CELL – STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

INTRODUCTION
All organisms are composed of structural and functional units of life called ‘cells’. The body
of some organisms like bacteria, protozoans and some algae is made up of a single cell while
the body of fungi, plants and animals are composed of many cells. Human body is built of
about one trillion cells. Cells vary in size and structure as they are specialized to perform
different functions. But the basic components of the cell are common to all cells. This lesson
deals with the structure common to all types of the cell.

OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you will be able to :
_ justify that cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all organisms;
_ list the components of the cell and state cell theory;
_ differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells;
_ differentiate between plant and animal cells;
_ illustrate the structure of plant and animal cells by drawing labelled diagrams;
_ describe the structure and functions of plasma membrane, cell wall, endoplasmic
reticulum (ER), cilia, flagella, nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, chloroplasts,
golgi body, peroxisome, glyoxysome and lysosome;
_ describe the general importance of the cell molecules-water, mineral ions,
carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, proteins, nucleotides, nucleic acids, enzymes,
vitamins, hormones, steroids and alkaloids;

THE CELL AND CELL THEORY

Landmarks in cell study
Soon after Anton van Leewenhock invented the microscope, Robert Hooke in 1665 observed
a piece of cork under the microscope and found it to be made of small compartments which
he called “cells” (Latin cell = small room). In 1672, Leewenhock observed bacteria, sperm
and red blood corpuscles, all of which were cells. In 1831, Robert Brown, an Englishman
observed that all cells had a centrally positioned body which he termed the nucleus.

The cell theory

In 1838 M.J. Schleiden and Theodore Schwann formulated the “cell theory.” The cell theory
maintains that
_ all organisms are composed of cells.
_ cell is the structural and functional unit of life, and
_ cells arise from pre-existing cells.

The cells vary considerably, in shape and size. Nerve cells of animals have long extensions.
They can be several feet in length. Muscle cells are elongated in shape. Egg of the ostrich is
the largest cell (75 mm). Some plant cells have thick walls. There is also wide variation in the
number of cells in different organisms.

The Cell
A cell may be defined as a unit of protoplasm bounded by a plasma or cell membrane and
possessing a nucleus. Protoplasm is the life giving substance and includes the cytoplasm and
the nucleus. The cytoplasm has in it organelles such as ribosomes, mitochondria, golgi
bodies plastids, lysosomes and endoplasmic reticulum. Plant cells have in their cytoplasm
large vacuoles containing non-living inclusions like crystals, pigments etc. The bacteria have
neither organelles nor a well formed nucleus. But every cell has three major components
_ plasma membrane
_ cytoplasm
_ DNA (naked in bacteria and covered by a membrane in all other organisms

Two basic types of cells

Cytologists recognize two basic types of cells. Organisms which do not possess a well
formed nucleus are prokaryotes such as the bacteria. All others possess a well-defined
nucleus, covered by a nuclear envelope. They are eukaryotes.

Differences between Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cell (Pro = early/primitive) Eukaryotic cell (eu = true, karyon = nucleus)

Nucleus not distinct, it is in the form nuclear Nucleus distinct, with well formed
membrane. of nuclear zone ‘nucleoid’. Nuclear
membrane absent.

DNA is circular and lies free in the cytoplasm DNA is linear and contained in the nucleus

DNA is naked DNA is associated with proteins

Single-membraned cell bodies like mesosomes Double-membraned cell organelles (Chloroplasts,

present. Endoplasmic and Golgi body absent. mitochondria nucleus). single membraned (Golgi
apparatus, reticulum and lysosomes vacuole
endoplasm reticulum) are present

Ribosomes - 70 S Ribosomes - 80 S

No compartments. Distinct compartments in the cell i.e. the cytoplasm

and the nucleus

Mainly unicellular Mainly multicellular except in Protista many of which

are unicellular

Cell division mainly binary fission, no spindle formed Mitosis, meiosis or both, spindle formed

Svedberg unit
When the cell is fractionated or broken down into its components by rotating in an
ultracentrifuge at different speeds the ribosomes of eukaryotic and prokaryotic sediment
(settle down) at different speeds. The coefficient of sedimentation is represented in Svedberg
unit and depicted as S.

