecular shape and chemical
Response
characteristic.
Lipid-soluble and water-soluble
hormones bind to their own
classes of receptors.
Lipid-soluble hormones bind to
nuclear receptors due to their lipid
solubility and small molecular size
allowing to easily pass through the
cell membrane.
Water-soluble hormones bind to
membrane-bound receptors.
Water-soluble hormones are polar
molecules and cannot pass
Nuclear and Membrane-Bound
through the cell membrane.
Receptors
  Protein kinases are enzymes that,
in turn, regulate the activity of
other enzymes.
 Depending on the other enzyme,
protein kinases can increase or
decrease its activity.
 Phosphodiesterase, an
intracellular enzyme, breaks down
cAMP and thus results in no
further cell stimulation.

Membrane Receptor Actions

 Membrane receptors act in two

ways, either altering the activity of
Action of Nuclear Receptors G proteins on the inner surface of
the cell membrane or directly
 Lipid-soluble hormones stimulate
altering the activity of intracellular
protein synthesis.
enzymes.
 Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse
 Activation of G proteins, or
across the cell membrane and bind
intracellular enzymes, elicits
to their receptors, with the
specific responses in cells,
complex now binding to
including the production of
hormone-response elements on
molecules called, second
DNA.
messengers.
 This action regulates the
 A second messenger molecule is
transcription of specific messenger
produced inside a cell once a
ribonucleic acid (mRNA)
ligand binds to its membrane-
molecules and protein synthesis
bound receptor. Cyclic AMP Synthesis
occurs.
 A second messenger, such as
cyclic adenosine
monophosphate (cAMP), then
activates specific cellular
processes inside the cell in
response to the hormone.

 Many membrane-bound receptors

G-Protein
produce Activation
responses through the
action of G proteins, which consist
of 3 subunits.
 The G proteins are so named
because one of the subunits binds
to guanine nucleotides.
 G-proteins, after several
sequential actions, interact with
adenylate cyclase, an enzyme that
converts ATP to cAMP (cyclic
adenosine monophosphate).
 Cyclic adenosine monophosphate
binds to protein kinases and
activates them.
  Functions: stimulates growth
of bones,
muscles, and organs
Signal Amplification  Abnormalities:
o Too much GH causes
 Hormones that stimulate the
giantism
synthesis of second messengers
o Too little GH causes
act quickly and have an
pituitary dwarfism
amplification effect.
 Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone
 Each receptor produces thousands
(TSH):
of second messengers, leading to a
 Target tissues: thyroid gland
cascade effect and ultimately
amplification of the hormonal  Functions: regulates thyroid
signal. gland secretions
 With amplification, a single  Abnormalities:
hormone activates many second o Too much TSH, thyroid
messengers, each of which gland enlarges
activates enzymes that produce an o Too little TSH, thyroid
enormous amount of final product. gland shrinks
Anterior Pituitary Gland Actions  Gonadotrophin Hormone (LH)
 The efficiency of this second-
messenger amplification is  The anterior pituitary gland □ LH (Luteinizing) for females:
virtually unparalleled in the body. synthesizes hormones that is under  Target tissue: ovaries Re
the control of the hypothalamus.  Function: promotes
 Neurons of the hypothalamus ovulation and
secrete releasing hormones that progesterone
stimulate the production and production
secretion of a specific hormone. □ LH for males:
 Inhibiting hormones decrease the  Target tissue: testes
secretion of a specific anterior  Function: sperm
pituitary hormone production and
testosterone
 Gonadotrophin Hormone (FSH)
□ Follicle-Stimulating for
Hypothalamus and Anterior females:
Pituitary  Target tissue: follicles in
ovaries
 Function: follicle
maturation and estrogen
secretion

Pituitary Gland
□FSH for males:
 Small gland in brain
 Target tissue:
 Controlled by hypothalamus
seminiferous tubules
 Divided into 2 regions: anterior
(testes)
and posterior Anterior Pituitary Hormones
 Secretes at least 6 hormones  Function: sperm
production
 Growth Hormone:
 Prolactin:
 Target tissues: most
 Target tissues: mammary
glands and ovaries
  Functions: milk production  Target tissues: kidneys o Target tissues: bone and
 Melanocyte Stimulating  Functions: conserve water some other tissues
Hormone (MSH):  Posterior
Abnormalities: Diabetes
Gland Hormones o Function: reduces blood
 Target tissues: melanocytes in insipidus calcium level when high
the skin o low ADH
Thyroid Hormone Disorders
 Functions: stimulate melanin o kidneys to produce large
production in melanocytes amounts of dilute Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism
 Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone Decreased Increased
o (watery) urine
metabolism metabolism
(ACTH): o can lead to dehydration and
 Target tissues: cells of adrenal thirst Weight gain, Weight loss,
cortex  Oxytocin: reduced appetite, increased appetite,
 Functions: stimulate fatigue nervousness
 Target tissues: uterus Low temp. and Higher temp. and
production of certain  Functions: increases uterine pulse pulse
corticosteroids contractions during labor
Dry, cold skin Warm, flushed skin
Hypothalamus and Posterior
Myxedema in adults Graves’ disease
Pituitary (leads to goiter)
Cretinism in infants

