Chapter 3

Historical Interpretations in
Philippine History: Spaces for
Conflict and Controversies

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
 To look at historical events utilizing
primary sources.
 To be aware of the multiplicity of
interpretation
 To identify the advantages and
disadvantages of than can be seen
from a historical text.
 not employing critical tools in
interpreting historical events
through primary sources.
 To demonstrate ability to argue for
or against a particular issue using
primary sources.

TAKE OFF
Write down 5 words or phrases that you can connect with
the words in each box.

INTERPRETATION MULTIPERSPECTIVITY

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In this chapter, we will analyze four historiographical problems in
Philippine history in an attempt to apply what we have learned
thus far in the work of a historian and the process of historical
inquiry. Earlier, we have been introduced to history as a
discipline. The historical method, and the content and context
analysis of primary sources. Two key concepts that need to be
defined before proceeding to the historical analysis of problems in
history are interpretation and multi- perspectivity.

Making Sense of the Past: Historical Interpretation:

1 History
 History is the study of the past, but a more contemporary
definition is centered on how it impacts the present through its
consequences. Geoffrey Barraclough defines history as "the
attempt to discover, on the basis of fragmentary evidence, the
significant things about the past." He also notes "the history we
read, though based on facts, is strictly speaking, not factual at all.
but a series of accepted judgments." Such judgments of historians
on how the past should be seen make the foundation of historical
interpretation.
Historians utilize facts collected from primary sources of
history and then draw their own reading so that their intended
audience may understand historical events, a process that, in
essence, "makes sense of the past." The premise is that not all
primary sources are accessible to a general audience, and without
the proper training and background, a non-historian interpreting
a primary source may do more harm than good—a primary source
may even cause misunderstandings; sometimes, even resulting to
more problems.
Interpretations of the past, therefore, vary according to who
reads the primary source, when it was read, and how it was read.
As students of history, we must be well-equipped to recognize
different types of interpretations, why these may differ from each
other, and how to critically sift these interpretations through
historical evaluation. Interpretations of historical events change
over time, thus it is an important skill for a student of history to
track these changes in an attempt to understand the past.
Many of the things we accepted as "true" about the past
might not be the case anymore; just because these were taught to
us as "facts" when we were younger does not mean that it is set in
stone—history is, after all, a construct. And as a construct, it is
open for interpretation. There might be conflicting and competing
accounts of the past that need one's attention, and can impact
the way we view our country's history and identity. It is
important. therefore, to subject to evaluation not only the primary
source, but also the historical interpretation of the same, to
ensure that the current interpretation is reliable to support our
acceptance of events of the past.

Multi- Perspectivity
With several possibilities of interpreting the past, another
important concept that we must note is multiperspectivity. This
can be defined as a way of looking at historical events,
personalities, developments, cultures, and societies from different
perspectives. This means that there is multitude of ways by which
we can view the world. and each could be equally valid. and at the
same time. equally partial as well. Historical writing is, by
definition, biased, partial, and contains preconceptions. The
historian decides on what sources to use, what interpretation to
make more apparent, depending on what his/her end is.
Historians may misinterpret evidence. attending to those that
suggest that a certain event happened. and then ignore the rest
that goes against the evidence. Historians may omit significant
Chapter and Philippine History 2
facts about their subject, which makes the interpretation
unbalanced. Historians may impose a certain ideology to their
subject, which may not he appropriates to the period the subject
was from. Historians may also provide a single cause for an event
without considering other possible causal explanations of said
event. These are just many of the-ways a historian may fail in his
or her historical inference, description, and interpretation. With
multiperspectivity as an approach in history, we must understand
that historical interpretations contain discrepancies,
contradictions and ambiguities are oftentimes the focus of
dissent.
Exploring multiple perspectives in history requires
incorporating source materials that reflect different views of an
event in history, because singular historical narratives do not
provide for space to inquire and investigate. Different sources that
counter each Other may create space for more investigation and
research, while providing more evidence for those truths that
these sources agree on.
Different kinds of sources also provide different historical
truths—an official document may note different aspects of the
past than. say, a memoir of an ordinary person on the same
event. Different historical agents create different historical
truths." and while this may be n burdensome work for the
historian, it also renders more validity to the historical
scholarship.
Taking these in close regard in the reading of historical
interpretations, it provides for the audience a more complex, but
also a more complete and richer understanding of the past.

Case Study l: Where did the first Catholic Mass take place in
the Philippines?
The popularity of knowing where the "first mass" happened in
history has been an easy way to trivialize history. but this case
study will not focus on the significance (or lack thereof) of the site
of the first Catholic mass in the Philippines. but rather, use it as
a historiographical exercise in the utilization of evidence and
interpretation in reading historical events.

Butuan has long been believed as the site of the first mass. In
fact, this has been the case for three centuries, culminating in the
erection of a monument in 1872 near Agusan River, which
commemorates the expeditions arrival and celebration of mass on
8 April 1521. The Butuan claim has been based on a rather
elementary reading of primary sources from the event.

Toward the end of nineteenth century and the start of the

twentieth century, together with the increasing scholarship on the
history of the Philippines, a more nuanced reading of the available
evidence was made, which brought to light more considerations in
going against the more accepted interpretation of the first mass in
the Philippines, made both Spanish and Filipino scholars.

Chapter and Philippine History 3

It must be noted that there are only two primary sources that
historians refer to in identifying the site of the first mass. One is
the log kept by Francisco Albo, a pilot of one of Magellan’s ship,
Trinidad. He was one of the 18 survivors who returned with
Sebastian Elcano on the ship Victoria after they circumnavigated
the world. The other, and the more complete, was the account by
Antonio Pigafetta, primo viaggiointorno al mondo (first Voyage
around the world). Pigafetta, like Albo, was a member of the
Magellan Expedition and an eyewitness of the events, particularly,
of the first mass.

PRIMARY SOURCE: ALBO’S LOG

Source: “Diario 6 derotero del viage de Magallanes el cabo se S.
Agustin en el Brazil hasta el regreso a Espana de la nao Victoria,
escritopor Francisco Albo, “Document no. xxii in collection de
viages y descubrimientosquhicieronpor mar los Españoslesdesde
fines del siglo XV, Ed. Martin Fernandez de Navarrete (reprinted
Buenos Aires 1945, 5 Vols.) IV, 191-225. As cited in Miguel A.
Bernard “Butuan or Limasawa? The site of the first mass in the
Philippines: a re-examination of evidence” 1981, Kinaadman: A
journal of Southern Philippines, Vol. III, 1-35.

1. On the 16th of March 1521 as they sailed in a westerly

course from Landrones, they saw land towards the
northwest; but owing to many shallow places they did not
approach it. They found later that its name was Yunagan.
2. They went instead that same day southwards to another
small island named suluan, and there they anchored. There
they saw some canoes but these fled at the Spaniards
approach. This island was at 9 and two-thirds degrees
North Latitude.
3. Departing from those two islands. they sailed westward to
an uninhabited island of "Gada" where they took in supply
of wood and water. The sea around that island was free
from shallows. (Albo does not give the latitude of this
island, but from Pigafettn's testimony, this seems to be the
"Acquada" or Homonhon, at 10 degrees North latitude.)
4. From that island they sailed westwards towards a large
island names Seilani that was inhabited and was known to
have gold. (Seilani — or, as Pigafetta calls it, "Ceylon" —
was the island of Leyte.)
5. Sailing southwards along the coast of that large island of
Seilani. they turned southwest to a small island called
"Mazava," That island is also at a latitude of 9 and two-
thirds degrees North.
6. The people of that island of Mazava were very good. There
the Spaniards planted a cross upon a mountain-top. and
from there they were shown three islands to the west and
southwest. where they were told there was much gold. #hey
showed us how the gold was gathered, which came in small
pieces like peas and lentils."
Chapter and Philippine History 4
 7. From Mazava they sailed northwards again towards Seilani.
They followed the coast of Seilani in a northwesterly
direction, ascending up to 10 degrees of latitude where they
gaw three small islands.
8. From there they sailed westward some ten leagues. and
there they saw three islets, Where they (hopped anchor for
the night. In the morning they sailed southwest some 12
leagues. down to a latitude of 10 and one-third degree.
There they entered chonnel between two islands, one of
which was called "Matan" and the other "Subu."
9. They sailed down that channel and then turned westward
and anchored at the town (la villa) of Subu where they
stayed ma-ny days and obtained provisions and entered
into a peace-pact with the local king,
10. The town of Subu was on an east-west direction with the
islands of Suluan and Mazava. But between Mazava and
Subu. there where so many shallows that the boats could not
go westward directly but has to go (as they did) in a round-
about way.
It must be noted that in Albo’s account, the location of Mazava
fits the location of the island of Limasawa, at the southern tip of
Leyte, 9˚ 54’ N. also, does not mention the first mass, but only
the planting of the cross upon a mountain top from which could
be seen three islands to the west and southwest, which also fits
the southern end of Limasawa.

PRIMARY SOURCE: PIGAFETTA’S testimony on the route of

Magellan’s Expedition
Source: Emma Blair and James Alexander Robertson, The
Philippine Islands, Vols. 33 and 34, as cited in Miguel A.
Bernard, “Butuan or Limasawa? The site of the first mass in the
Philippines: A re- examination of evidence” 1981, Kinaadman: A
Journal of Southern Visayas, Vol. III, 1-35.

1. Saturday, 16 march 1521- Magellan’s expedition sighted a

high land named Zamal which was some 300 leagues westward
of ladrones (now the Marianas) islands.
2. Sunday, march 17- the following day after sighting Zamal
island, they landed on another island which was uninhabited
and which lay to the right of the above mentioned island of
Zamal. To the right here would mean on their starboard going
south or southwest. There they set up two tents for the sick
members of the crew and a sow killed for them. The name of this
island was Humunu (Homonhon). This island was located at 10
degrees’ north latitude.
3. on the same day Sunday march 17, Magellan named the
entire archipelago the islands of saint Lazarus, the reason being
that it was Sunday in the Lenten season when the gospel
assigned for the mass and the liturgical office was the eleventh
chapter of St. John which tells of the raising of Lazarus from the
dead

Chapter and Philippine History 5

 4. Monday, march 18- in the afternoon of their second day on
that island, they saw a boat coming towards them with nine
men in it. An exchange gifts was affected. Magellan asked for
food supplies, and the men went away, promising to bring rice,
and other supplies in four days
5. there were two springs of water on that island of Homonhon.
Also they saw there some indications that there was gold in this
island. Consequently, Magellan renamed the island and called it
the watering place of good omen, acquada la di bounisegnialli.
6. Friday. March 22 — At noon the natives returned. This time
they were in
two boats, and they brought food supplies.
7. Magellan's expedition stayed eight days at Homonhon: from
Sunday, March 17. to the Monday of the following week,
March 25.
8. Monday, March 25 — In the afternoon, the expedition
weighed anchor and left the island of Homonhon. In the
ecclesiastical calendar. this day (March 25) was the feast-
day of the Incarnation, also called the feast Of the
Annunciation and therefore "Our Lady's Day." On this day,
as they were about to weigh anchor, an accident happened
tri Pigafetta: he fell into the water but was rescued. He
attributed his narrow escape from death as grace obtained
through the intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary on her
feast-day.
[Link] route taken by the expedition after leaving Homonhon
was
toward the west southwest. between four islands: namely.
Cenalo, Hiunanghan. [busson and Albarien." Very probably
"Cenalo" is a misspelling in the Italian manuscript for what
Pigafetta in his map calls "Ceilon" and Albo calls "Seilani":
namely the island of Leyte. "Hiunanghan" (a misspelling of
Hinunangan) seemed to Pigafetta to be a separate island,
but is actually on the mainland of Leyte (i.e., "Ceylon"). On
the other hand. Hibuson (Thgafetta's Ibusson) is an island
east of Leyte's southern [Link], it is easy to see what
Pigafetta meant by sailing "toward the west southwest" past
those islands. They left Homonhon sailing westward
towards Leyte, then followed the Leyte coast southward.
passing between the island of Hibuson on their portside
and Hiunangan Bay on their starboard, and then continued
southward, then turning westward to "Mazaua."
10. Thursday. March 28 — In the morning of Holy Thursday.
March 28. they anchored off an island where the previous
night they had seen a light or a bonfire. That island "lies in a
latitude of nine and [Link] towards the Arctic Pole (i.e..
North) and in a longitude Of one hundred and sixty-two
degrees from the line of demarcation. It is twenty-five leagues
from the Acquada. and is called Mazaua."
11. They remained seven days on Mazaua Island.

Chapter and Philippine History 6

12. Thursday, April 4- they left Mazaua, bound for Cebu. They
were guided either by the king of Mazaua who sailed in his own
boat. Their route took them past five “islands” namely: “Ceylon,
Bohol, Canighan, BaiBai, and Gatighan.”

13. At Gatighan, they sailed westward to the three islands of the

Camotes Group, namely, Poro, Pasihan and Ponson. Here the
Spanish ships stopped to allow the king of Mazaua to catch up
with them, since the Spanish ships were much faster than the
native balanghai- a thing that excited the admiration of the king
of Mazaua.
14. from the Camotes islands they sailed southwards towards
Zubu
15. Sunday, April 7- At noon they entered the harbor of Zubu
(Cebu). It had taken them three days to negotiate the journey
from Mazaua northwards to the camotes islands and then
southwards to Cebu.

It must be pointed out that Albo and Pigafetta’s testimonies

coincide and collaborate to each other. Pigafetta gave more details
on what they did during their weeklong stay at Mazaua

PRIMARY SOURCE: Pigafetta and Seven Days in Mazaua

Source: Emma Blair and James Alexander Robertson, The
Philippine Islands, Vols. 33 and 34, as cited in Miguel A.
Bernard, “Butuan or Limasawa? The site of the first mass in the
Philippines: A re- examination of evidence” 1981, Kinaadman: A
Journal of Southern Visayas, Vol. III, 1-35.