Table: Differences between plant cell and animal cell

Plant cell Animal cell

1. Cellulose cell wall present around cell 1. No cell wall.

membrane.

2. Vacuoles are usually large. 2. Generally vacuoles are absent and if

present, are usually small..

3. Plastids present. 3. Plastids absent.

4. Golgi body present in the form of units 4. Golgi body well developed.

known as dictyosomes.

5. Centriole absent. 5. Centriole present.

Fig. Generalised plant cell Fig. Generalised animal cell

QUESTIONS
1. From where do new cells arise?
............................................................................................................................
2. Name the scientists who proposed the cell theory.
............................................................................................................................
3. Name an organelle which a plant cell has but an animal cell does not.
............................................................................................................................
4. Give two points of difference between a prokaryotic cell and a eukaryotic cell
............................................................................................................................

COMPONENTS OF THE CELL

The major components of the cell are (1) cell membrane, (2) cytoplasm, and (3)
nucleus / nucleoid(genetic material).

Cell membrane (Plasma membrane)

Each cell has a limiting boundary, the cell membrane, plasma membrane or plasmalemma. It
is a living membrane, outermost in animal cells but next to cell wall in plant cells. It is
flexible and can fold in (as in food vacuoles of Amoeba) or fold out (as in the formation of
pseudopodia of Amoeba). The plasma membrane is made of proteins and lipids and several
models were proposed regarding the arrangement of proteins and lipids. The fluid mosaic
model proposed by Singer and Nicholson (1972) is widely accepted.

According to the fluid mosaic model,

(i) The plasma membrane is composed of a lipid bilayer of phospholipid molecules into
which a variety of globular proteins are embedded.
(ii) Each phospholipid molecule has two ends, an outer head hydrophilic i.e. water attracting,
and the inner tail pointing centrally hydrophobic, i.e. water repelling
(iii) The protein molecules are arranged in two different ways:
(a) Peripheral proteins or extrinsic proteins: these proteins are present on the
outer and inner surfaces of lipid bilayer.
(b) Integral proteins or intrinsic proteins: These proteins penetrate lipid
bilayer partially or wholly.

Functions
(i) The plasma membrane encloses the cell contents.
(ii) It provides cell shape (in animal cells) e.g. the characteristic shape of red blood
cells, nerve cells, bone cells, etc
(iii) It allows transport of certain substances into and out of the cell but not all substance, so it
is termed selectively permeable. Transport of small molecules (such as glucose, amino acids,
water, mineral ions etc).

Small molecules can be transported across the plasma membrane by any one of
the following three methods:
(i) Diffusion : molecules of substances move from their region of higher concentration to
their region of lower concentration. This does not require energy. Example : absorption of
glucose in a cell.
(ii) Osmosis : movement of water molecules from the region of their higher concentration to
the region of their lower concentration through a semipermeable membrane. There is no
expenditure of energy in osmosis. This kind of movement is along concentration gradient.
(iii) Active Transport : When the direction of movement of a certain molecules is opposite
that of diffusion i.e. from region of their lower concentration towards the region of their
higher concentration, it would require an “active effort” by the cell for which energy is
needed. This energy is provided by ATP (adenosine triphosphate). The active transport may
also be through a carrier molecule.
Transport of large molecules (bulk transport)
During bulk transport the membrane changes its form and shape. It occurs in two
ways:
(i) Endocytosis (taking the substance in)
Phagocytosis
a. intake of solid particles
b. membrane folds outgoing round the particle, forming a cavity and thus engulfing
the particle

Pinocytosis
a. intake of fluid droplets
 b. membrane folds in and forms a cup like structure sucks in the droplets
(ii) exocytosis (passing the substance out)

Cell membrane regulates movement of substance into and out of the cell. If the
cell membrane fails to function normally the cell dies.

Cell wall
In bacteria and plant cells the outermost cell cover, present outside the plasma membrane is
the cell wall . Bacterial cell wall is made of peptidoglycan.

