Bulacan State University
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
City of Malolos, Bulacan
Tel No. (044) 919-7800 to 99 Local 1061 & 1062
Email Add: ccjebulsu@[Link]
Compiled by:
Ms. Jocelyn B. Benter
MODULE 6
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF VICTIMOLOGY
Duration: 2-weeks discussion
Topics:
1. Definition of and Scope of Victimology
2. Nature and Scope
3. History of Victimology
4. Critical Dates in Victimology
5. Key Concepts of Victimology
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
✓ Comprehend the historical nature and scope of victimology on its role in the
commission of the crime
VICTIMOLOGY
Victimology is the scientific study of the psychological effects of crime and the
relationship between victims and offender. It examines victim patterns and tendencies;
studies how victims interact with the police and the legal system; and analyzes how
factors of class, race, and sexual orientation affect the perception of the victim by
different constituents, including the public, the court system and the media.
According to Merriam-Webster dictionary, victimology the study of the ways in
which the behavior of crime victims may have led to or contributed to their victimization.
Victimology is the scientific study of victimization, including the relationships
between victims and offenders, victims and the criminal justice system, and victims and
other social groups and institutions, such as the media, businesses and social movements.
Victimology studies victims of crimes and other forms of human rights violations that are
not necessarily crime.
Victimology is the scientific study of victimization, including the relationships
between victims and offenders, the interactions between victims and the criminal justice
system… and the connections between victims and other societal groups and institutions,
such as the media, businesses and social movements. From this definition, victimology
encompasses the study of:
a. victimization;
b. victim-offender relationships;
c. victim-criminal justice system relationships;
d. victims and the media;
e. victims and the costs of crime; and
f. victims and social movements
CRIME VICTIM
Crime victim generally refers to any person, group or entity who has suffered injury
or loss due to illegal activity. The harm can be physical, psychological, or economic.
Legally, “victim” typically includes the following:
a. A person who has suffered direct, or threatened, physical, emotional or pecuniary
harm as a result of the commission of a crime; or
b. In case of a victim being an institutional entity, any of the same harms by an
individual or authorized representative of another entity.
NATURE AND SCOPE
It is true that an immense volume of information has been accumulated about
crime, but little is known about the criminal and much less about the victim and his
connection to the crime and criminal. As stated in the report of the President's National
Crime Commission, "One of the most neglected subjects in the study of crime is its
victims. Criminology is an empirical science which studies crime and the formal and
informal processes of criminalization and decriminalization, the offence-offender-society
situation, the causes and relations between the causes, and the official and unofficial
reactions and responses to crime, criminals and society by others than offenders.
HISTORY OF VICTIMOLOGY
The Early Roots The word “victim” has its roots in many ancient languages that
covered a great distance from northwestern Europe to the southern tip of Asia and yet
had a similar linguistic pattern: victima in Latin; víh, wéoh, wíg in Old European; wíh, wíhi
in Old High German; vé in Old Norse; weihs in Gothic; and, vinak ti in Sanskrit (Webster’s
1971). Victimology as an academic term contains two elements:
• one is the Latin word “Victima” which translates into “victim”.
• The other is the Greek word “logos” which means a system of knowledge, the
direction of something abstract, the direction of teaching, science, and a discipline.
Although writings about the victim appeared in many early works by such
criminologists as Beccaria (1764), Lombroso (1876), Ferri (1892), Garófalo (1885),
Sutherland (1924), Hentig (1948), Nagel (1949), Ellenberger (1955), Wolfgang
(1958) and Schafer (1968), the concept of a science to study victims and the word
“victimology” had its origin with the early writings of Beniamin Mendelsohn (1937;
1940), these leading to his seminal work where he actually proposed the term
“victimology” in his article “A New Branch of Bio-Psycho-Social Science,
Victimology” (1956). It was in this article that he suggested the establishment of
an international society of victimology which has come to fruition with the creation
of the World Society of Victimology, the establishment of a number of
victimological institutes (including the creation here in Japan of the Tokiwa
International Victimology Institute); and, the establishment of international
journals which are now also a part of this institute. Mendelsohn provided us with
his victimology vision and blueprint; and, as his disciples we have followed his
guidance. We now refer to Mendelsohn as “The Father of Victimology”.
