INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY surroundings

"Biology" ● Next, ask questions about the

Bios = life phenomena we are observing.
Logos = study ● Followed by generating a hypothesis.
Hypothesis - Tentative explanation to the
question.
Biology is one of the sciences takes Us: ● Testing
● Into a variety of environments to ● It is a hypothesis that has passed
investigate ecosystems the widest and most
● To the laboratory to examine how comprehensive series of
organisms work tests.
● Into the microscopic world to ● Still subject to review and
explore cells and the consideration.
submicroscopic to explore ● May be elevated to a theory Theory
molecules in cells - well demonstrated principle.
● Back in time to investigate the
HIERARCHICAL LEVELS OF LIFE
history of life

● Atoms
Why Study Biology?
● Molecules invisible
Biology is relevant to our everyday experience
● Organelles
● Medical advances ● Cells
● Addressing needs of growing
human population ● Tissues & Organs
● Challenges of decreasing rate of ● Organisms
biodiversity ● Populations visible
● Biotechnology advances ● Communities
● Ecosystems & Biosphere
What is Life?
Living organisms: BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
● Zoology - the study of animals
● Grow ● Ichthyology - the study of fish
● Maintain constant internal Why important? Fish are indicator species.
environment Alerthuman to potential environmental problems
● Produce offspring ● Mammalogy - study of mammals
● Respond to environmental ● Ornithology- the study of birds
changes may evolve Why important? DDT (insecticide used in '50s and
'60s) Birds of prey #s declined
Major Themes in Biology *Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (insecticide)
bioaccumulation- the buildup of chemicals or toxins
● Evolution by Natural Selection in living things
● Inheritance ● Botany - the study of plants
● Cells Why important? Food production, medicines
● Biological Classification ● Microbiology - study of small life
● Bioenergetics Why important? Medicines, bioterrorism
● Homeostasis ● Anatomy - study of an organism's
● Ecosystems parts
● Physiology - study of how
How is Biology studied? organism's parts work
SCIENTIFIC METHOD Why important? Health professions and
veterinarians
● Entomology - study of insects
● Begins with observing about our
Why important? West Nile virus, Yellow ● Microscopic (mostly)
fever- carried by mosquitoes ● Measured in microns um (micrometers).
● Genetics - study of heredity and ● 1 um=0.000001m
genetic ● Mycoplasma genitalium = Smallest free-
material (DNA/RNA, chromosomes, genes) living cell (Size = 0.2 to 0.3 um)
Why important? Cloning, research and solving crime ● Bacteria e.g. Escherichia coli (aka E.coli)
● Ecology - study of all life in a (Size = 1 um by 3 um)
particular area, the relationships ● Human red blood cell = 8 um in diameter
between those life forms and the ● ovum = Largest cell on the human body
environment (Size = 1000 um in diameter (1 mm))
● sperm cell = Smallest cell in the human
Why important? Overpopulation Ozone
body
Depletion/Greenhouse Effect Rainforest Destruction
● Amoeba proteus =Largest cell with a
Pollution - other states pay to dump garbage in PA
Metabolism (Size=1-5 mm in length)
● Cell Biology - the study of cells
common name = Giant Amoeba
● yolk of an ostrich egg = Largest cell
Aristotle (Greek)
● (1st bio. teacher)
Some random cell facts
● "Father of Biology and Zoology"
Supported spontaneous generation theory
● Created a theory of the elements 4; Earth, ● The average human being is composed
Air, Water and Fire of around 100 Trillion individual cells!!!
● Ist person to start classifying organisms ● It would take as many as 50 cells to cover
the area of a dot on the letter "i"
Hippocrates (Greek)
● "Father of Medicine"
● Hippocratic Oath for doctors DISCOVERY OF CELLS
Leeuwenhoek (Dutch)
● His hobby was lens grinding Robert Hooke (1665)
● He did NOT invent the microscope, he ● English Scientist, Robert Hooke, discovered
perfected microscope lenses cells while looking at a thin slice of cork.
● He was the first person to see; Bacteria, ● He described the cells as tiny boxes or a
Protozoans, Red blood cells,and Sperm cells honeycomb
● He did NOT support spontaneous generation ● He thought that cells only existed in plants
and fungi
Lister (British)
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1673)
● Hospital conditions were dirty & infectious
● Used a handmade microscope to observe
* Used phenol as a disinfectant
pond scum & discovered single-celled
● "Father of Aseptic Surgery"
organisms
Fleming (British) ● He called them "animalcules"
● Accidentally discovered first antibiotic ● He also observed blood cells from fish,
(penicillin) birds, frogs, dogs, and humans
● Therefore, it was known that cells are
found in animals as well as plants