1. Thursday, march 28- in the morning they anchored near an

island where they had seen a light the night before a small boat
(boloto), came with eight natives, to whom Magellan threw some
trinkets as presents. The natives paddled away, but two hours
later two larger boats (balanghai) came, in one of which the
native king sat under an awning of mats. At Magellan’s
invitation some of the natives went up the Spanish ships, but
the native king remained seated in his boat. An exchange of
gifts was affected. In the afternoon that day, the Spanish ships
weighted anchor and came closer to shore, anchoring near the
native king’s village. This Thursday, march 28, was Thursday in
holy week,.. holy Thursday.

2. Friday, March 29 — "Next day. Holy Friday," Magellan sent

his slave interpreter ashore in a small boat to ask the king if
he could provide the expedition with food supplies,' and to say
that they had come as friends and not as enemies. In reply the
king himself came in a boat with six or eight men, and this
time went up Magellan's ship and the two men embraced.
Another exchange of gifts was made. The native king and his
companions returned ashore, bringing with them two members
of Magellan's expedition as guests for the night. One of the two
was Pigafetta.
Chapter and Philippine History 7
3. Saturday. March 30 — Pigafetta and his companion had
spent the previous evening feasting and drinking with the
native king and his son. Pigafetta deplored the fact that.
although it was Good Friday, they had to eat. meat. The
following morning (Saturday) Pigafetta and his companion took
leave of their hosts and returned to the ships.
4. Sunday. March 31 — "Early in the morning of Sunday. the
last of March and Easter day." Magellan sent the priest ashore
with Some men to prepare for the Mass. Later in the morning
Magellan landed with some fifty men and Mass was celebrated.
after which a cross was venerated. Magellan and the Spaniards
returned to the ship for the noon-day meal, but in the
afternoon, they returned ashore to plant the cross on the
summit of the highest hill. In attendance both at the Mass and
at the planting of the cross were the king of Mazaua and the
king of Butuan.
5. Sunday, March 31 — On that same afternoon, while on the
summit of the highest hill, Magellan asked the two kings which
ports he should go to in order to obtain more abundant
supplies of food than were available in that island. They relied
that there were three ports choose from: Ceylon, Zubu, and
Calagan. Of the three, Zubu was the port with the most trade.
Magellan then said that he wished to go to Zubu and to depart
the following morning. He asked for someone to guide him
thither. The kings replied that the pilots would be available
"any time." But later that evening the king of Mazaua changed
his mind and said that he would himself conduct Magellan to
Zubu but that he would first have to bring the harvest in. He
asked Magellan to send him men to help with the harvest.
6. Monday. April 1 — Magellan sent men ashore to help with
the harvest, but no work was done that day because the two
kings were sleeping off their drinking bout the night before.
7. Tuesday, April 2 and Wednesday, April a — Work on the
harvest during the "next to days," i.e., Tuesday and
Wednesday, the 2nd and 3rd of April.

8. Thursday, April 4 — They leave Mazaua, bound for Cebu.

Using the primary sources available. Jesuit priest Miguel A.

Bernad in his work Butuan or Limasawa: The Site of the
First Mass in the Philippines: A Reexamination of Evidence
(1981) lays down the argument that in the Pigafetta
account, a crucial aspect of Butuan was not mentioned—
the river. Butuan is a riverine settlement, situated On the
Agusan River. The beach Of Masao is in the delta of said
river. It is a curious omission in the account of the river ,
which makes part of a distinct characteristic ofButuan's
geography that seemed to be too important to be missed.
It must also be pointed out that later on. after Magellan's
death, the survivors Of his expedition went to Mindanao.
and seemingly went to Butuan. In this instance, Pigafetta
Chapter and Philippine History 8
vividly describes a trip up a river. But note that this
account Already happened after Magellan's death.

Case Study 2: What happened in the Cavite Mutiny?

The year 1872 is a historic year of two events: the Cavite
Mutiny and the martyrdom of the three priests. Mariano
Gomez, Jose Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora. later on
immortalized as GOMBURZA. These events are very
important milestones in Philippine history and have caused
ripples throughout time. directly influencing the decisive
events of the Philippine Revolution toward the end of the
century. While the significance is unquestioned, what made
this year controversial is the different sides to the story. a
battle of perspectives supported by primary sources. In this
case study. we zoom in to the events of the Cavite Mutiny, a
major factor in the awakening of nationalism among the
Filipinos of that time.

Spanish Accounts of the Cavity Mutiny

The documentation of Spanish historian Jose Montero y
Vidal centered on how the event was an attempt in
overthrowing the Spanish government in the Philippines.
Although regarded as a historian, his account of the mutiny
Was criticized as woefully biased and rabid for a scholar.
Another account from the official report written by then
Governor General Rafael Izquierdo implicated the native
clergy, who were then, active in their movement toward
secularization of parishes. These two accounts corroborated
each other.

Primary Source: Excerpts from Montero's Account of

the Cavite Mutiny
Source: Jose Montero y Vidal, "Spanish Version of the
Cavite Mutiny of 1872," in Gregorio Zaide and Sonia Zaide,
Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Volume 7
(Manila: National Book Store. 1990), 269— 273.
The abolition of privileges enjoyed by the laborers of the
Cavite arsenal of exemption from the tribute was, according
to some, the cause of the insurrection. There were.
however, other causes.
The Spanish revolution which overthrew a secular throne;
the propaganda carried on by an unbridled press against
monarchical principles, attentatory [sic] of the most sacred
respects towards the dethroned majesty; the democratic
and republican books and pamphlets; the speeches and
preachings of the apostles of these new ideas in Spain; the
outbursts of the American publicists and the criminal
policy of the senseless Governor whom the Revolutionary
government sent to govern the Philippines, and who put
into practice these ideas were the determining
circumstances which gave rise. among certain Filipinos, to
Chapter and Philippine History 9
the idea of attaining their independence. It was towards
this goal that they started to work, with the powerful
assistance of a certain section of the native clergy, who out
of spite toward friars, made common cause with the
enemies of the mother country.

At various times but especially in the beginning of year

1872, the authorities received anonymous communications
with the information that a great uprising would break out
against the Spaniards, the minute the fleet at Cavite left for
the South. and that all would be assassinated, including
the friars. But nobody gave importance to these notices.
The conspiracy had been going on since the days of La
Torre with utmost secrecy. At times, the principal leaders
met either in the house of Filipino Spaniard, D. Joaquin
Pardo de Tavera, or in that of the native priest, Jacinto
Zamora, and these meetings were usually attended by the
curate of Bacoor, the soul of the movement, whose
energetic character and immense wealth enabled him to
exercise a strong influence,

Primary Source: Excerpts from the Official Report of

Governor Izquierdo on the Cavite Mutiny of 1872
Source: Rafael Izquierdo "Official Report on the Cavite
Mutiny," in Gregorio Zaide and Sonia Zaide. Documentary
Sources o/ Philippine History. Volume 7 (Manila: National
Book Store. 1990). 281—286.
...It seems definite that the insurrection Was motivated and
prepared by the native clergy, by the mestizos and native
lawyers, and by those known here as abogadillos...
The instigators, to carry out their criminal project.
protested against the injustice of the government in not
paying the provinces for their tobacco crop, and against the
usury that some practice in documents that the Finance
department gives crop owners who have to sell them at a
loss. They encouraged the rebellion by protesting what they
called the injustice Of having obliged the workers in the
Cavite arsenal to pay tribute starting January 1 and to
render personal service, from which they were formerly
exempted...
Up to now it has not been clearly determined if they
planned to establish a monarchy or a republic, beeause
the Indios have no word in their language to describe this
different form of government, whose head in Tagalog would
be called hari: but it turns out that they would place at the
head of the government a priest... that the head selected
would be D. Jose Burgos, Or D. Jacinto Zamora...
Such is... the plan of the rebels. those who guided them.
and the means they counted upon for its realization.

It is apparent that the accounts underscore the reason for

the "revolution": the abolition of privileges enjoyed by the
Chapter and Philippine History 10
workers of the Cavite arsenal such as exemption from
payment of tribute and being employed in Polos y Servicios.
or force labor. They also identified Other reasons which
seemingly made the issue a lot more serious, which
included the presence of the native clergy, who, out of spite
against the Spanish friars. "conspired and supported" the
rebels. Izquierdo, in an obviously biased report, highlighted
that attempt to overthrow the Spanish government in the
Philippines, to install a new "hari" in the persons Of
Fathers Burgos and Zamora. According to hirn, native
clergy attracted supporters by giving them charismatic
assurance that their fight will not fail because they have
God's support. aside from promises of lofty rewards such as
employment, wealth. and ranks in the army.

In the Spaniard's accounts, the event of 1872 was

premeditated, and is part of a big conspiracy among the
educated leaders, mestizos. lawyers. and residents ofManila
and Cavite. They allegedly plan to liquidate high-ranking
Spanish officers, then kill the friars. The signal they identify
among these Conspirators of Manila and Cavite was the
rockets fired from Intramuros.

The accounts detail that on 20 January 1872. the district

Of Sampaloc celebrated the feast Of the Virgin of and came
with it were some fireworks display. The Cavitefios allegedly
mistook this as the signal to commence with the attack.
The 200-men contingent led by Sergeant Lamadrid attacked
Spanish officers at sight and seized the arsenal. Izquierdo,
upon learning of the attack, ordered the reinfcmement of
the Spanish forces in Cavite to quell the revolt. The
"revolution" was easily crushed, when the Manilefios who
were expected to aid the Cavitefios did not arrive. Leaders
of the plot were killed in the resulting skirmish. while
Fathers Gomez. Burgos, and Zamora were tried by a court-
martial and sentenced to be executed. Others who were
implicated such as Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, Antonio Ma
Regidor. Jose and Pio Basa. and other Filipino lawyers were
suspended from the practice of law, arrested, and
sentenced to life imprisonment at the Marianas Island.
Izquierdo dissolved the native regiments of artillery and
ordered [he creation of an artillery force composed
exclusively by Peninsulares.
On 17 February 1872. the GOMBURZA were executed to
serve as a threat to Filipinos never to attempt to fight the
Spaniards again.
Differ by Accounts Events of 1872
Two other primary accounts exist that seem to counter the
accounts of Izquierdo and Montero. First, the account of
Dr. Trinidad Hermenigildo Pardo de Tavera. a Filipino
scholar and researcher, who wrote a Filipino version of the

Chapter and Philippine History 11

bloody incident in Cavite.

Primary Source: Excerpt from Pardo de Tavera's

Account of the Cavite Mutiny
Source: Trinidad Pardo de Tavera, "Filipino Version of the
Cavite Mutiny," in Gregorio Zaide and Sonia Zaide,
Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Volume 7
(Manila: National Book Store, 1990), 274— 280.
This uprising among the soldiers in Cavite was used as a
powerful level by the Spanish residents and by the
friars...the Central Government in Madrid had announced
its intention to deprive the friars in these islands Of powers
of intervention in matters of civil government and of the
direction and management of the university... it was due to
these facts and promises that the Filipinos had great hopes
of an improvement in the affairs of their country, while the
friars. on the other hand, feared that their power in the
colony would soon be complete a thing Of the past.

Up to that time there had been no intention of secession

from Spain, and the only aspiration of the people was to
secure the material and education advancement of the
country...

According to this account, the incident was merely a

mutiny by Filipino soldiers and laborers ofthe Cavite
arsenal. Soldiers and laborers ofthe arsenal to the
dissatisfaction arising from the draconian policies of
Izquierdo, such as the abolition of privileges and the
prohibition of the founding of the school of arts and trades
for Filipinos, which the General saw as a smokescreen
creating a political club.
Tavera is of the opinion that the Spanish friars and
Izquierdo used Cavite Mutiny as a way to address other
issues by blowing out of proportion the isolated mutiny
attempt. During this time, the Central Government Madrid
was planning to deprive the friars of all the powers of
intervention in matters of civil government and direction
and management educational institutions. The friars
needed something to justify their continuing dominance in
the country, and the mutiny provided such Opportunity.

However, the Central Spanish Government introduced an

educational decree fusing sectarian schools run by the
friars into a school called Philippine Institute. The decree
aimed to improve the standard of education in the
Philippines by requiring teaching positions in these schools
to be by competitive examinations. an improvement
welcomed by most Filipinos.
Another account, this time by French writer Edmund
Plauchu complemented Tavera's account and analyzed the
motivations of the 1872 Cavite Mutiny.
Chapter and Philippine History 12
Primary Source: Excerpts from Plauchut's Account of
the Cavite Mutiny
Source: Edmund Plauchut, The Cavite Mutiny Of 1872 and
the Martyrdom Of Gom•Bur-Zn," in Gregorio Zaide and
Sonia Zaide. Documentary Sources ofPhilippine History,
Volume 7 (Manila: National Book store, 1990), 251-268.
General La Torre... created a junta composed of high
officials... including some friars and six Spanish officials....
At the same time there Was created by the government in
Madrid a committee to investigate the same Problems
submitted to the Manila committee. When the two finished
work. it was found that they came to the same conclusions.
Here is the summary of the reforms they considered
necessary to introduce:
1. Changes in tariff rates at customs, and the methods of
collection.
2. Removal of surcharges on foreign importations.
3. Reduction of export fees.
4. Permission for foreigners to reside in the Philippines, buy
real estate, enjoy freedom of worship, and operate
commercial transports flying the Spanish flag.
5. Establishment of an advisory council to inform the
Minister of Overseas Affairs in Madrid on the necessary
reforms to be implemented.
6. Changes in primary and secondary education.
7. Establishment of an Institute of Civil Administration in
the Philippines, rendering unnecessary the sending home of
short term civil officials every time there is a change of
ministry.
8. Study of direct-tax system.
9. Abolition of the tobacco monopoly.