Understanding the concept of victims of crime and a short history of
victimology
The purpose of the study of victimology is to identify what factors may increase
someone's chances of becoming a victim. Criminal statistics and victim demographics
such as age, race, gender and social class are compared.
Victims of crime have long been neglected within the context of criminal justice
proceedings that prioritize bringing perpetrators to justice. This changed, to some extent,
in the 1960s, when the civil rights movement brought about far-reaching political, legal
and social changes in many areas of life. Among other developments, this led to increased
attention to the role of victims in the context of both social and criminal policy. Moreover,
and in parallel, the study of victimology emerged as a scientific field, complementing the
study of crime and criminology. A brief overview of the historical developments of
victimology as a discipline is useful to understanding the complexity of achieving justice
for victims in contemporary contexts.
Victimology emerged in the 1940s and 1950s, when criminologists, including Hans
von Henting, Benjamin Mendelsohn, and Henri Ellenberger, examined the rapports
between victims and offenders and emphasized that both were connected in a reciprocal
relationship. However, this early scholarly work did not focus on the needs and rights of
victims but rather on the question of how victims contribute to their own victimization.
Early criminologists explored, for instance, how reckless or careless behaviour could
attract the attention of robbers or thieves and make it easier for them to carry out a
criminal act. In his book The Criminal and his Victim: Studies in the Sociobiology of Crime,
Hans von Henting (1948) attempted to identify the characteristics of a typical "victim",
i.e. characteristics that could be viewed as effectively increasing the victimization risk of
that person. While this approach may seem out of place today, as an example of "victim
blaming" (i.e. holding the victim of a crime or wrongful act entirely or partially responsible
for the harm that occurred to them), von Henting nevertheless made a noteworthy
contribution to criminology by emphasizing and demonstrating the importance of the
victim in what Mendelsohn (1956) later called the "penal couple" of the victim and the
offender. Early victimologists understood that one must take interest in victims to properly
and comprehensively study the offender. From the 1970s onwards, the focus shifted
towards exploring approaches to prevent victimization, with an increasing interest in, and
recognition of, the multitudinous forms of harm and adversity experienced by victims. In
fact, contemporary victimology recognizes that victims require effective responses
concerning reparation, restitution, having a say in their case, and that they are in need
of dedicated victim support services and legal aid (Kirchhoff, 2010; Wemmers, 2012,
2017). This notion was further accentuated by the contemporaneous rise of cognate
professional fields such as psychology and social work that have contributed to an
increased awareness that victims require timely, supportive and non-stigmatizing support
services. Furthermore, as mentioned, the rise of the victims' rights movement was
influenced by the civil rights movement of the 1960s and 1970s with the emphasis on
drawing public attention to marginalized populations and questioning unjust policies of
the government. In particular, the development of the victims' rights movement was
directly influenced by: the rising crime rates in the 1960s; the feminist movement's
attention to the issue of violence against women; early victim compensation programmes;
and political activism by victims.
In 1973, Israel Drapkin organized the first International Symposium on
Victimology, providing practitioners, scholars, researchers and students with an
international forum to discuss and focus on issues relating to victims and the development
of victimology as a discipline. Following the Symposium, the World Society for Victimology
was established, in 1979, as a non-governmental organization with the purpose of
advancing victimological research and practice, encourage interdisciplinary and
comparative work as well as the cooperation between international, national and regional
agencies and groups concerned with victims' rights. Several other international entities
have since been established to address the core issues relating to victims of crime,
including service provider networks such as Victim Support Europe. In 2018, planning
commenced to establish Victim Support Asia. Despite these important developments in
victimology, and our growing understanding of victims and their needs, there is still
considerable disparity across jurisdictions regarding the recognition, and respect of
victims' rights. Moreover, the existence of effective support services available to victims
varies widely. This variability in responses available to victims is the product of a broad
range of social, cultural, historical, economic and legal forces. Recognizing the importance
of setting minimum standards in the delivery of justice for victims, the United Nations
General Assembly in 1985 adopted the Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice For
Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power (hereafter referred to as United Nations 1985
Declaration), marking an important step towards a unified approach towards addressing
justice for victims of crime and abuse of power. As part of the United Nations standards
and norms, the United Nations 1985 Declaration sets an important basis for recognizing
that victims have rights and needs that require legislative responses, the establishment
of support, services, and efforts to ensure their protection from further harm and, as far
as is possible, a right to redress. Moreover, the United Nations 1985 Declaration sets out
a definition of the term "victim", as mentioned in the Key Terms. fact that the United
Nations 1985 Declaration contains a definition is important, in itself, because a definition
contained in a document adopted by the General Assembly may assist in unifying diverse
practices across United Nations Member States. Furthermore, the definition is also a
milestone because of the comprehensive and far-reaching way that it defines who is a
"victim" of crime. The definition combines the violation of criminal law with a wide range
of harms an individual may have suffered as a result of that crime. Furthermore, the
United Nations 1985 Declaration clarifies that victims are to be recognized and afforded
victims' rights, irrespective of whether the offender has been identified, apprehended,
prosecuted, or convicted. The definition of victims of crime under the United Nations 1985
Declaration also includes individuals who suffered indirectly, such as the immediate family
or dependents of the direct victim and any other person who have suffered harm as a
result of intervening to assist direct victims. Since the adoption of the United Nations
Declaration (1985), several international and regional efforts have been made towards
ensuring that victims' rights are respected and recognized. At the European level, regional
binding standards have been adopted both at the level of the Council of Europe and of
the European Union. At the national level, South Africa, for instance, has published a
service charter for victims of crime, i.e. a consolidation of the present legal framework
relating to the rights and services provided to victims of crime in the South African
context.