150 - 200 YEARS GAP

● Between the Hooke/Leeuwenhoek

discoveries and the mid-19th century, very
little cell advancements were made.
● This is probably due to the widely accepted,
traditional belief in spontaneous Generation.
● Examples: Mice from dirty clothes/corn
husks
 ● Much doubt existed around Spontaneous
statement of the cell
Generation
theory)
● Conclusively disproved by Louis Pasteur

DEVELOPMENT OF CELLTHEORY Anton Van referred to living cells

Leeuwenhoek called animalcules
● 1838 - German Botanist, Matthias (plant & animal) after
Schleiden, concluded that all plant parts observing a drop of
are made of cells pond water
● 1839- German physiologist, Theodor
Schwann, who was a close friend of Rudolf Virchow stated all cells come
Schleiden, stated that all animal tissues from preexisting cells
are composed of cells. (2nd statement of the
● 1858- Rudolf Virchow, German physician, cell theory)
after extensive study of cellular pathology,
concluded that cells must arise from
preexisting cells. HOW WAS THE CELL THEORY BEEN
USED?
CELL THEORY
There are 3 major parts of the cell theory: ● Disease/Health/Medical Research
and Cures (AIDS, Cancer, Vaccines,
1. All organisms are made of cells. (Schleiden& Cloning, Stem Cell Research, etc.)
Schwann)(1838-39)
2. All existing cells are produced by other living Cells
cells. (Schleiden& Schwann) (1838-39) ● Smallest living unit
3. The cell is the most basic unit of life. ● Most are microscopic
(Virchow) (1858)
three parts were discovered between 1665 - 1838. DISCOVERY OF CELLS
Key Note: It took over 173 years for the cell theory to
be formulated
Robert Hooke (mid-1600s)
● Observed cork
CONTRIBUTORS
● Saw "row of empty boxes"
There are 5 contributors to the cell theory:
● Coined the term "cell"

1. Robert Hooke
CELL THEORY
2. Anton van Leeuwenhoek
● a scientific theory which describes the
3. Matthias Schleiden
properties of cells.
4. Theodor Schwann
● (1839) Theodor Schwann & Matthias
5. Rudolf Virchow
Schleiden
● " all living things are made of cells" "smallest
EYE-CATCHERS living unit of structure and function of all
organisms is the cell"
Robert Hooke came up with the name ● (50 yrs. later) Rudolf Virchow
cells "all cells come from cells"

CHARACTERISTICS OF ALL CELLS

● A surrounding membrane
Matthias Schleiden projected plant cells are ● Protoplasm - cell contents in thick fluid
made of cells ● Structures for cell function
● Control center with DNA
Theodor Schwann determined all animals
remade of cells (Ist
REPRESENTATIVE ANIMAL CELL CELL WALL DIFFERENCES

● Plants - cellulose
● Fungi - contain chitin

CYTOPLASM

● Viscous fluid containing organelles

● components of cytoplasm
- Interconnected filaments & fibers
- Fluid = cytosol
REPRESENTATIVE PLANT CELL
- storage substances