...The arrival in Manila of General Izquierdo... put a sudden

end to all dreams of reforms... the prosecutions instituted
by the new Governor General were probably expected as a
result of the bitter disputes between the Filipino clerics and
the friars. Such a policy must really end in a strong desire
on the part Of the other to repress cruelly.
In regard to schools. it was previously decreed that there
should be in Manila a Society of Arts and Trades to be
opened in March of 1871... to repress the growth ofliberal
teachings, General Izquierdo suspended the opening of the
school... the day previous to the scheduled inauguration...
he Filipinos had a duty to render service on public roads
construction and pay taxes every year. But those who were
employed at the maestranza of the artillery, in the
engineering shops and arsenal Cavite, were exempted from
this obligation from time immemorial. Without
preliminaries Of any kind, a decree by the Governor
withdrew from such old employees their retirement

Chapter and Philippine History 13

privileges and declassified them into the ranks of those who
work on public roads.

The friars used the incident as a part of a larger conspiracy

to cement their dominance, which has started to show
cracks because of the discontent of the Filipinos. They
showcased the mutiny as part of a greater conspiracy: in
the Philippines by Filipinos to overthrow the Spanish
Government Unintentionally, and more so, prophetically,
the Cavite Mutiny of 1872 resulted to the martyrdom of
GOMBURZA, and paved the way to the revolution
culminating in 1898.

The GOMBURZA is the collective name of the three

martyred priests Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos, and Jacinto
Zamora, who were tagged as the masterminds of the cavity
mutiny. They were prominent Filipino priests charged with
treason and sedition. It is believed that the Spanish clergy
connected the priests to the mutiny as part of the
conspiracy to stifle the movement of secular priests who
desired to have their own parishes instead of being merely
assistants to the regular friars. The GOMBURZA were
executed by garrote in public, a scene purposely witnessed
by a young Jose Rizal.

Their martyrdom is widely accepted as a dawn of Philippine

nationalism in the nineteenth century, with Rizal dedicating
his second novel, El Filibusterismo, to their memory.

The government, by enshrouding your trial in mystery and

pardoning your co- accused, has suggested that some
mistake was committed when your fate was decided; and
the whole of the Philippines, in paying homage to your
memory and calling you martyrs, totally rejects your guilt.
The church, by refusing to degrade you, has put in doubt
the crime charged against you.

Case Study 3: Did Rizal refract?

Jose Rizal is identified as a hero of the revolution for his
writings that center on ending colonialism and liberating
Filipino minds to contribute to creating the Filipino nation.
The great volume of Rizal's lifework was committed to this
end, particularly the more influential ones, Noli Me Tangere
and El Filibusterismo. His essays vilify not the Catholic
religion, but the friars, the main agents of injustice in the
Philippine society.

It is understandable therefore, that any piece of writing

from Rizal the recants everything he has written against the
friars and the Catholic Church in the Philippines could deal
heavy damage to his image as a prominent Filipino
Chapter and Philippine History 14
revolutionary. Such document purportedly exists, allegedly
signed by Rizal a few hours before his execution. This
document, referred to as The Retraction," declares Rizal's
belief in the Catholic faith, and retract everything he has
written against the Church.

Primary Source: Rizal’s Retraction

Source: Translated from the document found by Fr. Manuel
Garcia
C.M. on 18 May 1935
I declare myself a catholic and in this Religion in which I
was born an educated I wish to live and die.

I retract with all my heart whatever in my words. writings.

publications and conduct has been contrary to my
character as son of the Catholic Church. I believe and I
confess whatever she teaches and I submit to whatever she
demands. I abominate Masonry. as the enemy which is of
the Church. and as a Society prohibited by the Church. The
Diocesan Prelate may, as the Superior Ecclesiastical
Authority, make public this spontaneous manifestation of
mine in order to repair the scandal which my acts may
have caused and so that God and people may pardon me.
Manila 29 of December of 1896
Jose Rizal
There are four iterations of the texts of this retraction: the
first was published in La Voz Espafiola and Diario de
Manila on the day of the execution, 30 December 1896. The
second text appeared in Barcelona, Spain, on the magazine
La Juventud. a few months after the execution, 14
February 1897, from an anonymous writer who was later
on revealed to be Fr. Vicente Balaguer. However, the
"original" text was only found in the archdiocesan archives
on 18 May 1935, after almost four decades of
disappearance.

The Balaguer Testimony

Doubts on the retraction document abound. especially
because only one eyewitness account Of the writing of the
document exist—that Of the Jesuit friar Fr. Vicente
Balaguer. According to his testimony, Rizal woke up several
times, confessed four times, attended a mass, received
communion, and prayed the rosary, all Of which seem out
Of character. But since it is the only testimony of allegedly
a "primary" account that Rizal ever wrote a retraction
document, it has been used to argue the authenticity of the
document.
The Testimony of Cuerpo de Vigilancia

Another eyewitness account surfaced in 2016, through the

research of Professor Rene R. Escalante. In his research,
documents of the Cuerpo de Vigilancia, included a report
Chapter and Philippine History 15
on the last hours of Rizal, written by Federico Moreno. The
report details the statement of the Cuerpo de Vigilancia to
Moreno.
Primary Source: Eyewitness Account of the Last Hours
of Rizal
Source: Michael Charleston Chua. "Retraction ni Jose Rizal:
Mga bagong dokumento at pananaw." GMA News Online,
published 29 December 2016.
Most Illustrious Sir, the agent Of the Cuerpo de Vigilancia
stationed in Fort Santiago to report on the events during
the [illegible) day in prison Of the accused José Rizal,
informs me on this date of the following:
At 7:50 yesterday morning, Jose Rizal entered death row
accompanied by his counsel, Senor Taviel de Andrade, and
the Jesuit priest Vilaclara. At the urgings of the former and
moments after entering, he was served a light breakfast. At
approximately 9, the Assistant of the Plaza. Senor Maure.
asked Rizal if he wanted anything. He replied that at the
moment he only wanted a prayer book. which was brought
to him shortly by Father March.
Senor Andrade left death row at 10 and Rizal spoke for a
long while with the Jesuit fathers, March and Vilaclara,
regarding religious matters, it seems. It appears that these
two presented him With a prepared retraction on his life
and deeds that he refused to sign. They argued about the
matter until 12:30 when Rizal ate some poached egg and a
little chicken. Afterwards he asked to leave to write and
wrote for a long time by himself.
At 3 in the afternoon, Father March entered the chapel and
Rizal handed him what he had written. Immediately the
chief of the firing squad. Serior del Fresno and the
Assistant of the Plaza. Senor Maure, were informed. They
entered death row and together with Rizal signed the
document that the accused had written.
At 5 this morning of the 30th. the lover of Rizal arrived at
the prison dressed in mourning. Only the former entered
the chapel, followed by a military chaplain whose name I
cannot ascertain. Donning his formal clothes and aided by
a soldier of the artillery, the nuptials of Rizal and the
woman who had been his lover were performed at the point
Of death (in articulo mortis). After embracing him she left.
flooded with tears.
This account corroborates the existence of the retraction
document, giving it credence. However, nowhere in the
account was Fr. Balaguer mentioned, which makes the friar
a mere secondary source to the writing Oi the document.
The retraction of Rizal remains to this day, a controversy,
many scholars, however, agree that the document does not
tarnish the heroism of Rizal. His relevance remained
solidified to Filipinos and pushed them to-continue the
revolution. which eventually resulted to independence in
1898.
Chapter and Philippine History 16
Case Study 4: Where did the Cry of Rebellion happen?

Momentous events swept the Spanish colonies in the late

19th century, including the Philippines. Journalists Of the
time referred to the phrase "El Grito de Rebelion" or "Cry of
Rebellion" to mark the start of these revolutionary events,
identifying the places where it happened. In the Philippines,
this happened in August 1896, northeast of Manila, Where
they declared rebellion against the Spanish colonial
government. These events are important markers in the
history of colonies that struggled for their independence
against their colonizers.

The controversy regarding this event stems from the

identification of the date and place where the Cry
happened. Prominent Filipino historian Teodoro Agoncillo
emphasizes the event when Bonifacio tore the cedula or tax
receipt before the Katipuneros who also did the same. Some
writers identified the first military event with the Spaniards
as the moment of the Cry, for which, Emilio Aguinaldo
commissioned a "Himno de Balintawak" to inspire the
renewed struggle after the Pact of the Biak na Bato failed. A
monument to the Heroes of 1896 was erected in what is
now the intersection of Epifanio de los Santos (EDSA)
Avenue and Andres Bonifacio Drive-North Diversion road,
and from then on until 1962, the Cry of Balintawak was
celebrated every 26th of August. The site of the monument
was chosen for an unknown reason.
*different Dates and Places of the Cry'

Various accounts of the Cry give different dates and places.

A guardia civil, Lt. Olegario Diaz, identify the Cry to have
happened in Balintawak on 25 August 1896. Teodoro
Kalaw, Filipino historian, marks the place to be in
Kangkong, Balintawak, on the last week of August 1896.
Santiago Alvarez, a Katipunero and son of Mariano Alvarez,
leader of the Magdiwang faction in Cavite, puts the Cry in
Bahay Toro in Quezon City On 24 August 1896. Pio
Valenzuela. known Katipunero and privy to many events
concerning the Katipunan stated that the Cry happened in
Pugad Lawin on 23 August 1896. Historian Gregorio Zaide
identified the Cry to have happened in Balintawak

on 26 August 1896, while TeodorO Agoncillo puts it at

Pugad Lawin on 23 August 1896. according to statements
by Pio Valenzuela. Research by historians Milagros
Guerrero. Emmanuel Encarnacion, and Ramon Villegas
claimed that the event took place in Tandang Sora's barn in
Gulod, Barangay Banlat, Quezon City, on 24 August 1896.
Primary Source: Accounts of the Cry
Chapter and Philippine History 17
Guillermo Masangkay
Source: Guillermo Masangkay, "Cry of Balintawak" in
Gregorio Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of
Philippine History, Volume 8 (Manila: National Book Store,
1990). 307—309.
On August 26th, a big meeting was held in Balintawak, at
the house of Apolonio Samson, then the cabeza of that
barrio of Caloocan. Among those who attended, I
remember, were Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto, Aguedo del
Rosario, Tomas Remigio, Briccio pantas. Teodoro Plata, Pio
Valenzuela, Enrique Pacheco, and Francisco Carreon. They
were all leaders of the Katipunan and composed the board
of directors of the organization. Delegates from Bulacan,
Cabanatuan, Cavite, and Morong were also present.
At about nine o'clock in the morning of August 26. the
meeting was opened with Andres Bonifacio presiding and
Emilio Jacinto acting as secretary. The purpose was to
discuss when the uprising was to take place. Teodoro Plata,
Briccio Pantas, and Pio Valenzuela were all opposed to
starting the revolution too early... Andres Bonifacio, sensing
that he would lose in the discussion then, left the session
hall and talked to the people, who were waiting outside for
the result of the meeting of the leaders. He told the people
that the leaders were arguing against starting the
revolution early, and appealed to them in a fiery speech in
which he said: "You remember the fate of our countrymen
who were shot in Bagumbayan. Should we return now to
the towns. the Spaniards will only shoot us. Our
organization has been discovered and we are all marked
men. [f we don't start the uprising; the Spaniards will get
us anyway. What then, do you say?"
"Revolt!" the people Shouted as one.

Bonifacio then asked the people to give a pledge that they

were to revolt. He told them that the sign of slavery of the
Filipinos were (sic) the ceduln tax charged each citizen. "If it
is true that you are ready to
revolt... I want to see you destroy your cedulas. It will be a
sign that all of us have declared our severance from the
Spaniards."
Pio Valenzuela
Source: Pio Valenzuela, "Cry Of Pugad Lawin," in Gregorio
Zaide and Sonia Zaide. Documentary Sources of Philippine
History, Volume 8 (Manila: National Book Store, 1990). 301
—302.
The first place of refuge of Andres Bonifacio. Emilio Jacinto.
Procopio Bonifacio. Teodoro Plata. Aguedo del Rosario, and
myself was Balintawak, the first five arriving there on
August 19, and I, on August 20. 1896. The first place where
some 500 members of the Katipunan met on August 22,
1896, was the house and yard of Apolonio Samson at
Kangkong. Aside from the persons mentioned above, among
Chapter and Philippine History 18
 those who were there were Briccio Pantas, Alejandro
Santiago, Ramon Bernardo, Apolonio Samson, and others.
Here, views were only exchanged, and no resolution was
debated or adopted. It was nt Pugad Lawin, the house,
store-house, and yard of Juan Ramos. son of Melchora
Aquino, where over 1,000 members of the Katipunan met
and carried out considerable debate and discussion on
August 23, 1896. The discussion was on whether or not the
revolution against the Spanish government should be
started on August 29, 1896... After the tumultuous
meeting, many of those present tore their cedula certificates
and shouted "Long live the Philippines! lÅ)ng live the
Philippines!"
From the eyewitness accounts presented above, there is
indeed, marked disagreement among historical witnesses
as to the place and time of the occurrence of the Cry. Using
primary and secondary sources, four places have been
identified: Balintawak, Kangkong, Pugad Lawin, and Bahay
Toro, while the dates vary. 23, 24, 25, or 26 August 1896.
Valenzuela's account should be read with caution: He once
told a Spanish investigator that the "Cry' happened in
Balintawak on Wednesday, 26 August 1896. Much later, he
wrote in his Memoirs of the Revolution that it happened at
Pugad Lawin on 23 August 1896. Such inconsistencies in
accounts should always be seen as a red flag when dealing
with primary sources.
According to Guerrero, Encarnacion, and Villegas, all these
places are in Balintawak, then part of Caloocan, now, in
Quezon City. As for the dates, Bonifacio and his troops may
have been moving from one place to another to avoid being
located by the Spanish government, which could explain
why there are several accounts Of the Cry.