(a) Structure of plant cell wall

– Outermost non-living, layer present in all plant cells.
– Secreted by the cell itself.
– In plant, made of cellulose but may also contain other chemical substance such as pectin
and lignin.
– The substance constituting the cell is not simply homogenous but it consists of fine threads
or fibres called microfibrils.
– It may be thin (1 micron) and transparent as in the cells of onion peel. In some cases it is
very thick as in the cells of wood.

(b) Functions
– The cell wall protects the delicate inner parts of the cell.
– Being rigid, it gives shape to the cell.
– Being rigid, it does not allow distension of the cell, thus leading to turgidity of the cell that
is useful in many ways
– It freely allows the passage of water and other chemicals into and out of the
cells
– There are breaks in the primary wall of the adjacent cells through which cytoplasm of one
cell remains connected with the other. These cytoplasmic strands which connect one cell to
the other one are known as plasmodesmata.
– Walls of two adjacent cells are firmly joined by a cementing material called middle
lamella made of calcium pectate.

QUESTIONS
1. Define diffusion and osmosis.
............................................................................................................................
2. What does active transport mean?
............................................................................................................................
3. Give one point of difference between phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
............................................................................................................................
4. Match the following:

(i) hydrophilic end (a) cell wall

(ii) microfibrils (b) inner ends of lipids
(iii) fluid-mosaic model (c) fluid droplets
(iv) hydrophobic end (d) outer ends of lipids
(v) pinocytosis (e) Nicolson and Singer

5. Give two functions of the plant cell wall.

(i) ................................................... (ii) ......................................................
THE CYTOPLASM AND THE CELL ORGANELLES
The cytoplasm contains many cell organelles of which we shall learn about:
1. those that trap and release energy e.g. mitochondria and chloroplasts;
2. those that are secretory or involved in synthesis and transport e.g. Golgi, ribosomes and
endoplasmic reticulum
3. the organelles for motilily - cilia and flagella
4. the suicidal bags i.e. lysosomes
5. the nucleus which controls all activities of the cell, and carries the hereditary material

Mitochondria and chloroplast - the energy transformers

Mitochondria (found in plant and animal cells) are the energy releasers and the chloroplasts
(found only in green plant cells) are the energy trappers.
Mitochondria (Singular = mitochondrion)
Appear as tiny thread like structure under light microscope. Approximately 0.5 - 1.00µm
(micrometer). Number usually a few hundred to a few thousand per cell (smallest number is
just one as in an alga (Micromonas)).

Structure: The general plan of the internal structure of a mitochondrion observed by means
of electron microscope is shown.
Note:
– Wall made of double membrane
– The inner membrane is folded inside to form projections called cristae which project into
the inner compartment called matrix.
Function : Oxidises pyruvic acid (breakdown product of glucose) to release energy which
gets stored in the form of ATP for ready use. This process is also called cellular respiration.
In cytoplasm, glucose (containing 6 atoms of carbon) enters cells, and it is broken into two
Pyruvic acid molecules (containing 3atoms of carbon), which moves into the mitochondria
where it is oxidised into CO2, H2O and ATP

Plastids
Plastids are found only in plant cell. They may be colourless or with colour. Based on this
fact, there are three types of plastids.
(i) Leucoplast-white or colourless
(ii) Chromoplast – blue, red, yellow etc.
(iii) Chloroplast – green

Chloroplast
-Found in all green plant cells in the cytoplasm.
-Number 1 to 1008
-Shape: Usually disc-shaped or spherical as in most plants around you. In some ribbon -
shaped as in an alga spirogyra or cup - shaped as in another alga Chlamydomonas.

Structure: the general plan of the structure of a single chloroplast is shown

Note the following parts :

-Wall made of double membrane i.e. outer membrane and inner membrane numerous stack-
like (piles) groups or grana (singular = granum) are interconnected by lamellae.
-Sac like structures called thylakoids Placed one above the other constitute granum.
- Inside of the chloroplast is filled with a fluid medium calleds stoma.
- Function: chloroplasts are the seat of photosynthesis (production of sugar, from carbon-
dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight).