CYTOSKELETON

● These structures give the cell its shape and

help organize thecell's parts. In addition,
theyprovide a basis for movementand cell
division.
● Filaments & fibers
● Made of 3 fiber types:
- Microfilaments
- Microtubules
- Intermediate filaments
ORGANELLES
● 3 functions:
- mechanical support
● Little organs that carry out specialized
- anchor organelles
functions
- help move substances
● Cellular machinery
CILIA & FLAGELLA
PLASMA MEMBRANE
● Provide motility
● Separates the cytoplasm from the cell's
● Used to move substances outside human
surroundings. The cell's surface also
cells
transports substances into and out of the
cell.
FLAGELLA
● Contains cell contents
● Double layer of phospholipids & proteins
● Whip-like extensions
● Found on sperm cells
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
CENTRIOLES
● class of lipids that are a major component
of all cell membranes.
● Pairs of microtubular structures
● Hydrophilic head (Interacts with water)
● Play a role in cell division
● Hydrophobic tail
NUCLEUS
CELL WALLS
● Control center of cell
● This outer covering is positioned next to
● Double membrane
the cell membrane (plasma membrane) in
● Contains; Chromosomes
most plant cells, fungi, bacteria, algae,.
● Found in plants, fungi, & many protists
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
● Surrounds plasma membrane
● Separates nucleus from rest of cell
 ● Double membrane ● Packaging & shipping station of cell
● Has pores
LYSOSOMES
DNA
● organelles that are filled
● Hereditary material ● with digestive enzymes
● Chromosomes ● to remove waste and
- DNA ● invading bacteria
- Proteins ● Functions
● Chromatin - Aid in cell renewal
- Break down old cell parts
NUCLEOLUS - Digests invaders

● Contained within the nucleus is a dense VACUOLES

structure composed of RNA and proteins
● Forms ribosomes ● fluid filled organelles
● enclosed by a membrane
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM ● Store materials such as food, sugar, water,
and waste products
● Helps move substances within cells ● Membrane bound storage sacs
● Network of interconnected membranes ● More common in plants than animals
● Two types
- Rough endoplasmic reticulum MITOCHONDRIA
- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum ● often referred to as the "powerhouse" of the
cell
ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM - release energy for the cell
- It converts the energy stored in
● Ribosomes attached to surface glucose into ATP for the cell
● Manufacture proteins ● Bound by double membrane
● Not all ribosomes attached to rough ER
● May modify proteins from ribosomes CHLOROPLASTS

SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM ● captures light energy; and converts it into

chemical energy.
● No attached ribosomes ● Solar energy capturing organelle
● Has enzymes that help build molecules
- Carbohydrates PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- Lipids
● Takes place in the chloroplast
RIBOSOMES ● Makes cellular food - glucose

● an intracellular structure made of both RNA

and protein, and it is the site of protein The Discovery of Cells
synthesis in the cell.
● reads the messenger RNA (mRNA)
● PROKARYOTIC - pro (before) kary (nucleus)
sequence and translates that genetic code
● EUKARYOTIC -eu (true) kary (nucleus)
into a specified string of amino acids, which
grow into long chains that fold to form
EUKARYOTES
proteins.
● Has a nucleus with a nuclear envelope
GOLGI APPARATUS
● Bigger and more complex than prokaryotes
● Have membrane bound Organelles (golgi,
● sorts proteins made by the ribosomes and
ER, lysosomes…etc)
sends them to needed places in the cell
● DNA - double-stranded and forms
 ● chromosomes (highly organized) ● In an eukaryotic cell, chromosomes are
● Can be uni or multicellular organisms contained in a membrane-enclosed
organelle, the nucleus.
PROKARYOTES ● In a prokaryotic cell, the DNA is
concentrated in the nucleoid without a
● NO nucleus membrane separating it from the rest of
● NO membrane bound organelles (just the cell.
ribosomes)
● ALL are unicellular HOW DO THE DIFFERENCES LINE UP?
● Smaller than eukaryotic cells
● Forerunner to eukaryotic cells (smaller and
PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
more simple)
● DNA - single strand and circular
● Ex: ALL Bacteria
Genetic material floats Membrane covered
SHAPES OF PROKARYOTES in the cytoplasm (DNA genetic material
and RNA)
● Cocci = spherical (round)
● Bacillus = (rodshaped) Circular DNA Linear DNA
● Spirilla = helical (spiral)
● Vibrio = comma-shaped Unicellular May be multicellular or
unicellular
How did organelles evolve? Cells are smaller in size Cells are larger in size
many scientists theorize that eukaryotes evolved
from prokaryote ancestors. Has larger number of Has smaller number of
organisms organisms
● in 1981, Lynn Margulls popularized the
"endosymbiont theory." Appeared 4 billion years Appeared 1 billion years
Endo = inside ago ago
Symbiont = friend
Organelles Including ribosomes
ENDOSYMBIONT THEORY:
HOW DO THE SIMILARITIES LINE UP?
● a prokaryote ancestor" eats" a smaller
prokaryote the smaller prokaryotes evolved a ● Both types of cells have cell membranes
way to avoid being digested, and lives inside (outer covering of the cell)
its new "host" cell kind of like apet. ● Both types of cells have ribosomes
● the small prokaryotes that can do ● Both types of cells have DNA
photosynthesis evolve into chloroplasts, and ● Both types of cells have a liquid environment
"pay" their host with glucose. known as the cytoplasm
● The smaller prokaryotes that can do aerobic
respiration evolve into mitochondria, and TISSUE
convert the glucose into energy the cell can
use. ● Tissue is a group of cells having similar
● Both the host and the symbiont benefit from structure and function.
the relationship ● Plant and Animal Tissues