CRITICAL DATES IN VICTIMOLOGY
Year Attributes
Edwin Sutherland includes a chapter on victims in this criminology
1924
textbook
Benjamin Mendelsohn publishes his writings on the rapist and his
1937
victim.
1941 Hans Von Hentig publishes articles on victim and criminal interactions
1947 Benjamin Mendelsohn coins the term “victimology” in a French journal
1948 Hans Von Hentig publishes his book The Criminal and His Victim
Frederic Wertham first used the word “victimology” in a book Show of
1949
Violence
1957 Margery Fry proposes victim compensation in the London Times
Marvin Wolfgang studies homicide victims; uses the term “victim
1958
precipitation”
1963 New Zealand enacts the first Criminal Compensation Act
1965 California is the first state in the USA to start Victim Compensation
Japan enacts Criminal Indemnity Law
1966
USA starts to survey crime victims not reported to the police
Canada creates a Criminal Compensation Injuries Act as does Cuba and
1967
Switzerland
Stephan Schafer writes the first victimology textbook The Victim and
1968
his Criminal
The first three victim assistance programmes are created in St. Louis,
1972
Missouri, San Francisco, California and in Washington, D.C.
The first international symposium on victimology is held in Jerusalem,
1973
Israel
The first police-based victim advocate project is started in Fort
1974
Lauderdale, Florida, USA
The first “Victim Rights’ Week” is organized by the Philadelphia District
1975
Attorney, Pennsylvania, USA
John Dussich launches the National Organization of Victim Assistance
(NOVA) in Fresno, California, USA
1976 Emilio Viano launches the first scholarly journal devoted to victimology
James Rowland creates the first Victim Impact Statement in Fresno,
California, USA
1979 The World Society of Victimology is founded in Munster, Germany
Mothers Against Drunk Drivers (MADD) is founded by Candi Lightner
1980 after one of her twin daughters was killed by a drunk driver who was
a repeat offender
President Ronald Reagan proclaims the first national Victim’s Rgihts
1981
Week in April
The first Victim Impact Panel established by MADD to educate drunk
1982 drivers about how their victims suffered, started in Rutland,
Massachusetts, USA
The Victim of Crim Act (VOCA) establishes the national Crime Victims
1984 Fund from federal crime fines to pay for state victim compensation and
services
The United Nations unanimously adopts the Declaration of Basic
1985
Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power
The US Department of Justice opens the National Victims Resource
1987
Centre in Rockville, Maryland
The first “Indian Nations: Justice for Victims of Crime” conference is
1988 held by the Office for Victims of Crime in Rapid City, South Dakota,
USA
The European Forum for Victim Services was founded by all the
1990 national organizations in Europe working for victims of crime in
consultative status with the Council of Europe and the UN
The United Nations and the US Office for Victims of Crime publish the
Guide for Policymakers on the Implementation of the United Nations
Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse
1999
of Power and the Handbook on Justice for Victims: On the Use and
Application of the United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of
Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power
On 11 April, 66 the Rome Statute was ratified and went into force on
2002 1 July at which time the International Criminal Court became effective
and it included the creation of Victim and Witness Unit
On October 2nd the Tokiwa International Victimology Institute, in Mito
Japan opened its doors to promote victim rights, to conduct seminars,
2003
courses, publish an international journal, and host annual symposia
and lectures and research about victimology
The World Society of Victimology at its annual Executive Committee
2004 meeting in Orlando, Florida adopts a dramatic new strategic plan to
commit itself to the ideals and promises of the UN Declaration
Japan puts the UN Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and
Abuse of Power into their national legislation by adopting a new
fundamental law for crime victims. To ensure that the principles would
2005 be initiated, the Prime Minister established a cabinet level committee.