Chloroplast versus mitochondria

Can you now visualize how these two organelles are opposite to each other, one traps the
solar energy locking it in a complex molecule (by photosynthesis), the other releases the
energy by breaking the complex molecule (by respiration).

Similarities between mitochondria and chloroplasts

Both contain their own DNA (the genetic material) as well as their own RNA (for protein
synthesis). Thus, they can self-duplicate to produce more of their own kind without the help
of nucleus.
Since chloroplasts and mitochondria contain their own DNA the hereditary molecule and also
their own ribosomes, they are termed semi-autonomous only because they are incapable of
independent existence though they have ribosomes and DNA.

QUESTIONS
1. What is a cell organelle?
............................................................................................................................
2. Name the chemical which provides energy trapped in its bonds to the cell.
............................................................................................................................
3. Which part of the chloroplasts is the site of light reaction?
............................................................................................................................
4. Name the sac like structure which form the grana?
............................................................................................................................
5. Why is mitochondria called the “energy currency” of the cell?
............................................................................................................................
6. Which organelle contains enzymes for cellular respiration?
............................................................................................................................
7. State two similarities between mitochondria and chloroplast.
............................................................................................................................
8. Which plastids impart colour to flower petals?
............................................................................................................................
9. Which plastid is green in colour?
............................................................................................................................
10. Why are mitochondria and Chloroplast called semi-autonomous?
............................................................................................................................

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), golgi body and ribosomes

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi body are single membrane bound structures. The
membrane has the same structure (lipid-protein) as the plasma membrane but ribosomes do
not have membranes Ribosomes are involved in synthesis of substances in the cell, Golgi
bodies in secreting and the ER in transporting and storing the products. These three
organelles operate together.
Fig. Golgi body under an electron Fig. ER under an electron microscope.
Note the ribosomes present in ER.

Endoplasmic reticulum Ribosomes Golgi body

(ER)
Structure
A network of membranes with Spherical about 150 - 250Å in Is a stack of membranous sacs of
thickness between 50 - 60A°. It is diameter, made up of large the same thickness as ER. Exhibit
of two types– rough endoplasmic molecules of RNA and proteins great diversity in size and shape.
reticulum (RER) i.e. when (ribonucleo proteins).
ribosomes are attached to it and
Smooth-endo-plasmic reticulum
(SER) when no ribosomes are
present.

Throughout the cytoplasm and is in Present either as free particles in In animal cells present around the
contact with the cell membrane as cytoplasm or attached to ER. Also nucleus, 3 to 7 in number. In plant
well as the nuclear membrane. found stored in nucleolus inside the cells, many and present scattered
nucleus. 80S types found in throughout the cell called
eukaryotes and 70S in prokaryotes dictyosomes.
(Ssvedberg unit of measuring
ribosomes).

Function
Provides internal framework, Site for protein synthesis. Synthesis and secretion as
compartment and reaction surfaces, enzymes, participates in
transports enzymes and other transformation of membranes to
materials throughout the cell. RER give rise to other membrane
is the site for protein synthesis and structure such as lysosome,
SER for steroid synthesis, stores acrosome, and dictyosomes,
carbohydrates. synthesize wall element like pectin,
mucilage.

QUESTIONS. Given below is a list of functions, relate them to their respective organelles:
(a) synthesis of some enzymes .....................................
(b) synthesis of steroids .....................................
(c) storage of carbohydrates .....................................
(d) Intracellular transport .....................................
(e) Synthesis of proteins .....................................
2. Name the equivalent structure of Golgi body in plants. Mention two differences
between their structures.
(i) ………………………....…. (ii) ………….....................…………
3. Mention any two advantages of the extensive network of endoplasmic reticulum?
(i) …………………………….. (ii) ……………….....………………
4. What are the three places where ribosomes occur in a cell?
............................................................................................................................
5. Name the membrane system that connects the nuclear membrane with the cell
membrane?
............................................................................................................................

The microbodies (tiny but important)

These are small sac-like structures bounded by their membranes. These are of different kinds
of which we will take up three like lysosomes, peroxisomes and glyoxysomes.

Lysosomes (lysis = breaking down; soma = body)

Lysosomes are present in almost all animal cells and some non - green plant cells. They
perform intracellular digestion.