Chlorella are tiny green cells that live inside some FOUR TYPES OF ANIMAL TISSUES
amoeba... endosymbiosis may still be evolving
Today! 1. Epithelial
2. Connective
● A major difference between prokaryotic 3. Muscle
and eukaryotic cells are the location of 4. Nervous
chromosomes.
EPITHELIAL TISSUE ● Lines body cavities
1. Simple Cuboidal ● Lines lungs and capillaries
2. Simple Columnar
3. Simple Squamous ● Stratified Squamous- lines the esophagus,
4. Stratified Squamous mouth and vagina
5. Stratified Cuboidal - Protects against abrasion
6. Stratified Columnar
7. Pseudostratified Columnar ● Stratified Cuboidal
- multiple layers of cuboidal cells
EPITHELIAL TISSUE (COVERING) - sweat glands, salivary glands,mammary
glands
● Tightly-joined closely-packed cells - found in ovarian follicles
● Covers the outside of the body and lines and seminiferous tubules of the testes
the internal organs and cavities - protective tissue
● Barrier against mechanical injury, invasive
microorganisms, and fluid loss ● Stratified Columnar
● Provides surface for absorption, excretion - multiple layers of columnar cells
and transport of molecules - conjunctiva of the eye, in parts of
● Found in different areas the pharynx, anus, the uterus, and
- Body coverings the male urethra and vas deferens
- Body linings
- Glandular tissue ● Pseudostratified Columnar - single layer
● Functions of cells; for lining of respiratory tract; usually
- Protection lined with cilia (i.e., a type of cell modification
that sweeps the mucus).
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIUM - Single layer, but some cells are shorter
than others
● Number of cell layers - Often looks like a double cell layer
- Simple - one layer - Sometimes ciliated, such as in
- Stratified - more than one layer the respiratory tract
● Shape of cells - May function in absorption or secretion
- Squamous - flattened
- Cuboidal-cube-shaped CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- Columnar - column-like 1. Blood
2. Bone
CELLS THAT MAKE UP EPITHELIAL TISSUES 3. Cartilage
4. Connective tissue proper
● Simple Cuboidal-for secretion
- Single layer of cube-like cells connective tissue connects and joins the
- Common in glands and their ducts different parts of the body together. The
- Forms walls of kidney tubules cells of the connective tissue are loosely
- Covers the ovaries packed and the space between the cells
are filled with a jelly like matrix. (extracellular matrix)
● Simple Columnar-brick-shaped cells;
for secretion and active absorption 1. Blood -made up of plasma (i.e., liquid
- Single layer of tall cells extracellular matrix);
- Often includes goblet cells, which
produce mucus ● contains water, salts, and dissolved
- Lines digestive tract proteins;
● erythrocytes that carry oxygen (RBC),
● Simple Squamous - plate-like cells; for leukocytes for defense (WBC), and
exchange of material through diffusion platelets for blood clotting.
- Single layer of flat cells
- Usually forms membranes
 2. Bone- is a hard and strong tissue. It consists coming from nerve cells. In vertebrates, these
of cells which are embedded in a hard matrix muscles can be categorized into the following:
containing calcium and phosphorus
compounds. Bone forms the framework of ● Skeletal - striated; voluntary movements
the body and supports the body and the ● Cardiac - striated with intercalated disc
main organs. for synchronized heart contraction;
● mineralized connective tissue made involuntary
by bone-forming cells called ● Smooth - not striated;involuntary
osteoblasts which deposit collagen.
● The matrix of collagen is combined NERVOUS TISSUE
with calcium, magnesium, and phosphate
ions tomake the bone hard. ● Nervous Tissue -These tissues are
● Blood vessels and nerves are found at composed of nerve cells called neurons
central canal surrounded by and glial cells that function as support
concentric circles of osteons. cells. These neurons sense stimuli and
transmit electrical signals throughout the
3. Cartilage -characterized by collagenous animal body.
fibers embedded in chondroitin sulfate. ● Neurons connect to other neurons to send
● Chondrocytes are the cells that signals.
secrete collagen and chondroitin - The dendrite is the part of the neuron that
sulfate. receives impulses from other neurons
● Cartilage functions as cushion - The axon is the part where the impulse is
between bones. transmitted to other neurons.