The new law includes services for victims, restitution from the offender,
information about criminal justice and a right to formally participate in
the criminal justice process.
Source: Castillo, Jr. R. and Gabao, R. (2022). Human Behavior and Victimology Third
Edition, pages 106-108
VICTIMS AND VICTIMIZATION
There are number of definitions of what constitutes a “victim” the UN declaration
on Basic Principles of Justice for Victim for Crime and Abuse of Power, the “victim” are
“persons who, individually or collectively, have suffered harm – including physical or
mental injury, emotional suffering, financial or economic loss or substantial impairment
of their fundamental rights, through conducts that are impairment of their fundamental
rights, through conducts that are criminalized by national laws or through other behaviors
that are not criminalized by national laws but violate internationally recognized norms of
human rights and as such they are internationally victims of Crime and Abuse of Power.
(Retrieved from: [Link]
Justice_for_victims.pdf)
The said UN Declaration underscored some basic principles that can be
summarized into the following:
a. Access to Justice and fair treatment
It states that victims should be addressed with respect and compassion to
provide them the dignity that should be affordable to them. They should be
allowed access to judicial mechanism as well as prompt redress. These
mechanisms should be written through a national legislation, for the harm that
they’ve suffered. Additionally, administrative and judicial mechanisms should be
established and strengthened where needed to enable victims to get redress
through informal or formal procedures that are actually accessible, inexpensive,
fair and expeditious.
b. Restitution
Offenders and criminals should be held accountable for their behavior, and
where appropriate, should provide reasonable restitution to their victims, their
dependents, or families. Such restitution could include the return of property or
compensation for the lost that the victims have suffered. This must also include
reimbursement of expenses incurred as an outcome of the victimization, the
provision of services and also the restoration of rights.
c. Compensation
When compensation is not completely offered from other options or the
offender, States ought to endeavor to offer monetary compensation to:
(i) Victim who’ve suffered considerable physical injury or for the serious harm to
their mental or physical health as an outcome of severe crimes.
(ii) The family members of victims, particularly dependents of those that have died
or may have become mentally or physically incapacitated as a consequence of
such victimization.
d. Assistance
Victims must get the required information, medical, social and psychological
assistance through governmental, voluntary, indigenous and community-based
means. Victims must be informed of the accessibility of community services and
health along with other related assistance and be conveniently afforded a chance
to access them. Police, justice, health, other personnel and social service
concerned must certainly get training to sensitize them with the requirements of
victims, moreover pointers to make sure prompt and proper aid.
KEY CONCEPTS IN VICTIMOLOGY
1. “Victim” has its roots in the early religious notions of suffering, sacrifice and death.
This concept of “victim” was well known in the ancient civilizations, especially in
Babylonia, Palestine, Greece, and Rome. In each of these civilizations the law
mandated that the victim should be recognized as a person who deserved to be
made whole again by the offender.
2. “Crime victim” is a person who has been physically, financially or emotionally
injured and/or had their property taken or damaged by someone committing a
crime.
3. “Victimogenesis” refers to the origin or cause of a victimization; the constellation
of variables which caused a victimization to occur.
4. “Victim Precipitation” a victimization where the victim causes, in part or totally,
their own victimization.
5. “Vulnerability” is a physical, psychological, social, material or financial condition
whereby a person or an object has a weakness which could render them a victim if
another person or persons would recognize these weaknesses and take advantage
of them.
6. “General Victim” is a person who has been physically, financially or emotionally
injured and/or had their property taken or damaged by someone, an event, an
organization or a natural phenomenon.
7. “Victimization” refers to an event where persons, communities and institutions are
damaged or injured in a significant way. Those persons who are impacted by
persons or events suffer a violation of rights or significant disruption of their well-
being.