Some main features of lysosomes are as follows :

(i) Membranous sacs budded off from golgi body.
(ii) May be in hundreds in single cell.
(iii) Contain several enzymes (about 40 in number)
(iv) Materials to be acted upon by enzymes enter the lysosomes.
(v) Lysosomes are called “suicidal bags” as enzymes contained in them can digest the cell’s
own material when damaged or dead.

Importance of intracellular digestion by the lysosomes

(i) help in nutrition of the cell by digesting food, as they are rich in various
enzymes which enable them to digest almost all major chemical constituents
of the living cell.
(ii) Help in defence by digesting germs, as in white blood cells.
(iii) Help in cleaning up the cell by digesting damaged material of the cell.
(iv) Provide energy during cell starvation by digestion of the cells own parts (autophagic,
auto : self; phagos: eat up).
(v) Help sperm cells in entering the egg by breaking through (digesting) the egg membrane.
(vi) In plant cells, mature xylem cells lose all cellular contents by lysosome activity.
(vii) When cells are old, diseased or injured, lysosomes attack their cell organelles and digest
them. In other words lysosomes are autophagic, i.e. self-devouring.

Peroxisomes
Found both in plant and animal cells. Found in the green leaves of higher plants.
• They participate in oxidation of substrates resulting in the formation of hydrogen
peroxide.
• They often contain a central core of crystalline material called nucleoid composed of
urate oxidase crystals.
• These bodies are mostly spherical or ovoid and about the size of mitochondria and
lysosomes.
• They are usually closely associated with E.R.
• They are involved in photorespiration in plant cells.
• They bring about fat metabolism in cells.

Glyoxysomes
The microbodies present in plant cells and morphologically similar to peroxisomes.
Found in the cell of yeast and certain fungi and oil rich seeds in plants.
Functionally they contain enzyme of fatty acid metabolism involved in the conversion of
lipids to carbohydrates during germination.

QUESTIONS
1. Why are lysosomes called suicidal bags?
............................................................................................................................
2. List the usefulness of intracellular digestion by lysosomes
............................................................................................................................
3. What is the function of peroxisomes in plant cells
............................................................................................................................

Cilia and flagella (the organelles for mobility)

(i) Some unicellular organisms like Paramecium and Euglena swim in water with the help of
cilia and flagella respectively.
(ii) In multicellular organism some living tissues (epithelial tissues) have cilia. They beat and
create a current in the fluid in order to move in a given direction e.g. in the wind pipe
(trachea) to push out the mucus and dust particles.
(iii) Cilia beat like tiny oars or pedals (as in a boat) and flagella bring about whip-like lashing
movement.
(iv) Both are made up of contractile protein tubulin in the form of microtubules.
(v) The arrangement of the microtubules in termed 9 + 2, that is, two central microtubules
and nine set surrounding them.
Cilia Flagella
shorter (5 to 10µm) longer (15µm)

several 100 per cell structure : protoplasmic usually 1 or 2 in most cells

projection and membrane bound

consist of 9 sets of peripheral microtubules same as in cilia

and 1 set of tubules in the centre

Centriole
It is present in all animal cells (but not in Amoeba), located just outside the nucleus.
It is cylindrical, 0.5µm in length and without a membrane. It has 9 sets of peripheral tubules
but none in the centre. Each set has three tubules arranged at definite angles. It has its own
DNA and RNA and therefore it is self-duplicating.

Function : Centrioles are involved in cell division. They give orientation to the ‘mitotic
spindle’ which forms during cell division

Basal bodies
These are structures similar to centrioles. They have the same nine sets of triplet organization,
as in the centrioles. The cilia and flagella appear to arise from the basal bodies.

NUCLEUS (THE HEREDITARY ORGANELLE)

General structure of nucleus :
(i) It is the largest organelle seen clearly when the cell is not dividing.
(ii) It stains deeply, is mostly spherical, WBC have lobed nuclei.
(iii) It is mostly one in each cell (uninucleate, some cells have many nuclei; (multinucleate).
(v) Double layered nuclear membrane enclosing nucleoplasm which contains chromatin
network and a nucleolus.
Functions
Maintains the cell in a working order.
Co-ordinates the activities of organelles.
Takes care of repair work.
Participates directly in cell division to produce genetically identical daughter cells, this
division is called mitosis.
Participates in production of gametes through another type of cell division called meiosis.