4. Connective Tissue Proper (CTP) made up

of loose connective tissue that is found in the 1. Meristematic
skin and fibrous connective tissue that is 2. Permanent
made up of collagenous fibers found in
tendons and ligaments. MERISTEMATIC TISSUE
● Ligaments are flexible tissues which 1. Apical
join bones together and help in 2. Intercalary
movements. 3. Lateral
● Tendons are fibrous tissues which
join muscles to bones and helps Meristematic tissues are found in the growing
inmovements. regions of the plant like the tips of root, stem and
● Areolar tissues fill the space branches. They divide continuously and help in
between skin and muscles, inside the growth of the plant. They are of three types.
the organs, around blood vessels
etc. It helps to repair the tissues. ● Apical meristematic tissues are present in
● Adipose tissue is found below the the tips of stems and roots. They help in
skin and between internal organs.It the growth of stems and roots.
contains fats and helps to store ● Lateral meristematic tissues are present in
fats. in the sides of stems and roots. They help
- adipocytes to increase the girth of the stems and
roots.
MUSCLE TISSUE ● Intercalary meristematic tissues are
1. Skeletal present at the base of leaves and
2. Cardiac internodes and help in the growth of
3. Smooth those parts.

Muscle Tissue - These tissues are composed of Permanent tissues are made of meristematic cells,
long cells called muscle fibers that allow the that has definite form and shape and have lost the
body to move voluntary or involuntary. power to divide and differentiate and are of three
Movement of muscles is a response to signals types- simple, complex and special.
Simple permanent tissues are made Up of Microvilli
one type of cells. They are of three types
called Parenchyma, Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma. ● Greek word mikros, "small," Latin
termvillus, "hair."
● Parenchyma ● folds of the cell membrane that extend
- loosely packed thin walled cells having outward from the surface of certain cells
more intercellular spaces ● specialized for absorption, such as the
- contain chloroplast and prepares food by digestive tract or kidneys
photosynthesis ● increase the surface area of the cell
- have large air cavities which help the plant membrane, thus allowing for more materials
to float on water to be absorbed into the cell at a quicker rate
- roots and stem store water and minerals Cilia

● Collenchyma ● Latin word for "eyelashes."

- less intercellular spaces and thicker at the ● tiny hairs on the surface of certain cells.
comers ● move in a rhythmic, sweeping motion
- give flexibility and allow easy bending of and serve to move particles or cells in
different parts like stem, leaf etc. your body
- give mechanical support to the plant ● cilia lining in respiratory tract

● Sclerenchyma
- consists of long, narrow, dead thick walled
cells
- cell walls contain lignin a chemical
substance which act like cement and
hardens them