REFERENCES.
 Readings in Philippine history, John Lee P. Candelaria, and
Veronica C. Alphorha, 2018, pp. 45-70
 Chua, M.C (2016) retraction ni Jose Rizal: Mga Bagong
Dokumento at Pananaw, in GMA News Online.
[Link]
culture/594027/retraction-ni-jose-rizal-mga-bagong-
dokumento-at-pananaw/story/ Retrieved 15 October 2020

TAKE ACTION
Answer the following Questions:

1. In your own words, after reading this chapter, how do you

understand Multiperspectivity?
2. What do you think are the advantages and challenges
(disadvantages) of Multiperspectivity in learning history?
3. Based on what you have read, just select one and answer
the question.
Chapter and Philippine History 19
 Case #1. where did the first catholic mass take place in the
Philippines? Is it in Limasawa or Butuan? Defend your
answer.
Case #2. what happened in the Cavity Mutiny? Cite
important events as you summarize it as well.
Case #3. Did Rizal Retract? In your own opinion would Rizal
really retract during his last hours? Justify your answer.
Case #4. Where did the cry of Rebellion happen? List down
the various accounts of the cry of rebellion.

SELF-CHECK
A. True or False. Write true if the statement is true. Otherwise,
write false. In the space provided
Historical interpretation is based on the historian's judgment on how
the past should be seen.
2. We make sense of the past through historical interpretation.
3. Multiperspectivity is a quality of historical writing attributed to a
variety of lenses that may be used to view the past.

4. There is only one account of the first Catholic mass in the

Philippines.

5. The significance of the martyrdom of the GOMBURZA is

questioned by historians.

6. The Cavite Mutiny is an event that led to the execution of the

GOMBURZA.

7. Jose Rizal's essays go against the Catholic faith.

8. There is no doubt that Rizal retracted his writings to be able to

marry Josephine Bracken.

9. The Cry of the Rebellion happened in present-day Quezon City.

10. The site of the monument to the Heroes of 1896 was chosen
because this is the actual place where the Cry of the Rebellion
happened.

SELF REFLECT
1. what a meaningful insight have you gained from this lesson? Why is it
important to analyze historical sources from different or various
perspective?

Chapter and Philippine History 20

Chapter 4
Social, Political, Economic, and
Cultural Issues in Philippine
History

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. To analyze social. political, economic,
or cultural issues in the Philippines
using the lens of history.
2. To recognize that, the problems of
today are consequences of decisions
and events that happened in the past.
3. To understand several enduring issues
in Philippine society through history.
4. To propose recommendations or
solutions to present day problems
based on the understanding of the
past and anticipation of the future
through the study of history.

This chapter is dedicated to enduring issues in Philippine

society, which by studying history could lend its hand in
understanding, and hopefully, proposing solutions. These
topics include the mandated discussion on the Philippine
constitution, policies on agrarian reform, and taxation. It is
hoped that these discussions will help us propose
recommendations or solutions to present day problems
based on our understanding of root causes. and how we
anticipate future scenarios in the Philippine setting.

Evolution of the Philippine Constitution

The constitution is defined as a set of fundamental

principles or established precedents according to which a
state or other organization is governed, thus, the word
itself, constitution, means to be a part of a whole, the
coming together of distinct entities into one group. with the
same principles and ideals. These principles define the
nature and extent of government,
The Constitution of the Philippines, the supreme law of the
Republic of the Philippines, has been in effect since 1987.
There are only three other constitutions that have
effectively governed the country: the 1935 Commonwealth
Constitution, the 1973 Constitution, and the 1986 Freedom
Constitution. However, there were earlier constitutions
attempted by Filipinos in the struggle to break free from the
colonial yoke.

Chapter and Philippine History 21

1897: Constitution of Biak-na-Bat0

The Constitution of Biak na-Bat0 was the provisionary

Constitution of the Philippine Republic during the
Philippine Revolution, and was promulgated by the
Philippine Revolutionary Government on 1 November 1897.
The constitution, borrowed from Cuba, was written by
Isabelo Artacho and Félix Ferrer in Spanish, and later on,
translated into Tagalog.

The organs of the Government under the Constitution are:

(1) the Supreme Council. which is vested with the power of
the Republic, headed by the president and four department
secretaries: the interior, foreign affairs, treasury, and war;
(2) the Consejo Supreino de Gracia Y Justicia (Supreme
Council of Grace and Justice). which is given the authority
to make decisions and affirm or disprove the sentences
rendered by other courts. and to dictate rules for the
administration of justice: and (3) the Assamblea de
Representuntes (Assembly of Representatives), which was
to be convened after the revolution to create a new
Constitution and to elect a new Council of Government and
Representatives of the people.
The Constitution of Biak-na•Bato was never fully
implemented. since a truce, the Pact of Biak-na-Bato, was
signed between the Spanish and the Philippine
Revolutionary Army.
Primary Source: Preamble of the Biak-na-Bato
Constitution
the separation of the Philippines from the Spanish
monarchy and their formation into an independent state
with its own government called the Philippine Republic has
been the end sought by the Revolution in the existing war.
begun on the 24th of August. 1896; and, therefore, in its
name and by the power delegated by the Filipino people,
interpreting faithfully their desires and ambitions, we the
representatives cl the Revolution, in a meeting at Biac-na-
bato. November l, 1897. unanimously adopted the following
articles for the constitution of the State.

1899: Malolos Constitution

After the signing of the truce, the Filipino revolutionary

leaders accept& a payment from Spain and went to exile in
Hong Kong. Upon the defeat the Spanish to the Americans
in the Battle of Manila Bay on 1 May 1898. the United
States Navy transported Aguinaldo back to the Philippines.
newly re-formed Philippine revolutionary forces reverted to
the control Aguinaldo, and the Philippine Declaration of
Independence was issued cm 12 June 1898, together with
several decrees that formed the First Philippine Republic.
The Malolos Congress was elected. which selected a
Chapter and Philippine History 22
 commission to draw up a draft constitution on 17
September 1898, which was composed wealthy and
educated men.
The document they came up with. approved by the
Congress on November 1898 and promulgated by
Aguinaldo on 21 January 1899, we titled The Political
Constitution of 1899" and was written in Spanish.
constitution has thirty-nine articles divided into fourteen
titles. with eight articles of transitory provisions, and a final
additional article. The document was patterned after the
Spanish Constitution of 1812, with influences from the
charters Of Belgium. Mexico, Brazil. Nicaragua. Costa Rica
and Guatemala and the French Constitution of 1793.
According to Felipe Calderon, author of the constitution,
these were studied because these countries share similar
social, political, ethnological, and governance conditions
with Philippines. Prior constitutional projects in the
Philippines also influence the Malolos Constitution, namely:
The Kartilya and the Sangguniar» Hukuman, the charter of
laws and morals of the Katipunan written
Emilio Jacinto in 1896: The Biak-na-Bato Constitution of
1897 planned Isabelo Artacho; Mabini's Constitutional
Program of the Philippine Repubtz
Readings in Philippine
of 1898, the provisional constitution of Mariano Ponce in
1898 that followed the Spanish constitutions; and the
autonomy projects of Paterno in 1898.
Primary Source: Preamble of the Political Constitution
of 1899
We, the Representatives of the Filipino People, lawfully
convened, in order to establish justice, provide for common
defense, promote the general welfare and insure the
benefits of liberty. imploring the aid of the Sovereign
Legislator of the Universe for the attainment of these ends,
have voted, decreed, and sanctioned the following political
constitution.
As a direct challenge to colonial authorities Of the Spanish
empire, the sovereignty was retroverted to the people, a
legal principle underlying the Philippine Revolution. The
people delegate governmental functions to civil servants
while they retain actual sovereignty. The 27 articles of Title
IV detail the natural rights and popular sovereignty of
Filipinos. the enumeration of which does not imply the
prohibition of any other rights not expressly stated. Title Ill,
Article V, also declares that the State recognizes the
freedom and equality of all beliefs. as well as the separation
of Church and State. These are direct reactions to features
of the Spanish government in the Philippines, where the
friars were dominant agents of the state.
The form of government, according to Title Il, Article 4 is to be
popular, representative, alternative. and responsible, and shall
exercise three distinct powers, namely: legislative. executive, and
Chapter and Philippine History 23
judicial. The legislative power was vested in a unicameral body
called the Assembly of Representatives, members of which are
elected for terms of four years. Secretaries of the government
were given seats in the assembly, which meets annually for a
period of at least three months. Bills could be introduced either
by the president or by a member Of the assembly. Some powers
not legislative in nature were also given to the body. such as the
right to select its own officers, right of censure and interpellation,
and the right of impeaching the president, cabinet members, the
chief justice of the Supreme Court, and the solicitor general. A
permanent commission of seven, elected by the assembly, and
granted specific powers by the constitution, was to sit during the
intervals between sessions of the assembly.

Executive power was vested in the president, and elected by a

constituent assembly of the Assembly of Representatives and
special representatives. The president will serve a term of four
years without re-election. There was

|
no vice president, and in case of a vacancy, a president was to be
selected by the constituent assembly.

The 1899 Malolos Constitution was never enforced due to the

ongoing war. The Philippines was effectively a territory of the
United States upon the signing of the Treaty of Paris between
Spain and the United States, transferring sovereignty of the
Philippines on 10 December 1898,

1935: The Commonwealth Constitution

It is worth mentioning that after the Treaty Of Paris, the

Philippines was subject to the power of the United States of
America, effectively the new colonizers of the country. From 1898
to 1901. the Philippines will be placed under a military
government, until a civil government will be put into place.

Two acts of the United States Congress were passed that may be
considered to have qualities of constitutionality. First is the
Philippine Organic Act of 1902, the first organic law for the
Philippine Islands that provided for the creation of a popularly
elected Philippine Assembly, and specified that legislative power
would be vested in a bicameral legislature composed of the
Philippine Commission as the upper house, and the Philippine
Assembly as lower house. Key provisions of the Act included a bill
of rights for Filipinos and the appointment of two non-voting
Filipino Resident Commissioner of the Philippines as
representative to the United States House of Representatives. The
second Act that functioned as a constitution is the Philippine
Autonomy Act Of 1916, (commonly referred to as "Jones Law,"
which modified the structure of the Philippine government
through the removal of the Philippine Commission, replacing it
with a Senate that served as the upper house and its members
Chapter and Philippine History 24
elected by the Filipino voters, the first truly elected national
legislature. It was also in this Act that explicitly declared the
purpose of the United States to end their sovereignty over the
Philippines and recognize Philippine independence as soon as a
stable government can be established.

In 1932, with the efforts Of the Filipino independence mission led

by Sergio Osmenia and Manuel Roxas, the United States
Congress passed the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act with the premise of
granting Filipinos independence. The bill Was opposed by then
Senate President Manuel L. Quezon and consequently, rejected by
the Philippine Senate.

By 1934, another law, the Tydings-McDuffe Act, also known asthe

Philippine Independence Act, was passed by the United States
Congress

Chapter and Philippine History 25

that provided authority and defined mechanisms for the establishment
of a formal constitution by a constitutional convention. The members of
the convention were elected and held their first meeting on 30 July
1934, with Claro M. Recto unanimously elected as president.

The constitution was crafted to meet the approval of the United States
government, and to ensure that the US would live up to its promise to
grant independence to the Philippines.

Primary Source: Preamble of the 1935 Commonwealth

The Filipino people, imploring the aid of Divine Providence. in
order to establish a government that shall embody their ideals,
conserve and develop the patrimony of the nation, promote the
general welfare, and secure to themselves and their posterity the
blessings of independence under a regime of justice, liberty, and
democracy, do ordain and promulgate this constitution.

The constitution created the Commonwealth of the Philippines, an

administrative body that governed the Philippines from 1935 to 1946.
It is a transitional administration to prepare the country toward its full
achievement of independence. It originally provided for a unicameral
National Assembly with a president and vice president elected to a six
year term without re-election. It was amended in 1940 to have a
bicameral Congress composed Of a Senate and a House of
Representatives. as well as the creation of an independent electoral
commission, and limited the term of office of the president and vice
president to four years, with one re-election. Rights to suffrage was
originally afforded to male citizens Of the Philippines who are twenty-
one years of age or over and are able to read and write; this was later
on extended to women within two years after the adoption of the
constitution.

While the dominant influence in the constitution was American, it also

bears traces of the Malolos Constitution, the German, Spanish.
Mexican constitutions, constitutions of several South American
countries, and the unwritten English Constitution.

The draft of the constitution was approved by the constitutional

convention on 8 February 1935 and ratified by then US President
Franklin D. Roosevelt on 25 March 1935. Elections were held in
September 1935 and Manuel L. Quezon was elected President of the
Commonwealth.

with the Japanese occupying the Philippines. Afterward, upon

liberation, the Philippines was declared an independent republic on 4
July 1946.

1773: Constitutional Authoritarianism

Chapter 4 Economic. and Cultural Philippine 26

In 1965. Ferdinand E. Marcos was elected president, and in 1967.
Philippine Congress passed a resolution calling for a constitutional
convention to change the 1935 Constitution. Marcos won the re-
election in 1969, in a bid boosted by campaign overspending and use
of government funds, Elections of the delegates to the constitutional
convention were held on 20 November 1970, and the convention began
formally on 1 June 1971, with former President Carlos P. Garcia being
elected as convention president. Unfortunately, he died, and was
succeeded by another former president. Diosdado Macapagal.
Before the convention finished its work, martial law was declared.
Marcos cited a growing communist insurgency as reason for the
martial law. which was provided for in the 1935 Constitution. Some
delegates of the ongoing constitutional convention Were placed behind
bars and others went into hiding or voluntary exile. With Marcos as
dictator, the direction of the convention turned, with accounts that the
president himself dictated some provisions of the constitution,
manipulating the document to be able to hold on to power for as long
as he can. On 29 November 1972, the convention approved its
proposed constitution.