The part of a nucleus includes:

1. Nuclear membrane
➢ Double layered membrane is interrupted by large number of pores.
➢ Membrane is made up of lipids and proteins (like plasma membrane) and has
ribosomes attached on the outer membrane which make the outer membrane rough.
➢ The pores allow the transport of large molecules in and out of nucleus, and the
membranes keep the hereditary material in contact with the rest of the cell.
2. Chromatin
➢ Within the nuclear membrane there is jelly like substance (karyolymph or
nucleoplasm) rich in proteins.
➢ In the karyolymph, fibrillar structures form a network called chromatin fibrils, which
gets condensed to form distinct bodies called chromosomes during cell division. On
staining the chromosomes, two regions can be identified in the chromatin material
heterochromatin dark and autromaticn (light). Heterochromatin has less DNA and
genetically less active than euchromatin which has more DNA and genetically more
active.

➢ Number of chromosomes is fixed in an organism. During cell division chromosomes

divide in a manner that the daughter cells receive identical amounts of hereditary
matter.
3. Nucleolus
➢ Membraneless, spheroidal bodies present in all eukaryotic cells except in sperms and
in some algae.
➢ Their number varies from one to few, they stain uniformly and deeply.
➢ It has DNA, RNA and proteins.
➢ Store house for RNA and proteins; it disappears during cell division and reappears in
daughter cells.
➢ Regulates the synthetic activity of the nucleus.
➢ Thus nucleus and cytoplasm are interdependent, and this process is equal to nucleo-
cytopalsmic interaction.

QUESTIONS
1. Why cannot the cell survive without the nucleus?
............................................................................................................................
2. Explain the following terms:
(a) chromatin network...... ................................................................................
(b) chromosomes .............................................................................................
3. What is the function of the nucleolus in the cell?
............................................................................................................................

MOLECULES OF THE CELL

The cell and its organelles are made of organic chemicals such as proteins, carbohydrates,
nucleic acid and fats. These are aptly termed biomolecules. Inorganic molecules such as
water and minerals are also present in the cell.

A. Water
• Water with unique physical and chemical properties has made life possible on earth.
• It is a major constituent of protoplasm.
• It is a medium in which many metabolic reactions occur.
• It is universal solvent in which most substances remain dissolved.
• It is responsible for turgidity of cells.

B. Elements necessary for life

Elements Functions
Hydrogen, Carbon, Oxygen, 1. Required for organic
Nitrogen, Calcium, compounds of the cell and
Potassium, Sodium, present as major constituents.
Magnesium, Phosphorous, (C, H, O, N as organic
Sulphur, Chlorine, Iron, compounds in plant cell wall)
Boron, Silicon, Manganese,
Copper, Zinc, Cobalt, 2. Act as major cations (Na,
Molybdenum, Silicon K) and anions (Cl) in most
physiological process.

3. As cofactor of enzymes
participate in most of the
biochemical reaction of a cell
(Fe, Cu, Mo, Zn, B)

4. Involved in energy transfer

reactions (P in ATP).

5. Green pigment chlorophyll

in plants have magnesium in
the centre.

C. Biomolecules
Structure Functions
1. Composed of C, H and O 1. Most abundant organic substance
present in nature in the form of cellulose
CARBOHYDRATE

in plant cell wall.