Complex permanent tissues are made up

of more than one type of cells. There are two types of
complex tissues. They are Xylem and Phloem.They
are called vascular or conducting tissues.
● Tracheal cells
● Xylem ● Beat and drive air impurities or foreign
- consists of tracheids, vessels, xylem particles and mucus up the trachea to the
parenchyma and xylem fibers. mouth
- tracheids and vessels help to transport
water and minerals from roots to all parts of Flagella
the plant. ● whip-like structure that allows a cell to move
● Phloem ● sperm cells
- consists of sieve tubes, companion cells, - plenty of mitochondria
phloem parenchyma and phloem fibers.
- The sieve tubes and companion cells Root hairs
transports food from leaves to all parts of
the plant. ● found at the root tips
● filamentous extension of an epidermal cell
near the tip of a rootlet that functions in
absorption of water and minerals.
● Specialized cellular modifications are
alterations in cells that distinguish them Red Blood Cells
● biconcave disc shape
● Cellular modifications are commonly found in ● lose their nucleus
eukaryotic cells, where there is a need for ● increases the surface for gas exchange
cell specialization.
(Reduction - Division) ● Synapsis occurs - Homologous
(Genetic Recombination) chromosomes come together to form a
tetrad.
MEIOSIS - A Source of Distinction ● Tetrad is two chromosomes or four
chromatids (sister and non-sister
● The form of cell division by which gametes, chromatids).
with half the number of chromosomes, are
produced NON-SISTER CHROMATIDS-HOMOLOGS
● Diploid (2n) - Haploid (n)
● Meiosis is sexual reproduction. ● Homologs contain DNA that codes for the
● Two divisions (Meiosis I and Meiosis II) same genes, but different versions of those
● Sex cells divide to produce gametes genes
(sperm or egg). ● Genes occur at the same loci
● Gametes have half the # of chromosomes.
● Occurs only in GONADS (testes or ovaries). HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOME
● Male: SPERMATOGENESIS-sperm
● Female: OOGENESIS - egg or ova ● Pair of chromosomes (maternal and
paternal) that are similar in shape and
size.
INTEPHASEI ● Homologous pairs (tetrads) carry genes
● Similar to mitosis interphase. controlling the same inherited traits.
● CHROMOSOMES (DNA) replicate in the S ● Each locus (position of a gene) is in
phase the same position on homologous.
● Each duplicated chromosome consist of ● Humans have 23 pairs of
two identical SISTER CHROMATIDS homologous chromosomes:
attached at their CENTROMERES. a) First 22 pairs of autosomes
● CENTRIOLE pairs also replicate b) Last pair of sex chromosomes
● Nucleus and nucleolus visible
FEATURES OF MEIOSIS
MEIOSIS (five phases)
● Cell division that reduces the ● Meiosis includes two rounds of division
chromosome number by one half meiosis I and meiosis Il.
● Five phases: ● During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes
a) Prophase I (homologues) become closely associated
b) Prometaphase I with each other. This is synapsis.
c) Metaphase I ● Proteins between the homologues
d) Anaphase I hold them in a synaptonemal complex.
e) Telophase I
CROSSING OVER
PROPHASE I
● Crossing over may occur between non-
sister chromatids at sites called chiasmata.
● Crossing over: segments of non-sister
chromatids break and reattach to the
another chromatid.
● Chiasmata (chiasma) are where
chromosomes touch each other and
exchange genes (crossing over.)

● Crossing over: genetic recombination

between non-sister chromatids
● physical exchange of regions of the
chromatids
 ● chiasmata: sites of crossing over ● Homologous chromosomes separate and
● The homologues are separated from each move towards the poles.
other in anaphase I. ● Sister chromatids remain attached at their
Centromeres
MEIOSIS I (Homologs separate)
TELOPHASE I
PROPHASE I
● Each pole now has haploid (In)set of
● Nucleus & Nucleolus disappear chromosomes.
● Spindle forms ● Cytokinesis occurs and two haploid
● Chromosomes coil & Synapsis (pairing) daughter cells are formed.
occurs
● Tetrads form & Crossing over Occurs MEIOSIS I (Sister Chromatids Separate)
● Divided into 5 distinctive sub-stages:
- Leptotene- The chromosomes begin to ● No Interphase I or very short
condense ● No DNA Replication
- Zygotene - Synapsis begins with ● Remember: Meiosis Il is similar to mitosis
synaptonemal complex forming between
homologous chromosomes PROPHASE II
- Pachytene - Crossing over of genetic
material occurs between non-sister ● Same as Prophase in mitosis
chromatids - Chromosomes condense
- Diplotene- Synapsis ends with - Spindle forms
disappearance of synaptonemal complex;
homologous pairs remain attached at PROMETAPHASE Il
chiasmata
- Diakinesis- Chromosomes become fully ● Same as Prophase in mitosis
condensed and nuclear membrane - Nucleus & nucleolus disappear
disintegrates prior to metaphase - Spindle fibers are fully formed
- Kinetochore formation
PROMETAPHASE I
METAPHASE Il
● Attachment of spindle fiber microtubules
to the kinetochore proteins at the ● Same as Metaphase in mitosis
centromeres ● Chromosomes (not homologs) line up at
● Kinetochore microtubule-astral equator