The constitution was supposed to introduce a parliamentary style

government, where legislative power was vested in a unicameral
National Assembly. with members being elected to a term of six years.
The president was to be elected as the symbolic and ceremonial head of
state chosen from the members of the National Assembly. The
president would serve a six-year term and could be re-elected to an
unlimited number of terms, Executive power is relegated to the Prime
Minister, who is also the head of government and Commander-in-Chief
of the Armed Forces who was also to be elected from the National
Assembly.
President Marcos issued Presidential Decree No. 73 setting the date of
the plebiscite to ratify or reject the proposed constitution on 30
November 1973. This plebiscite was postponed later on, since Marcos
feared that the public might vote to reject the constitution. Instead Of a
plebiscite, Citizen Assemblies were held, from 10—15 January 1973,
where the citizens, coming

in
together and voting by hand. decided on whether to ratify the
constitution. suspend the convening of the Interim National Assembly,
continue martial law, and place a moratorium on elections for a period
of at least several years. The President, on 17 January 1973, issued a
proclamation announcing that the proposed constitution has been
ratified by an overwhelming vote of the members of the highly irregular
Citizen Assemblies.

The constitution was amended several times. In 1976, Citizen

Assemblies, once again, overwhelming decided to allow the
continuation of martial law, as well as approved the amendments: an
Interim Batasang Pambansa to substitute for the Interim National
Assembly. the president to also become the Prime Minister and
continue to exercise legislative powers until martial law is lifted and
Chapter 4 Economic. and Cultural Philippine 27
authorized the President to legislate on his own on an emergency basis.
An overwhelming majority will ratify further amendments succeedingly.
In 1980, the retirement age of members of the judiciary was extended
to 70 years. In 1981, the parliamentary system was formally modified
to a French-style, semi-presidential system where executive power was
restored to the president, who was, once again, to be directly elected;
an Executive Committee was to be created, composed of the Prime
Minister and fourteen others, that served as the president's Cabinet;
and some electoral reforms were instituted. In 1984, the Executive
Committee was abolished and the position of the vice president was
restored.

After all the amendments introduced, the 1973 Constitution was

merely a way for the President to keep executive powers, abolish the
Senate, and, by no means, never acted as a parliamentary system. but
instead, functioned as an authoritarian presidential system. with all
the real power concentrated in the hands of the president, with the
backing of the constitution.
The situation in the 1980s has been very turbulent. As Marcos
amassed power, discontent has also been burgeoning. The tide turned
swiftly when in August 1983, Benigno Aquino Jr., opposition leader
and regarded as the most credible alternative to President Marcos, was
assassinated while under military escort immediately after his return
from exile in the United States. There was widespread suspicion that
the orders to assassinate Aquino came from the top levels of the
government and the military. This event caused the coming together of
the non-violent opposition to the Marcos authoritarian regime. Marcos
was then forced to hold "snap" elections a year early, and said elections
were marred by widespread fraud. Marcos declared himself winner,
despite international condemnation and nationwide protests. A small
group of military rebels attempted to stage a coup, but failed; however,
this triggered what Came to be known as the EDSA People Power
Revolution

Chapter 4 Economic. and Cultural Philippine 28

of 1896, as people from all walks of life spilled onto the streets.
Under pressure from the United States of America, who used to
support Marcos and his martial law, the Marcos family fled into
exile. His opponent in the snap elections, Benigno Aquino Jr.'s
widow. Corazon Aquino, was installed as president on 25
February 1986.

1987: Constitution after Martial Law

President Corazon Aquino's government had three options

regarding the constitution: revert to the 1935 Constitution, retain
the 1973 Constitution and be granted the power to make reforms,
or start anew and break from the "vestiges of a disgraced
dictatorship." They decided to make a new constitution to that,
according to the president herself, should be "truly reflective of
the aspirations and ideals of the Filipino people."
In March 1986, President Aquino proclaimed a transitional
constitution to last for a year while a Constitutional Commission
drafted a permanent constitution. This transitional constitution,
called the Freedom Constitution, maintained many provisions of
the old one, including in rewritten form the presidential right to
rule by decree. In 1986. a constitutional convention was created,
composed Of 48 members appointed by President Aquino from
varied backgrounds and representations. The convention drew up
a permanent constitution, largely restoring the set-up abolished
by Marcos in 1972, but with new ways to keep the president in
check, a reaction to the experience of Marcos rule. The new
constitution was officially adopted on 2 February 1987.

The Constitution begins with a preamble, and eighteen self-

contained articles. It established the Philippines as a "democratic
republican State" where "sovereignty resides in the people and all
government authority emanates from them." It allocates
governmental powers among the executive, legislative, and
judicial branches of the government.

The Executive branch is headed by the president and his cabinet,

whom he appoints. The president is the head of the state and the
chief executive, but his power is limited by significant checks
from the two other co-equal branches of government, especially
during times of emergency. This is put in place to safeguard the
country from the experience of martial law despotism during the
presidency of Marcos. In eases of national emergency, the
president may still declare martial law, but not longer than a
period of sixty days. Congress, through a majority vote. can
revoke this decision, or extend in it for a period that they
determine. The Supreme Court may also review the declaration of
martial law and decide if there were sufficient justifying facts for
the act, The president and the vice president are elected at large
by a direct vote, serving a single six-year term.

Chapter 4 Economic. and Cultural Philippine 29

The legislative power resides in a Congress divided into two
Houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives. The 24
senators are elected at large by popular vote, and can serve no
more than two consecutive six year terms. The House is
composed of district representatives representing a particular
geographic area, and make up around 80% Of the total number
Of representatives. There are 234 legislative districts in the
Philippines that elect their representatives to serve three-year
terms. The 1987 Constitution created a party-list system to
provide spaces for the participation Of underrepresented
community sectors or groups. Party-list representatives may fill
up not more than 20% of the seats in the House.
Aside from the exclusive power of legislation. Congress may also
declare war, through a two-thirds vote in both upper and lower
houses. But the power of legislation, however. is also subject to
an executive check, as the president retains the power to veto or
stop a bill from becoming a law. Congress may only override this
power with a two-thirds vote in both houses.

The Philippine Court system is vested with the power Of the

judiciary, and is composed of a Supreme Court and lower courts
as created by law. The Supreme Court is a 15-member court
appointed by the president without the need to be confirmed by
Congress. The appointment the president makes, however, is
limited to a list of nominees provided by a constitutionally
specified Judicial and Bar Council. The Supreme Court Justices
may hear, on appeal. any cases dealing with the constitutionality
of any law. treaty. or decree of the government, cases Where
questions of jurisdiction or judicial error are concerned, or cases
where the penalty is sufficiently grave. It may also exercise
original jurisdiction over cases involving government or
international officials. The Supreme Court also is charged with
overseeing the functioning and administration of the lower Courts
and their personnel.

The Constitution also established three independent

Constitutional Commissions, namely: the Civil Service
Commission. a central agency in charge of government personnel;
the Commission on Elections, mandated to enforce and
administer all election laws and regulations; and the Commission
on Audit, which examines all funds, transactions. and property
accounts of the government and its agencies.

Chapter 4 Economic. and Cultural Philippine 30

 |

To further promote the

ethical and lawful conduct
of the government, the
Office of the Ombudsman
was created to investigate
complaints that pertain to
public corruption, unlawful
behavior of public officials,
and other public
misconduct. The
Ombudsman can charge
public officials before the
Sandiganbayan, a special
court created for this
purpose.

Only the House of

Representatives can initiate
the impeachment of the'
president. members Of' the
Supreme Court, and Other
constitutionally protected
public officials such as the
Ombudsman, The Senate
will then try the
impeachment case. This is
another safeguard to
promote moral and ethical
conduct in the government.

Attempts to amend or
change the 1987
constitution
The 1987 Constitution
provides for three ways by
which the Constitution can
be amended, all requiring
ratification by a majority
vote in a national
referendum. These modes
are a Constituent
Assembly, a People's
Initiative, or a
Constitutional Convention.
Using these modes, there
were efforts to amend or
change the 1987
Constitution, starting with
the presidency of Fidel V.
Ramos who succeeded

Chapter 4 Economic. and

Cultural Philippine 31
Corazon Aquino. The first
attempt was in 1995, when
then Secretary of National
Security Council Jose
Almonte drafted a
constitution, but it was
exposed to the media and it
never prospered. The
second effort happened in
1997, when a group called
PIRMA, hoped to gather
signatures from voters to
Change the constitution
through a people's
initiative. Many were
against this, including then
Senator Miriam Defensor•
Santiago, who brought the
issue to court and won—
with the Supreme Court
judging that a people's
initiative cannot push
through without an
enabling law.

The succeeding president,

Joseph Ejercito Estrada,
formed a study commission
to investigate the issues
surrounding charter
change focusing on the
economic and judiciary
provisions of the
constitution. Thig effort was
also blocked by different
entities. After President
Estrada was replaced by
another People Power and
succeeded by his Vice-
President, Gloria Macapagal
Arroyo, then House
Speaker Jose de Venecia
endorsed constitutional
change through a
Constituent Assembly,
which entails a two-thirds
vote of the House to
propose amendments or
revision to the Constitution.
This initiative was also not
successful, since the term
of President Arroyo was
mired in controversy and

Chapter 4 Economic. and

Cultural Philippine 32
scandal, including the
possibility of Arroyo
extending her term as
president. which the
Constitution does not allow.

in

Chapter 4 Economic. and

Cultural Philippine 33
The administration Of the succeeding president, Benigno Aquino Ill, had no
marked interest in charter change, except those emanating from different members
of Congress, including the Speaker of the House, Feliciano Belmonte Jr., who
attempted to introduce amendments to the Constitution that concern economic
provisions that aim toward liberalization. This effort did not see the light of day.

In an upsurge of populism, President Rodrigo Duterte won the 2016 presidential

elections in a campaign centering on law and order, proposing to reduce crime by
killing tens of thousands of criminals. He also is a known advocate of federalism, a
compound mode Of government combining a central or federal government with
regional governments in a single political system. This advocacy is in part an
influence of his background, being a local leader in Mindanao that has been mired
in poverty and violence for decades. On 7 December 2016, President Duterte
signed an executive order creating a consultative committee to review the 1987
Constitution.

SUMMARY:

EVOLUTION OF THE PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION

The constitution is defined as a set of fundamental principles or established

precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed, thus, the
world itself means to be a part of a whole, the coming together of distinct entities
into one group, with the same principles and ideals. These principles define the
nature and extent government.

The Constitution of the Philippines, the Supreme law of the Republic of the
Philippines, has been in effect since 1987. There were only three other
constitutions that have effectively governed the country:

 The 1935 Commonwealth Constitution

 The 1973 Constitution
 The 1986 Freedom Constitution

However, there were earlier constitutions attempted by Filipinos in the

struggle to break free from colonial yoke.

1897: Constitution of Biak-na-Bato

BACKGROUND:
The constitution borrowed from Cuba was written by Isabelo Artacho and Felix Ferrer in Spanish and later
on, translated into tagalog

PROMULGATED:
November 1, 1897

ORGANS OF THE GOV’T:

*The Supreme Council, vested with the power of the Republic headed by the President and four/4
Secretaries.
a. The Interior
b. Foreign Affairs
34 Readings Philippine
 c. Treasury and;
d. War

*Consejo Supremo de Gracia Y Justicia (Supreme Council of Grace and Justice)

-which was given the authority to make decisions and affirm or disprove the sentences rendered by other
courts and to dictate rules for the administration of justice, and
*The Asamblea de Representates (Assembly of Representatives)
-Which was to be concerned after the revolution to create a new constitution and to elect a new council of
Government and Representatives of the people.

1899: Malolos Constitution

BACKGROUND:
The Document was patterned after the Spanish Constitution of 1812, which influences from the charters of
Belgium, Mexico, Brazil, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Unataemala, and French Constitution.

PROMULGATED:
The Malolos Congress was elected which selected a commission to draw up a draft constitution on 17
September 1899 which was composed of wealthy and educated men.

ORGANS OF THE GOV’T:

*The Supreme Council, vested with the power of the Republic headed by the President and four/4
Secretaries.
a. The Interior
b. Foreign Affairs
c. Treasury and;
d. War

*Consejo Supremo de Gracia Y Justicia (Supreme Council of Grace and Justice)

-which was given the authority to make decisions and affirm or disprove the sentences rendered by other
courts and to dictate rules for the administration of justice, and
*The Asamblea de Representates (Assembly of Representatives)
-Which was to be concerned after the revolution to create a new constitution and to elect a new council of
Government and Representatives of the people.

1935: The Commonwealth Constitution

BACKGROUND:
The constitution created the Commonwealth of the Philippines, an administrative body that governed the
Philippines from 1935 to 1946.
PROMULGATED:
The draft of the constitution was approved by the Constitutional Convention on 8 February 1935 and ratified
by then US President Franklin B. Roosevelt on 25 March 1935.
ORGANS OF THE GOV’T:
It originally provided for a Unicameral National Assembly with a
a. President
b. Vice President
-Elected to a six-year term without re-election.
-It was amended in 1940 to have a bicameral congress composed of a Senate and a House of Representatives,
as well as the creation of an independent electoral commission, and limited the term of office of the President
and Vice President to four years with one re-election.

1973: Constitutional Authoritarianism

4 Economic, and 35
BACKGROUND:
-In 1965, Ferdinand Marcos was elected President, and in 1967, Philippine Congress passed a resolution
calling for a constitutional convention to change the 1935 Constitution.
-Marcos won the re-election in 1969.
-Elections to the delegates to the constitutional convention were held on 20 November 1970, and the
convention began formally on 1 June 1971, with former President Carlos P. Garcia being elected as
convention President. After he died, he was succeeded by former President, Diosdado Macapagal.
-Before the convention finished its work, Martial Law was declared.

PROMULGATED:
On 29 November 1972, the convention approved its proposed constitution.

ORGANS OF THE GOV’T:

The President was to be elected as the symbolic and ceremonial head of state chosen from the members of the
National assembly. The President would serve a six-year term and could be re-elected to an unlimited number
of terms. Executive power was relegated to the Prime Minister, who was also the head of government and
Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces who was also to be elected from the National Assembly.