2. Simple six carbon sugar (glucose) is
called a Monosaccharide. 2. In both plants and animals it is used as
a source of energy (sugar).
3. Two molecules or units join together
to form disaccharide (sucrose). 3. An important storage form in plants is
starch and in animals it is glycogen.
4. More than ten units of
monosaccharides join in a chain to form 4. Present in nucleic acids as five carbon
a polysaccharide e.g. starch surgar (Ribose).
and cellulose.
1. Basic amino acid structure shows that 1. Plants have the ability to utilize
the central carbon atom is attached with inorganic nitrogen and synthesize amino
an amino group (–NH2), a carboxylic acid.
Amino acid

acid group
(–COOH), one hydrogen and one side
group (R).
2. In animals principal source of amino
2. There are 20 different side groups acid is the plant or animals that it
which give 20 different amino acids. consumes in its diet (pulses are rich in
protein).
 1. Composed of C, H, O and N. 1. Structurally proteins form integral
part
2. Amino acids join together by of the membranes
“peptide” bonds to form protein 2. Functionally in the form of enzymes
molecules. they play a vital role in metabolic
3.Twenty different amino acids make reactions.
Proteins

numerous simple and complex protein. 3. Synthesis of DNA is regulated by

4. Based on the complexity of structure proteins.
they can have primary, secondary,
tertiary and quaternary 4. Proteins are so important that nucleic
structures. acids directly regulates protein synthesis
5. When proteins exist with other
molecules they are known as
conjugated proteins e.g. glycoprotein,
lipoprotein, chromoprotein etc.
1. They are of two types: Deoxyribose 1. DNA is the main genetic material for
nucleic acid (DNA) and Ribosose almost all organisms except certain
Nucleic Acids

nucleic acid (RNA) viruses.

2. They are long chain polymers 2. RNA molecules are involved in
composed of units called nucleotides. information transfer and protein
3. Each nucleotide has pentose sugar, synthesis.
nitrogen base and phosphate group.
4. DNA has one oxygen less in its sugar
molecule.
1. Composed of C, H, O. Amount of 1. Due to their low oxygen content, they
oxygen is very less. store and release more energy during
oxidation
2. They are synthesized from fatty acids 2. A molecule of fat can yield twice as
Lipids

and glycerol. Simple lipids are called much energy as from carbohydrate.
glycerides. 3. Phospholipids are important
3. Fats can be saturated or unsaturated. component of cell membranes.
4. Fats are solid at room temperature,
those that remain liquid at room
temperature are called oils.
1. Vitamins are organic compounds 1. Vitamins (from plant) are essential
required in the diet of animals for their nutrients in animals diet as animals
healthy growth. cannot synthesise such compounds.
2. Vitamins are classified according to 2. Their deficiency cause various
their solubility into two groups : Water diseases in animal, like deficiency of
Vitamins

soluble vitamin B and ascorbic acid and vitamin B causes“beri-beri” and that of
fat soluble vitamins (viz. A, D, E, K) vitamin C causes scurvy.
3. Plants have the ability to synthesize 3. Vitamin A present in carotene
vitamines from CO2, NH3 and H2S. pigment of carrot. Vitamin D can be
produced by man with the help of
sunlight. Vitamin K produced by
bacteria in human intestine.
 1.Hormones are specific organic 1. In animals hormones are produced in
substances effective in low concen- glands called endocrine glands which
trations, synthesized by cells in one part control all biochemical activities of the
of the organism and then transported to organism
another part of the organism, where it 2. In animals hormones may be proteins,
Hormone

produces characteristic physiological peptides or steroids.

responses.
3.In plants hormones (growth regulators)
are generally produced in metabolically
active cells and control the vegetitive
and reproductive growth of the entire
plant.

1. Alkaloids are complex organic 1. The

active principles of drugs from
compounds made of C, H, O medicinal
plants are generally
Alkaloids

and N. alkaloids e.g. Quinine from

cinehona
plant. Ephedrine from Ephedra
Morphine from poppy plants
2. Alkaloid in plants are produced
from amino acids.

1. These are fat soluble lipid

compounds synthesized from
cholesterol.
2. They are produced by the
Steroids

reproductive organs like ovaries,

testes and placenta and also by
adrenal glands.
3. They include testosterone, estrogen,
cortisol etc.

QUESTIONS
1. What is the importance of water in a living cell.
............................................................................................................................
2. What is the basic molecule in starch?
............................................................................................................................
3. What is a peptide bond and where do you find it?
............................................................................................................................
4. Which is the most energy containing biomolecule in living organisms?
............................................................................................................................
5. What are nucleotides?
............................................................................................................................