METAPHASE I ANAPHASE Il

● Shortest phase ● Same as Anaphase in mitosis

● Tetrads align on the equator. ● SISTER CHROMATIDS separate
● Independent assortment occurs
chromosomes separate randomly causing TELOPHASE Il
GENETIC RECOMBINATION
● Formula: 2n ● Same as Telophase in mitosis.
● Nucleus and Nucleolus reform, spindle
In terms of Independent Assortment -how many disappears
different combinations of sperm could a human ● CYTOKINESIS OCCUrS.
male produce? ● Remember: FOUR HAPLOID
Formula: 2n DAUGHTER cells are produced.
Human chromosomes: 2n =46 ● Called GAMETES (eggs and sperm)
n = 23
223 = ~8 million combination KARYOTYPE
● An organized picture of the chromosomes
 of a human arranged in pairs by size from MITOSIS
● largest to smallest. Mitosis is a process where a single cell divides into
● Pairs 1-22 called AUTOSOMES two identical daughter cells (cell division).
● Last pair are SEXCHROMOSOMES
● Male - XY WHY DO CELLS DIVIDE?
● Female - XX
● The major purpose of mitosis is for growth
FERTILIZATION and to replace worn out cells.
The fusion of a sperm and egg to form a zygote ● If not corrected in time, mistakes made

● Inter -interphase means"between"

NON-DISJUNCTION ● Pro- prophase means" advance"
● Meta- metaphase means "along
Non-disjunction is one of the Two major with"
occurrences of Meiosis (The other is Crossing Over) ● Ana- anaphase means "Up or
apart"
● Non-disjunction is the failure of homologous ● Telo -telophase means "final or
chromosomes, or sister chromatids, to distant"
separate during meiosis.
● Non-disjunction results with the CELL CYCLE
production of zygotes with abnormal
chromosome numbers…..... remember.... ● The cell cycle is an ordered series of
An abnormal chromosome number events involving cell growth and cell
(abnormal amount of DNA) is damaging to division that produces two new daughter
the offspring cells.
● Cells on the path to cell division proceed
NON DISJUNCTION USUALLY OCCUR IN ONE OF through a series of precisely timed and
TWO FASHIONS carefully regulated stages of growth, DNA
replication, and division that produces two
The first is called Monosomy, the second is called identical (clone) cells.
Trisomy. If an organism has Trisomy 18 it has three ● The cell cycle has two major phases:
chromosomes in the 18th set, Trisomy 21.... Three interphase and the mitotic phase
chromosomes in the 21st set. If an organism has ● During interphase, the cell grows and DNA is
Monosomy23 it has only one chromosome in the replicated. During the mitotic phase, the
23rdset. replicated DNA and cytoplasmic contents are
separated, and the cell divides.
COMMON NON DISJUNCTION DISORDERS
● Down Syndrome - Trisomy 21 INTERPHASE
● Patau Syndrome - Trisomy 13
● Turner Syndrome - Monosomy 23 (X0) ● During interphase, the cell undergoes
● Klinefelter Syndrome - Trisomy 23 (XXY) nominal growth processes while also
● Edwards' Syndrome - Trisomy 18 preparing for cell division.
● The three stages of interphase are called
G1, S, and G2.

G1 PHASE(First Gap)
● The first stage of interphase is called the Gl
phase (first gap) because, from a
microscopic aspect, little change is visible
● The cell is accumulating the building blocks
of chromosomal DNA and the associated
proteins as well as accumulating sufficient
energy reserves to complete the task of
replicating each chromosome in the nucleus.
S PHASE (Synthesis of DNA) ● Some cells enter GO temporarily until an
● Throughout interphase, nuclear DNA external signal triggers the onset of G1.
remains in a semi-condensed chromatin ● Other cells that never or rarely divide, such
configuration. In the S phase, DNA as mature cardiac muscle and nerve cells,
replication can proceed through the remain in GO permanently.
mechanisms that result in the formation of
identical pairs of DNA molecules--sister KARYOKINESIS (Mitosis)
chromatids--that are firmly attached to the
centromeric region. ● Karyokinesis, also known as mitosis, is
● The centrosome is duplicated during the S divided into a series of phases prophase,
phase. The two centrosomes will give rise prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and
to the mitotic spindle, the apparatus that telophase--that result in the division of the
orchestrates the movement of cell nucleus.
chromosomes during mitosis.
● the centrioles, which are at right angles PROPHASE
to each other. ● During prophase, the "first phase," the
● Centrioles help organize cell division. nuclear envelope starts to dissociate into
small vesicles, and the membranous
G2 PHASE(Second Gap) organelles (such as the Golgi complex or
Golgi apparatus, and endoplasmic
● In the G2 phase, the cell replenishes its ● The centrosomes begin to move to
energy stores and synthesizes proteins opposite poles of the cell.
necessary for chromosome manipulation. ● Microtubules that will form the mitotic
● Some cell organelles are duplicated, and spindle extend between the centrosomes,
the cytoskeleton is dismantled to provide pushing them farther apart as the
resources for the mitotic phase. There may microtubule fibers lengthen.
be additional cell growth during G2. ● The sister chromatids begin to coil more
● The final preparations for the mitotic tightly with the aid of condensin proteins
phase must be completed before the cell and become visible under a light
is able to enter the first stage of mitosis. microscope.