8. “Victimology” is an academic scientific discipline which studies data that describes
phenomena and causal relationships related to victimizations. This includes events
leading to the victimization, the victim’s experience, its aftermath and the actions
taken by society in response to these victimizations. Therefore, victimology includes
the study of the precursors, vulnerabilities, events, impacts, recoveries, and
responses by people, organizations and cultures related to victimizations.
9. “Abuse of Power” is the violation of a national or international standard in the use
of organized powerful forces such that persons are injured physically, mentally,
emotionally, economically, or in their rights, as a direct and intentional result of the
misapplication of these forces.
10. “Victim Assistance, Support or Services” are those activities which are applied
in response to victimizations with the intention of relieving suffering and facilitating
recovery. This includes offering information, assessments, individual interventions,
case advocacy, system advocacy, public policy and program development.
11. “Victim Recovery” is the resumption of the same or better level of functionality as
was enjoyed prior to victimization. Persons who have been victimized vary in their
level of mental health and wellbeing prior to their victimization. Consequently,
victimization affects each person in a different way and causes differing degrees of
injury or trauma. In their recovery it is necessary for victims to first try to regain
their previous level of functioning plus learn from their misfortune and hopefully
exceed their previous level of functionality. To be recovered suggests that a person
has at least regained their prior level of well-being and at best, has exceeded it. This
state may be measured by identifying their previous mental condition and
determining if they have at least regained that prior status using the criteria of: trust
in others, autonomy of self, individual initiative, competency in daily activities, self-
identity, interpersonal intimacy, control over personal situations, successful
relationships, safety in daily activities, acknowledgment of memory, trauma
symptoms have become manageable, self-esteem is restored, resourcefulness is
achieved, and there is an improved ability to ward off potential threats.
12. “Child Abuse” is the intentional application of sexual, physical, emotional or
psychological injury to a child to include neglect at the hands of her or his parents
or care-provider within the confines of their family or place of care.
13. “Victim Offender Mediation” (VOM) is a formal process for face-to-face meetings
in the presence of a trained mediator between a victim of a crime and his/her
offender who committed that crime. This is also called victim-offender dialogue,
victim-offender conferencing, victim-offender reconciliation, or restorative justice.
Often the victim and the offender are joined by their respective families and
community members or other persons related to the crime event. In these meetings,
the offender and the victim talk to each other about the victimization, the effects it
had on their lives, and their feelings about it. The aim is to create a mutually
agreeable plan to repair any damage or injury that occurred as a result of the crime
in the hopes of permanently eliminating the conflict that caused the crime in the
first place.
14. “Restorative Justice” is a systematic formal legal response to crime victimization
that emphasizes healing the injuries that resulted from the crime and affected the
victims, offenders and communities. This process is a departure from the traditional
retributive form of dealing with criminals and victims which traditionally have
generally perpetuated the conflict which resulted in the original crime.
15. “Victim Trauma” includes emotional and physical experiences that produce pain
and injuries. Emotional injury is a normal response to an extremely abnormal event.
It results from the pairing of a painful or frightening emotional experience with a
specific memory which emerge and have a long-lasting effect on the life of a person.
The more direct the exposure to the traumatic event, the higher the risk for
emotional harm and prolonged effects.
16. “Crisis Intervention” is the provision of emergency psychological care to
traumatized victims so as to help them return to an adaptive level of functioning and
to prevent or mitigate the negative impact of psychological and emotional trauma.
17. “Compensation” is a formal administrative procedure provided by law which
provides only money to victims for “out of pocket” real expenses directly resulting
from the victimization to be paid by the state after the victim is found to qualify
according to specific criteria determined by the respective state or federal law.
18. “Restitution” is a formal judicial procedure used by a judge after guilt is determined
as part of a sentence which can provide money and/or services to the victim for
damages or suffering which resulted from the victimization to be paid or performed
by the offender.
19. “Victim Survey” is a periodic data collection and analysis process conducted usually
by a government entity within the general population to study information about
crime victims regardless whether they reported their victimization to the police or
not. It typically uses a face-to-face or telephone interview (or sent questionnaire)
and covers demographics, attitudes about crime and details about the victimizations
experienced over the previous six months.
20. “Victim Rights” are privileges and procedures required by written law which
guarantee victims specific considerations and treatment by the criminal justice
system, the government and the community at large.