1987: Constitution after Martial Law

BACKGROUND:
President Corazon Aquino’s government had three options regarding the constitution: revert to the 1935
Constitution, retain the 1973 Constitution and be granted the power to make reforms, or start anew and break
from the “vestiges of a disgraced dictatorship.” They decided to make a new constitution that, according to
the President herself, should be “truly reflective of the aspirations and ideals of the Filipino people”.
-In March 1986, President Aquino proclaimed a transitional Constitution to last for a year while a
Constitutional Commission drafted a permanent constitution.
-This transitional constitution, called the Freedom Constitution, maintained many provisions of the old one,
including in rewritten from the presidential right to rule by decree.
-In 1986, a constitutional convention was created, composed of 48 members appointed by President Aquino
from varied backgrounds and representations.
-The convention drew up a permanent constitution, largely restoring the setup abolished by Marcos in 1972,
but with new ways to keep the president in check, a reaction to the experience of Marcos’s rule.
PROMULGATED:
The New Constitution was officially adopted on 2 February 1987.

ORGANS OF THE GOV’T:

*The Executive Branch is headed by the President and his cabinet, whom he appoints.
*The Legislative power resides in a Congress divided into two Houses: the Senate and the House of
Representatives.
The 24 senators are elected at large by popular vote, and can serve no more than two consecutive six year
terms. The House is composed of district representatives representing a particular geographic area and makes
up around 80% of the total number of representatives. There are 234 legislative districts in the Philippines
that elect their representatives to serve three-year terms. The 1987 Constitution created a party-list system to
provide spaces for the participation of under-represented community sectors or groups. Party-list
representatives may fill up not more than 20% of the seats in the House.
The Philippine Court system is vested with the power of the judiciary, and is composed of a Supreme Court
and lower courts as created by law. The Supreme Court is a 15-member court appointed by the President
without the need to confirm by Congress.
*The Constitution also established three independent Constitutional Commission, namely,
a. the Civil Service Commission, a central agency in charge of government personnel;
b. The Commission on Elections, mandated to enforce and administer all election laws and regulations;
c. And the Commission on Audit, which examines all funds, transactions, and property accounts of the
government and its agencies

4 Economic, and 36
Policies on Agrarian Reform
Agrarian reform is essentially the rectification of the whole system of agriculture,
an important aspect of the Philippine economy because nearly half of the
population is employed in the agricultural sector, and most citizens live in rural
areas. Agrarian reform is centered on the relationship between production and the
distribution of land among farmers. It is focused on the political and economic
class character of the relations of production and distribution in farming and
related enterprise and how these connect to the wider class structure. Through
genuine and comprehensive agrarian reform, the Philippines would be able to gain
more from its agricultural potential and uplift the Filipinos in the agricultural
sector, who have been, for the longest time, mired in poverty and discontent.

In our attempt to understand the development of agrarian reform in the

Philippines, we turn our attention to our country’s history, especially our colonial
past, where we could find the root of the agrarian woes the country experiences up
to this very day.

LAND OWNERSHIP IN THE PHILIPPINES UNDER SPAIN

When the Spaniards colonized the country, they brought with them a system of
pueblo agriculture, where rural communities, often dispersed and scattered in
nature, were organized into a pueblo and given land to cultivate.

Families were not allowed to own their land- the king of Spain owned the land, and
Filipinos were assigned to these lands to cultivate them. and they pay their colonial
tributes to the Spanish authorities in the form Of agricultural products.

Later on, through the Law of the Indies, the Spanish crown awarded tracts Of land
to (1) religious orders; (2) Spanish military as repartamientos or reward for their
service; and (3) Spanish encomenderos, those mandated to manage the
encomienda or the lands given to them, where Filipinos worked and paid their
tributes to the encomendero. Filipinos were not given the right to own land, and
only worked in them so that they may have a share of the crops and pay tribute.
The encomienda system was an unfair and abusive system, as "compras y
vandalas" became the norm for the Filipino farmers working the land—they were
made to sell their products at a very low price, or surrender their products to the
encomenderos, who resell this at profit. Filipinos in the encomienda Were also
required to render services to their encomenderos that are unrelated to farming.
From this encomienda system. the hacienda system developed in the beginning of
the 19th century, as the Spanish government implemented policies that would fast
track the entry of the colony into the capitalist world. The economy was tied to the
world market, as the Philippines became an exporter of raw materials and importer
of goods. Agricultural exports were demanded and the hacienda system was
developed as a new form of ownership. In the 1860s, Spain enacted a law ordering
landholders to register their landholdings, and only those who knew benefitted
from this. Lands were claimed and registered in other people's names, and many
peasant families who were "assigned" to the land in the earlier days of colonization
were driven out, or forced to come under the power of these people who claimed
rights to the land because they held a title.
This is the primary reason why revolts in the Philippines were oftentimes agrarian
in nature. Before the colonization, Filipinos had communal ownership of land. The
4 Economic, and 37
system introduced by the Spaniards became a bitter Source of hatred and
discontent for the Filipinos. Religious orders, the biggest landowners in the
Philippines, also became a main source of abuse and exploitation for the Filipinos,
increasing the rent paid by the Filipinos on a whim.

Filipinos fought the Philippine Revolution in a confluence of motivations, but the

greatest desire for freedom would be the necessity of owning land. Upon the end Of
the Philippine Revolution, the revolutionary government will declare all large
landed estates, especially the friar lands, confiscated, and became government
property. However, the first Philippine republic was short-lived. The entrance of the
Americans will signal a new era of colonialism and imperialism in the Philippines.

LAND OWNERSHIP IN THE PHILIPPINES UNDER THE AMERICANS

The Americans were aware that the main cause of social unrest in the Philippines
is landlessness, and they attempted to put an end to the deplorable conditions of
the tenant farmers by passing several land policies to increase the small
landholders and distribute ownership to a bigger number of Filipino tenants and
farmers. The Philippine Bill of 1902 provided regulations on the disposal Of public
lands. A private individual may own 16 hectares of land while corporate
landholders may have 1,024 hectares. Americans were also given rights to own
agricultural lands in the country. The Philippine Commission also enacted Act No.
496 or the Land Registration Act, which introduced the Torrens system to address
the absence of earlier records Of issued land titles and conduct accurate land
surveys. In 1903, the homestead program was introduced, allowing a tenant to
enter into an agricultural business by acquiring a farm of at least 16 hectares. This
program, however, was limited to areas in Northern Luzon and Mindanao, where
colonial penetration has been difficult for Americans, a problem they inherited
from the Spaniards.

Landownership did not improve during the American period; in fact, it even
worsened, because there is no limit to the size of landholdings people can possess,
and the accessibility of possession was limited to those who can afford to buy,
register. and acquire fixed property titles. Not all friar lands acquired by the
Americans were given to landless peasant farmers. Some lands were sold or leased
to American and Filipino business interest. This early land reform program was
also implemented without -support mechanisms—if a landless peasant farmer
Received land, he only received land. nothing more, many were forced to return to

tenancy, and wealthy Filipino hacienderos purchased or forcefully took over lands
from farmers who cannot afford to pay their debts. The system introduced by the
Americans enabled more lands to be placed under tenancy, and led to widespread
peasant uprisings, such as the Colorum and Sakdal Uprising in Luzon. Peasants
and workers found refuge from millenarian movements that gave them hope that
change could still happen through militancy.

During the years Of the Commonwealth government, the situation further

worsened. as peasant uprisings increased and landlord-tenant relationship became
4 Economic, and 38
more and more disparate. President Quezon laid down a social justice program
focused on the purchase of haciendas, which were to be divided and sold to
tenants. His administration also created the National Rice and Corn Corporation
(NARICC) to assign public defenders to assist peasants in court battles for their
rights to the land, and the Court of Industrial Relations to exercise jurisdiction
over disagreements arising from landowner-tenant relationship. The Homestead
Program also continued, through the National Land Settlement Administration
(MSA). Efforts toward agrarian reform by the Commonwealth failed because many
problems such as budget allocation for the settlement program and widespread
peasant uprisings. World War Il put a halt to all interventions to solve these
problems, as the Japanese occupied the country.

POST- WAR INTERVENTIONS TOWARDS AGRARIAN REFORM

Rehabilitation and rebuilding after the war was focused on providing solutions to
the problems of the past. The administration of President Roxas passed Republic
Act NO. 34 to establish a 70—30 sharing arrangement between tenant and
landlord. respectively. and reduced the interest landowners' loans to tenants at six
percent or less. The government attempted to redistribute hacienda lands, falling
prey to the woes of similar attempts since no support was given to small farmers
who were sold lands-
Under the term of President Elpidio Quirino, the Land Settlement Development
Corporation (LASEDECO) was established to accelerate and expand the
resettlement program for peasants. This agency later on became the National
Resettlement and Rehabilitation Administration (NARRA.) under the
administration of President Ramon Magsaysay.

Magsaysay saw the importance of pursuing genuine land reform program and
convinced Congress, majority of which are landed elites, to pa— legislation to
improve the land reform situation. Republic Act No. 1199 the Agricultural
Tenancy Act was passed to govern the relationship between landholders and
tenant farmers. protecting the tenurial rights of tenants and enforced tenancy
practices. Through this law, the Court of Agricultural Relations was created in
1955 to improve tenancy security. fix land rentals of tenanted farms and resolve
land disputes filed by the landowners and peasant organizations. The Agricultural
Tenancy Commission was also established to administer problems created by
tenancy. The Agricultural Credit and

Cooperative Financing Administration (ACCFA) was also created mainly to

provide warehouse facilities and assist farmers in marketing their products. The
administration spearheaded the establishment of the Agricultural and Industrial
Bank to provide easier terms in applying for homestead and other farmlands.

NARRA accelerated the government resettlement program and distribution of

agricultural lands to landless tenants and farmers. It also aimed to convince
members of the Huks, a movement of rebels in Central Luzon, to resettle in areas
where they can restart lives as peaceful citizens.

4 Economic, and 39
 Despite a more vigorous effort toward agrarian reform, the situation for the
farmers remained dire, since the government lacked funds and provided
inadequate support services for the programs. The landed elite did not fully
cooperate and criticized the programs.
A major stride in land reform arrived during the term of President Diosdado
Macapagal through the Agricultural Land Reform Code (Republic Act No. 3844).

Primary Source: Declaration of Policy under RA No. 3844 or Agricultural

Land Reform Code
Source: Section 2 of RA 3844
It is the policy of the State:
(I) TO establish owner-cultivatorship and the economic family-size farm as the
basis of Philippine agriculture and, as a consequence, divert landlord capital in
agriculture to industrial development;
(2) TO achieve a dignified existence for the small farmers free from pernicious
institutional restraints and practices;
(3) To create a truly viable social and economic structure in agriculture
conducive to greater productivity and higher farm incomes;
(4) To apply all labor laws equally and without discrimination to both industrial
and agricultural wage earners;
(5) To provide a more vigorous and systematic land resettlement program and
public land distribution; and
(6) To make the small farmers more independent, self-reliant and responsible
citizens. and a source of genuine strength in our democratic society.

This Code abolished share tenancy in the Philippines and prescribed program to
convert tenant-farmers to lessees and later on owner-cultivators It also aimed to
free tenants from tenancy and emphasize owner-cultivatorship and farmer
independence, equity, productivity improvement, and public distribution. Despite
being one of the most comprehensive pieces Of reform legislation ever passed in the
Philippines, Congress did not make effort to come up with a separate bill to fund
its implementation, despite fact that it proved beneficial in the provinces where it
was pilot tested.

AGRARIAN REFORM EFFORTS UNDER

MARCOS

President Marcos declared martial law in 1972, enabling essentially wipe out the
landlord-dominated Congress. Through "technocrats." he was able to expand
executive power to start a 'fundamental restructuring" of government, including its
efforts in solving the structural problems of the countryside. Presidential Decree
No. 27, Code of Agrarian Reform Of the Philippines. became the core Of reform
during Marcos regime.

Primary Source:' Presidential Decree No. 27, 21 October 1972

This shall apply to tenant farmers of private agricultural lands devoted to rice and
corn under a system of sharecrop or lease-tenancy whether classified as landed
estate or not;
4 Economic, and 40
The tenant farmer, whether in land classified as landed estate shall be deemed
owner of a portion constituting a family-size five (5) hectares if not irrigated and
three (3) hectares if irrigated; In all cases, the landowner may retain an area of
not more than (7) hectares if such landowner is cultivating such area or will
cultivate it;
For the purpose Of determining the cost Of the land to be transferred the tenant-
farmer pursuant to this Decree, the value of the land be equivalent to two and
one-half (2 1/2) times the average harvest three normal crop years immediately
preceding the promulgation this Decree;
The total cost of the land, including interest at the rate of six centum per annum.
shall be paid by the tenant in fifteen (15) fifteen (15) equal annual amortizations;

In case Of default, the amortization due shall be paid by the farmers'

cooperative in which the defaulting tenant-farmer is a member, with the
cooperative having a right of recourse against him;

The government shall guaranty such amortizations with shares of stock in

government-owned and government-controlled corporations;

No title to the land owned by the tenant-farmers under this Decree shall be
actually issued to a tenant-farmer unless and until the tenant farmer has
become a full-fledged member of a duly recognized farmer's cooperative;

Title to land acquired pursuant to this Decree or the Land Reform Program of
the Government shall not be transferable except by hereditary succession or to
the Government in accordance with the provisions of this Decree, the Code of
Agrarian Reforms and other existing laws and regulations;

The Department of Agrarian Reform through its Secretary is hereby

empowered to promulgate rules and regulations for the implementation of this
Decree.