THE MITOTIC PHASE PROMETAPHASE

● The mitotic phase is a multistep process ● During prometaphase, the "first change
during which the duplicated chromosomes phase," many processes that were begun in
are aligned, separated,and move into two prophase continue to advance.
new, identical daughter cells. ● The remnants of the nuclear envelope
● The first portion of the mitotic phase is fragment. The mitotic spindle continues to
called karyokinesis, or nuclear division. develop as more microtubules assemble and
● The second portion of the mitotic phase, stretch across the length of the former
called cytokinesis, is the physical separation nuclear area.
of the cytoplasmic components into the two ● Chromosomes become more condensed
daughter cells. and discrete. Each sister chromatid develops
a protein structure called a kinetochore in the
GO PHASE centromeric region.
● Not all cells adhere to the classic cell ● Eventually, all the sister chromatids will be
cycle pattern in which a newly formed attached via their kinetochores to
daughter cell immediately enters the microtubules from opposing poles.
preparatory phases of interphase, closely ● Spindle microtubules that do not engage
followed by the mitotic phase. the chromosomes are called polar
● Cells in G0 phase are not actively microtubules.
preparing to divide. ● These microtubules overlap each other
● The cell is in a quiescent (inactive) stage midway between the two poles and
that occurs when cells exit the cell cycle. contribute to cell elongation.
 ● Astral microtubules, aid in spindle for most eukaryotes, the process of
orientation, and are required for the cytokinesis is quite different for eukaryotes
regulation of mitosis. that have cell walls, such as plant cells.
● In cells such as animal cells that lack cell
METAPHASE walls, cytokinesis follows the onset of
anaphase.
● During the metaphase, the "change phase." ● A contractile ring composed of actin
all the chromosomes are aligned in a plane filaments forms just inside the plasma
called the metaphase plate, or the equatorial membrane at the former metaphase
plane, midway between the two poles of the plate.
cell. ● The actin filaments pull the equator of the
● The sister chromatids are still tightly cell inward, forming a fissure.
attached to each other by cohesin proteins. ● This fissure, or "crack," is called the
● At this time, the chromosomes are cleavage furrow.
maximally condensed. The furrow deepens as the actin ring
contracts, and eventually the membrane
ANAPHASE is cleaved in two.

● During anaphase, the "upward phase." ERRORS IN MITOSIS

the cohesin proteins degrade, and the ● Due to non - disjunction which may result to
sister chromatids separate at the chromosomal mutation
centromere. ● Mosaicism
● Each chromatid, now called a ● Hemophilia and Marfan Syndrome
chromosome, is pulled rapidly toward the
centrosome to which its microtubule is
attached.
● The cell becomes visibly elongated (oval)

TELOPHASE

● During telophase, the "distance phase,"

the chromosomes reach the opposite poles
and begin to decondense (unravel), relaxing
into a chromatin configuration.
● The mitotic spindles are depolymerized into
tubulin monomers that will be used to
assemble cytoskeletal components for each
daughter cell.
● Nuclear envelopes form around the
chromosomes, and nucleosomes appear
within the nuclear area.

CYTOKINESIS
● "cell motion"
● the second main stage of the mitotic
phase during which cell division is
completed via the physical separation of
the cytoplasmic components into two
daughter cells
● Division is not complete until the cell
components have been apportioned and
completely separated into the two
daughter cells.
● Although the stages of mitosis are similar