Parathyroid Gland

 Parathyroid hormone (PTH):

 Target tissues: bones and
kidneys
 Functions: regulates blood
Ca2+ levels (more than
calcitonin)
 If Ca 2+ is low then osteoclasts
break down bone matrix and less
Ca 2+ is lost in urine.
 If Ca 2+ is high then osteoclasts
don’t break down bone matrix and
more Ca 2+ is lost in urine.

Thyroid Gland Regulation of Blood Calcium Levels

 One of largest glands

 Requires iodine to function
Posterior Pituitary Actions  Secretes thyroid hormone and
calcitonin
 The posterior pituitary gland
synthesizes and releases hormones
Thyroid hormones secreted by
produced by neuroendocrine cells
follicular cells:
in the hypothalamus.
o Target tissues: most
 The two hormones released from
the posterior pituitary are o Functions: regulates
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and metabolic rates and is needed
oxytocin. for growth
Calcitonin secreted by
parafollicular cells:
 Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH):
  Adrenal medulla hormones:
 Epinephrine/Norepinephrine:
o Target tissues: heart,  Adrenal cortex hormone:
Thyroid Gland and Parathyroid blood vessels, liver, fat  Aldosterone:
Glands cells o Type of
o Functions: released as mineralocorticoids
part of fight or flight o Target tissues: kidneys
response o Functions: causes Na+ and
H2O to be retained and K+
Regulation of Adrenal Medullary to be secreted, indirectly
Secretion: involved with blood
pressure and blood
volume
Regulation of Aldosterone Secretion:

Adrenal Gland Actions

 The adrenal glands are two small

glands located superior to each
kidney
 Each adrenal gland has an inner
part, called the adrenal medulla,
and an outer part, called the
adrenal cortex.
 The adrenal medulla and the
adrenal cortex function as separate
endocrine glands.
  Target tissues: most  after a meal glucose levels
 Functions: are high and insulin is
o Males: secondary sexual secreted
characteristics  extra glucose is stored in
o Females: sex drive form of glycogen

Pancreas Actions Insulin Abnormalities

 The pancreas is a mixed gland,  Diabetes Mellitus

with an exocrine portion and an o Causes: too little insulin or
endocrine portion. faulty insulin receptors
 The exocrine portion of the o Symptoms: exaggerated
pancreas secretes digestive appetite, excess urine,
enzymes. dehydration, thirst, fatigue
 The endocrine part of the pancreas o Type I: insulin dependent
consists of pancreatic islets (islets (daily injections required)
of Langerhans), which are o Type II: insulin independent,
dispersed throughout the exocrine often found in obese people,
portion of the pancreas. can be treated with diet but can
 The islets consist of three cell turn into type I
types, each of which secretes a  Glucagon
separate hormone. o Target tissues: liver
 Alpha cells secrete glucagon, o Function:
beta cells secrete insulin, and  regulates blood glucose
delta cells secrete levels
somatostatin.  between meals glucose
 These three hormones regulate levels drop and glucagon is
Adrenal Gland Hormones the blood levels of nutrients, secreted
especially glucose  glucagon allows glycogen
 Cortisol
to be broken down into
 Type of glucocorticoids
glucose
 Target tissues: most
 Functions: increases
breakdown of fat and
- Protein for energy uses
reduces inflammatory and
immune responses
Regulation of Cortisol Secretion:
Pancreas Structure Regulation of Blood Glucose Levels:

Pancreas Hormones

 Insulin
 Target tissues: liver, skeletal
muscle, adipose tissue
 Functions:
 regulates blood glucose
levels
 Androgens:
 Testes Hormone

 Testosterone:
 Target tissues: most
 Functions: aids in sperm and
reproductive
organ development and
function
 Estrogen/Progesterone
 Target tissues: most
 Functions: involved in
uterine and mammary gland
development and menstrual
cycle
 Thymosin:
 Target tissues: immune
system tissues
 Functions: promotes immune
system development and
function
 Melatonin
 Target tissues: hypothalamus
 Functions: plays a role in
onset of puberty and
 Controls circadian rhythms.
Light affects its function.