"Operation Land Transfer" on lands occupied by tenants of more than

seven hectares on rice and corn lands commenced, and through legal compulsion
and an improved delivery of support service to small farmers. agrarian reform
seemed to be finally achievable. Under the rice self-sufficiency program "Masagana
'99," farmers were able to borrow from banks and purchase three-hectare plots of
lands and agricultural inputs. However, the landlord class still found ways to
Circumvent the law. Because only rice lands were the focus of agrarian reform,
some landlords only needed to change crops to be exempted from the program,
such as coconut and sugar lands. Lands worked by wage labor were also exempt
from the program. so the landed elite only had to evict their tenants and hired
workers instead. Landlessness increased, which made it all the more difficult for
the program to succeed because landless peasants were excluded from the
program. Many other methods were employed by the elite to find a way to maintain
their power and dominance, which was worsened by the corruption Of Marcos and
his cronies who were also involved in the agricultural sector.

4 Economic, and 41
POST- 1986 AGRARIAN REFORM

The overthrow of Marcos and the 1987 Constitution resulted to a renewed interest
and attention to agrarian reform, as President Corazon Aquino envisioned agrarian
reform to be the centerpiece of her administration's social legislation, which proved
difficult because her background betrayed her—she comes from a family of a
wealthy and landed clan that owns Hacienda Luisita.

On 22 July 1987, Aquino issued Presidential Proclamation 131 and Executive

Order 229, which outlined her land reform program. In 1988, the Congress passed
Republic Act No. 6657. or the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL), which
introduced the program with the same narr (Comprehensive Agrarian Reform
Program or CARP). It enabled the redistribution of agricultural lands to tenant-
farmers from landowners, wb were paid in exchange by the government through
just compensation, and allowed them to retain not more than five hectares.
Corporate landowners were, however, allowed under law to voluntarily divest a
proportion of their capital stock, equity. or participation in favor of their workers or
other qualified beneficiaries instead of turning Over their land to the government.

CARP was limited because it accomplished very little during administration Of

Aquino. It only accomplished 22.5% of land distribution in six years owing to the
fact that Congress, dominated by the landed elite, unwilling to fund the high
compensation costs of the program. It was ale mired in controversy. since Aquino
seemingly bowed down to the pressure her relatives by allowing the stock
redistribution option. Hacienda Luisita reorganized itself into a corporation and
distributed stocks to farmers.

Under the term of President Ramos, CARP implementation was speedy in order to
meet the ten-year time frame, despite limitations and constrains in funding,
logistics, and participation of involved sectors. By 1996, Department of Agrarian
Reform (DAR) distributed only 58.25% of the total area target to be covered by the
program. To address the lacking and the dwindling time for the implementation of
CARP, Ramos Republic Act No. 8532 in 1998 to amend CARL and extend the
program another ten years.

CARPER and the future agrarian reform in the Philippines

The new deadline of CARP expired in 2008, leaving 1.2 million farmer
beneficiaries and 1.6 million hectares of agricultural land to be
distributed to farmers. In 2009, President Arroyo signed Republic Act No.
9700 or the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program Extension with Reforms
(CARPER), the amendatory law that extended the deadline to five more years.
Section 30 of the law also mandates that any case and/or proceeding involving
implementation of the provisions of CARP, as amended, which may remain pending
on 30 June 2014 shall be allowed to proceed to its finality and executed even
beyond such date.
From 2009 to 2014, CARPER has distributed total of 1 million hectares of land to
900.000 farmer beneficiaries. After 27 years of land reform and two Aquino
administrations, 500,000 hectares of lands remain undistributed. The DAR and
the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) are the government
agencies mandated to fulfill CARP and CARPER, but even the combined effort and
4 Economic, and 42
resources of the two agencies have proved incapable of fully achieving the goal Of
agrarian reform in the Philippines. The same problems have plagued its
implementation: the powerful landed elite, and the ineffectual bureaucracy of the
Philippine government. Until these two challenges are surmounted, genuine
agrarian reform in the Philippines remains but a dream to Filipino farmers who
have been fighting for their right to landownership for centuries.

SUMMARY:

Meaning of Land Reform

REFORM implies the existence of a defect that something is deformed of

malformed and does not suit existing conditions.

In broad sense, Land reform refers to the full range of measures that may or
should be taken to improve or remedy the defects in relations among men with
respect to their rights in land.

 The term has also been defined as an integrated set of measures designed to
eliminate obstacles to economic and social development arising out of defects
in agrarian structure.
 Land reform thus involves the “transformation of agrarian structure” or what
are sometimes called “structural reforms”.

 Land reform is often used interchangeably with “agrarian reform” but in

actuality, the latter is much broader than the former.

Agrarian reform is considered wider than land reform.

The term comprises not only land reform, the reform of tenure, production and
supporting services.

In the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of 1988 (R.A No. 6657), agrarian
reform is defined to mean “the redistribution of lands, regardless of crops or fruits
produced, to farmers and regular farm workers who are landless, irrespective of
tenurial arrangement, to include the totality of factors and support services
designed to lift the economics status of the beneficiaries and all other
arrangements alternative to the physical redistribution of lands, such as
production or profit-sharing, land administration and the distribution of shares of
stock, which will allow beneficiaries to receive a just share of the fruits of the lands
they work.”

Examples of Agrarian Reform Measures

Agrarian reform would, therefore, also cover the following:

1.       Public health programs
2.       Family planning
3.       Education and training of farmers
4.       Reorganization of land reforms agencies
5.       Application of labor laws to agricultural workers
6.       Construction of infrastructure facilities such as feeder roads, irrigation
systems, etc., and the establishment of rural electrification
7.       Organization of various types of voluntary associations
8.       Providing employment opportunities to underemployed or surplus rural
labor; and
9.       Other services of a community development nature

4 Economic, and 43
AGRARIAN REFORM’S CORE PRINCIPLES

The basic principles of a genuine, meaningful and sustainable agrarian

reform program are enshrined in the long history of agrarian unrest and social
movements that have punctuated the country’s experience since colonial times.

The Core principle in agrarian reform is the primacy of the right of all
members of the agricultural labor force who do not own land, near-landless
farmers, farmworkers, small fisher folk and other direct producers to own and
control the land, have full access to other natural resources and gain full
disposition over the produce. (CPAR Declaration of Principles, 31 May 1987)

ASPECTS OF AGRARIAN REFORM

Economic Aspect of Agrarian Reform

1. Vital position of agricultural in national economy

2. Obstacles to agricultural productivity.
3. Agrarian reform, an instrument for increasing agricultural productivity.

Socio-cultural Aspect of Agrarian Reform

1. Agrarian reform, a multifaceted program.

2. Assumptions about Filipino tenant farmers.
To mention only the relevant ones, these are namely:
a. The tenancy problem has its roots in pre-Spanish and Spanish pasts. It
is, therefore, a centuries old problem;
b. Deeply rooted in history, the tenancy system created a kind of tenants
who are strongly traditional and highly dependent-minded; and
c. There are only three kinds of landlords; the benevolent one who acts like a
father to the tenant; the malevolent one who oppresses, and one with the
combined characteristics of first two.
3. Socio-cultural changes from agrarian reform.
According to the general experience in countries which have achieved
successes in their agrarian reform programs, agrarian reform had resulted to
favorable socio-cultural changes which may be summarized as follows;
a. A change from self-subsistent outlook to one of surplus. The farmers
began putting all their energies in the farm;
b. A sound social order in the farming villages was enhanced significantly.
The farmers became more conscious of the need to maintain peace and
stability in the community so that they could continuously enjoy the
increased benefits in the farm;
c. Farmers’ initiative and active participation in leadership roles were
promoted. Before, such roles were the monopoly of the landowning class.
After land reform, farmers began forming associations stood in equal
footing with their erstwhile landlords in social gatherings and club
meetings. They, too began to take active participation in local and
national elections; and
d. As land reform enhanced agricultural productivity and consequently,
increase net family incomes, the farmer were able to send their school.
They widened their contracts with the outside world through frequent
trips to market and other places or through communication facilities
which they acquired.

Religious Aspect of Agrarian Reform

1. Biblical background
2. Papal teachings

4 Economic, and 44
 3. Church estates

Moral Aspect of Agrarian Reform

Agrarian Reform is demanded by the moral laws under so many titles.

1. One reason concerns the peace and internal stability of a country.
2. Another reason for agrarian reform is the fact that the land-owner has been
more than compensated for his investment on land, while the tenant who
made the landlord’s profits possible is still immersed in poverty.
3. There is also the question of injustice involved in landlordism.
4. Another consideration concerns the innate tendency of everyman to own
land.
5. A final consideration concerns the economy.

Legal Aspect of Agrarian Reform

1. Two vantage points- strictly legal and sociological.

2. Agrarian reform legislations to conform to Constitution.
3. Constitutional mandates.
4. Policy development concerning agrarian reform.

Political Aspect of Agrarian Reform

1. Agrarian reform, a top-priority goal of government.

2. Agrarian reform as a political process.

POLICIES ON AGRARIAN REFORM

Agrarian reform is essentially the rectification of the whole system of

agriculture, an important aspect of the Philippine economy because nearly half of
the population is employed in the agricultural sector, and most citizens live in rural
areas.

Agrarian reform is centered on the relationship between production and

distribution of land among farmers. It is also focused on the political and economic
class character of the relations of production on the political and economic class
character of the relations of production and distribution in farming and related
enterprises, and how these connect to the wider class structure.

Through genuine and comprehensive agrarian reform, the Philippines would

be able to gain more from its agricultural sector, who have been, for the longest
time, suffering in poverty and discontent.

Landownership In The Philippines Under Spain

When the Spaniards colonized the country, they brought with them a system
of pueblo agriculture, where rural communities, often dispersed and scattered in
nature, were organized into a pueblo and given land to cultivate.

 Families were not allowed to own their land-the King of Spain owned the
land, and Filipinos were assigned to these lands to cultivate them, and
they paid their colonial tributes to the Spanish authorities in the form of
agricultural products.
 Later on, through the Law of the Indies, the Spanish crown awarded
tracts of land to
a. Religious orders;
b. Repartamientos for Spanish military as reward for their service; and

4 Economic, and 45
 c. Spanish encomenderos, those mandated to manage the encomienda or
the lands given to them, where Filipinos worked and paid their tributes
to the encomendero.
 Filipinos were not given the right to own land, and only worked in them so
that they might have a share of the crops and pay tribute.
 The encomienda system was an unfair and abusive system as “Compras y
vandalas” became the norm for the Filipino farmers working the land-they
were made to sell their products at a very low price or surrender their
products to the encomenderos, who resold this at a profit. Filipinos in the
encomienda were also required to render services to their encomenderos
that were unrelated to farming.

From this encomienda system, the hacienda system developed in the

beginning of the nineteenth century as the Spanish government implemented
policies that would fast track the entry of the colony into the capitalist world.

 The economy was tied to the world market as the Philippines became an
exporter of raw materials and importer of goods. Agricultural exports were
demanded and the hacienda system was developed as a new form of
ownership.

In the 1860s, Spain enacted a law ordering landholders to register their

landholdings, and only those who knew benefitted from this.

 Lands were claimed and registered in other people’s names, and many
peasant families who were “assigned” to the land in the earlier days of
colonization were driven out or forced to come under the power of these
people who claimed rights to the land because they held a title.

This is the primary reason why revolts in the Philippines were often agrarian
in nature. Before the colonization, Filipinos had communal ownership of land. The
system introduced by the Spaniards became a bitter source of hatred and
discontent for the Filipinos. Religious orders, the biggest landowners in the
Philippines, also became a main source of abuse and exploitation for the Filipinos,
increasing the rent paid by the Filipinos on a whim.

Filipinos fought the Philippine Revolution in a confluence of motivations, but

the greatest desire for freedom would be the necessity of owning land. Upon the
end of the Philippine Revolution, the revolutionary government would declare all
large landed estates, especially the confiscated friar lands as government property.
However, the first Philippine Republic was short-lived. The entrance of the
Americans would signal a new era of colonialism and imperialism in the
Philippines.

Landownership in The Philippines Under the Americans

The Americans were aware that the main cause of social unrest in the
Philippines was landlessness, and they attempted to put an end to deplorable
conditions of the tenant farmers by passing several land policies to increase the
small landholders and distribute ownership to a bigger number of Filipino tenants
and farmers.

The Philippine Bill of 1902 provided regulations on the disposal of public lands.

 A private individual may own 16 hectares of land while corporate

landholders may have 1,024 hectares.
4 Economic, and 46
  Americans were also given rights to own agricultural lands in the country.

The Philippine Commission also enacted Act No. 496 or the Land
Registration Act, which introduced the Torrens system to address the absence of
earlier records of issued land titles and conduct accurate land surveys.

In 1903, the homestead program was introduced, allowing a tenant to enter

into an agricultural business by acquiring a farm of at least 16 hectares.

 This program, however, was limited to areas in Northern Luzon and

Mindanao, where colonial penetration had been difficult for Americans, a
problem they inherited from the Spaniards.

Landownership did not improve during the American period; in fact, it even
worsened, because there was no limit to the size of landholdings people could
possess and the accessibility of possession was limited to those who could afford to
buy, register, and acquire fixed property titles.

Not all friar lands acquired by the Americans were given to landless peasant
farmers were given to landless peasant farmers.

 Some lands were sold or leased to American and Filipino business

interest.

This early land reform program was also implemented without support
mechanisms-if a landless peasant farmer received land, he only received land,
nothing more.

Many were forced to return to tenancy and wealthy Filipino hacienderos

purchased or forcefully took over lands from farmers who could not afford to pay
their debts.

The system introduced by the Americans enabled more lands to be placed

under tenancy, which led to widespread peasant uprisings, such as the Colorum
and Sakdal Uprising in Luzon. Peasants and workers found refuge from
millenarian movements that gave them hope that change could still happen
through militancy.

THE SAKDAL (OR SAKDALISTA) UPRISING was a peasant rebellion in Central

Luzon that lasted for two days, May 2-3, 1935. It was easily crushed by
government forces then, but this historical event tells of the social inequality
brought about by issues in land ownership and tenancy in the country.

The Filipino word sakdal means “to accuse”, which is the title of the newspaper
helmed by Benigno Ramos. He rallied support from Manila and nearby provinces
through publication, which led to the establishment of the Partido Sakdalista in
1933. They demanded reforms government, such as the abolition of taxes and
equal or common ownership of land, among others. They also opposed the
dominant Nacionalista Party’s acceptance of gradual independence from the United
States, and instead demanded immediate severance of ties with America.

During the years of the Commonwealth Government, the situation further

worsened as a peasant uprisings increased and landlord-tenant relationship
became more and more disparate.

President Quezon laid down a social justice program focused on the purchase of
haciendas, which were to be divided and sold tenants.
4 Economic, and 47
  His administration also created the National Rice and Corn Corporation
(NARIC) to assign public defenders to assist peasants in court battles for
their rights to the land, and the Court of Industrial Relations to exercise
jurisdiction over disagreements arising from landowner-tenant
relationship. The homestead program also continued through the National
Land Settlement Administration (NLSA).
 Efforts toward agrarian reform by the Commonwealth failed because of
many problems such as budget all ocation for the settlement program and
widespread peasant uprisings. World War II put a halt to all interventions
to solve these problems as the Japanese occupied the country.

Post-War Interventions Toward Agrarian Reform

Rehabilitation and rebuilding after the war were focused on providing

solutions to the problems of the past. The administration of President Roxas
passed Republic Act No. 34 to establish a 70-30 sharing arrangement between
tenant and landlord, respectively, which reduced the interest of landowners’ loans
to tenants at six percent or less.

The government also attempted to redistribute hacienda lands, falling prey to

the woes of similar attempts since no support was given to small farmers who were
given lands.

Under the term of President Elpidio Quirino, the Land Settlement Development
Corporation (LASEDECO) was established to accelerate and expand the
resettlement program for peasants.

- This Agency later on became the National Resettlement and

Rehabilitation Administration of President Ramon Magsaysay.

Magsaysay saw the importance of pursuing genuine land reform program

and convinced the Congress, majority of which were landed elites, to pass
legislation to improve the land reform situation.

Republic Act No. 1199 or the Agricultural Tenancy Act was passed to govern
the relationship between landholders and tenant farmers, protecting the tenurial
rights of tenants and enforced tenancy practices.

- Through this law, the Court of Agricultural Relations was created in

1955 to improve tenancy security, fix land rentals of tenanted
farms, and resolve land disputes filed by the landowners and
peasant organizations.
- The Agricultural Tenancy Commission was also established to
administer problems created by tenancy.

The Agricultural Credit and Cooperative Financing Administration (ACCFA)

was also created mainly to provide warehouse facilities and assist farmers in
marketing their products. The administration spearheaded the establishment of the
Agricultural and Industrial Bank to provide easier terms in applying for homestead
and other farmlands.

NARRA accelerated the government’s resettlement program and distribution

of agricultural lands to landless tenants and farmers. It also aimed to convince
members of the Huks, a movement of rebels in Central Luzon, to resettle in areas
where they could restart their lives as peaceful citizens.

4 Economic, and 48
 Despite a more vigorous effort toward agrarian reform, the situation for the
farmers remained dire since the government lacked funds and provided inadequate
support services for the programs. The landed elite did not fully cooperate and they
criticized the programs.

A major stride in land reform arrived during the term of President Diosdado
Macapagal through the Agricultural Land Reform Code (Republic Act No. 3844)

Agrarian Reform Efforts Under Marcos

President Marcos declared Martial Law in 1972, enabling him to essentially

wipe out the landlord-dominated Congress. Through his “technocrats”, he was able
to expand executive power to start a “fundamental restructuring” of government,
including its efforts in solving the deep structural problems of the countryside.
Presidential Decree No. 27 or the Code of Agrarian Reform of the Philippines
became the core of agrarian reform during Marcos regime.

Primary Source: Presidential Decree No., 27, 21 October 1972

- This shall apply to tenant farmers of private agricultural lands

primarily devoted to rice and corn under a system of sharecrop or
lease-tenancy, whether classified as landed estate or not;
- The tenant farmer, whether in land classified as landed estate or
not, shall be deemed owner of a portion constituting a family-size
farm of five (5) hectares if not irrigated and three (3) hectares if
irrigated;
- In all cases, the landowner may retain an area of not more than
seven (7) hectares if such landowner is cultivating such area or will
now cultivate it;
- For the purpose of determining the cost of the land to be transferred
to tenant-farmer pursuant to this Decree, the value of the land shall
be equivalent to two and 0ne-half (2 1/2 ) times the average harvest
of three normal crop years immediately preceding the promulgation
of this Decree;
- The total cost of the land, including interest at the rate of six (6)
percentum per annum, shall be paid by the tenant in fifteen (15)
years of fifteen (15) equal annual amortizations;
- In case of default, the amortization due shall be paid by the farmers’
cooperative in which the defaulting tenant-farmer is a member, with
the cooperative having a right of recourse against him;
- The government shall guaranty such amortizations with shares of
stock in government-owned and government-controlled
corporations;
- No title to the land owned by the tenant-farmers under this decree
shall be actually issued to a tenant-farmer unless and until the
tenant-farmer has become a full-fledged member of a duly
recognized farmer’s cooperative;
- Title to land acquired pursuant to this decree or the Land Reform
Program of the Government shall not be transferable except by
hereditary succession or to the Government in accordance with the
provisions of this decree, the code of Agrarian Reforms and other
existing laws and regulations;

4 Economic, and 49
 - The Department of Agrarian Reform through its Secretary is hereby
empowered to promulgate rules and regulations for the
implementation of this Decree.

“Operation Land Transfer” on lands occupied by tenants of more than seven

hectares on rice and corn lands commenced, and through legal compulsion and an
improved delivery of support services to small farmers, agrarian reform seemed to
be finally achievable.

Under the rice self-sufficiency program “Masagana ’99,” farmers were able to
borrow from banks and purchase three-hectare plots of lands and agricultural
inputs. However, the landlord class still found ways to circumvent the law. Because
only rice lands were the focus of agrarian reform, such as coconut and sugar lands.

Lands worked by wage labor were also exempt from the program, so the landed
elite only had to evict their tenants and hired workers instead.

Landlessness increased, which made it all the more difficult for the program to
succeed because landless peasants were excluded from the program.

Post-1986 Agrarian Reform

On 22 July 1987, Aquino issued Presidential Proclamation 131 and

Executive Order 229, which outlined her land reform program.

In 1988, the Congress passed Republic Act No. 6657 or the Comprehensive
Agrarian Reform Law (CARL), which introduced the program with the same name
(Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program or CARP). It enabled the redistribution of
agricultural lands to tenant-farmers from landowners, who were paid in exchange
by the government through just compensation and allowed them to retain not more
than five hectares.

Corporate landowners were, however, allowed under law to voluntarily divest

a proportion of their capital stock, equity, or participation in favor of their workers
or other qualified beneficiaries instead of turning over their land to the government.

CARP was limited because it accomplished very little during the

administration of Aquino. It only accomplished 22. 5% of land distribution in six
years owing to the fact that Congress, dominated by the landed elite, was unwilling
to fund high compensation costs of the program.

Under the term of Presidential Ramos, CARP implementation was speeded in

order to meet the ten-year time frame, despite limitations and constraints in
funding, logistics, and participation of involved sectors.

By 1966, the Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR) distributed only 58.25% of the
total area target to be covered by the program. To address the lacking funding and
the dwindling time for the implementation of CARP, Ramos signed Republic Act No.
8532 in 1998 to amend CARP, Ramos signed Republic Act No. 8532 in 1998 to
amend CARL and extend the program to another ten years.

Evolution of Philippine Taxation

In today's world, taxation is a reality that all citizens must contend with, for the
primary reason that governments raise revenue from the people they govern to be

4 Economic, and 50
able to function fully. In exchange for the taxes that people pay, the government
promises to improve the citizens' lives through good governance. Taxation, as a
government mechanism to raise funds. developed and evolved through time, and in
the Context of the Philippines, we must understand that it came with our colonial
experience.

Taxation in Spanish Philippines

The Philippines may have abundant natural resources even before the
encroachment of the Spaniards. but our ancestors were mainly involved in a
subsistence economy, and while the payment of tribute or taxes (buwis/handug) or
the obligation to provide labor services to the datus in some early Filipino
communities in the Philippines may resemble taxation. it is essentially different
from the contemporary meaning of the concept.

The arrival of the Spaniards altered this subsistence system because they imposed
the payment of tributos (tributes) from the Filipinos, similar to what has been
practiced in all colonies in America. The purpose is to generate resources to finance
the maintenance of the islands, such as salaries of the government officials and
expenses of the clergy. The difficulty faced by the Spaniards in revenue collection
through the tribute was the dispersed nature of the settlements, which they solved
by introducing the system of reduction by creating pueblos, where Filipinos were
gathered and awarded plots of land to till. Later on, the settlements will be handled
by encomenderos who received rewards from the Spanish crown for their services.
Exempted from payments of tributos were principals, alcaldes, gobernadores,
cabeza de barangay, soldiers, members of the civil guard, government officials and
vagrants.

The Filipinos who were once satisfied with agricultural production subsistence,
had to increase production to meet the demands of and a more intensive
agricultural system had to be introduced. half of the tribute was paid in cash, and
the rest with produce. This the conquest of the Philippines.

Toward the end Of the 16th Century, the Manila-Acapulco established through the
galleons, a way by which the Spaniards could sure that European presence would
be sustained. Once a year the be loaded up with merchandise from Asia and sent
to New Spain and back. This improved the economy of the Philippines and
reinforced control of the Spaniards all over the country. Tax collection was poor.
and subsidy from the Spain will be needed through the delivered from the Mexican
treasury to the Philippines through the This subsidy stopped as Mexico became
independent in 1820.

In 1884, the payment of tribute was put to a stop and was n poll tax collected
through a certificate of identification called the personal. This is required from
every resident and must be carried traveling. Unlike the tribute, the payment of
cedulas is by by family. Payment of the cedula is progressive and according to
categories. This system, however, was a heavy burden for the peasants was easy
for the wealthy. But because of this, revenue collection increased and became the
main source of government income. The in the Philippines were also made to pay
their a discriminatory cedula is bigger than what the Filipinos pay.

Two direct taxes were added in 1878 and imposed on urban

Urbana is a tax on the annual rental value of an urban real industria is a tax on
salaries. dividends, and profits. These taxes were universal and affected all kinds of
economic activity except agriculture, which was exempt to encourage growth.
4 Economic, and 51
Indirect taxes such as customs duties were imposed on exports and imports to
further raise revenue, especially during the 19th Century when economic growth
increased exponentially. There were no excise taxes collected by the Spaniards
throughout the years of colonialism.
The colonial government also gains income from monopolies, such as the sale of
stamped paper, manufacture and Sale of liquor, cockpits, and opium, but the
biggest of the state monopolies was tobacco, which began in 1781 and halted in
1882. Only certain areas were assigned to cultivate tobacco, which the government
purchases at a price dictated to the growers. This monopoly made it possible for
the colony to create a surplus of income that made it self-sufficient without
the need for the situado real and even contributes to the treasury of Spain.

Forced labor was a character of Spanish colonial taxation in the

Philippines, and was required from the Filipinos. It proved useful in
defending the territory of the colony and augmenting the labor required
by woodcutting and shipbuilding especially during the time of the galleon
trade. Through the polo system, male Filipinos were obliged to serve, a burden
that resulted to an increase in death rate and flight to the mountains, which
led to a decrease in population in the 17th century. This changed later on, as
polos and servicios became lighter, and organized at the municipal level. Labor
provided was used in public works, such as the building of roads and
bridges. Some were made to serve the municipal office, or as night
guards.
Males were required to provide labor for 40 days a year (reduced to 15 days a
year in 1884). They may opt out by paying the fallas of three pesos per
annum, which was usually lost to corruption because it was collected at
the municipal level. and were known as caidas or droppings. The polos will
be called prestaeiön personal (personal services) by the second half of the
19th century.

Taxation in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial period was

characterized by the heavy burden placed on the Filipinos, and the
corruption of the principales, or the former datus and local elites who
were co-opted by the Spaniards to subjugate and control the natives on their
behalf. The principales who were given positions such as cabezas de
barangay or alcaldes in the local government were able to enrich
themselves by pocketing tributos and/or falls, while the peasants were
left to be abused. Taxation appeared progressive but the disparity between the
less taxed principales and heavily taxed peasants made the rich richer and
the poor poorer.

Primary Source: Mariano Herbosa Writes to Rizal About Taxes

Source: Mariano Herbosa to Jose Rizal. Calamba, 29 August Letters Between
Rizal and Family Members (Manila: National Commission, 1964), 239—241.
The tax! With regard to your question on this, the answer is very as it is the
cause of the prevailing misery here. What I can write you be only one-half of
the Story and even Dumas, senior, cannot the subject. Nevertheless. I'll try to
write what I can, though I may be able to give a complete story, you may at
least know half of it.

4 Economic, and 52
 "Here, there are many kinds of taxes. What they call irrigated rice even if it
has no water, must pay a tax of 50 cavanes of palay rice), and land with six
cavanes of seed pay 5 pesos in cash. The they call dry land that is planted to
sugar cane, maize, and others different rates. Even if the agreed amount is 30
pesos for land six cavanes of seed. if they see that the harvest is good, they
the tax, but they don't decrease it. if the harvest is poor. There is whose tax is
25 pesos or 20 pesos, according to custom.

•The most troublesome are the residential lots in the town. There fixed rule that is
followed, only their whim. Hence. even if it is only span in size. if a stone wall is
added. 50 pesos must be paid, the being 20 pesos. But a nipa or cogon house pays
only One-peso area of ten fathoms Square. Another feature of this system is the
day you accept the conditions, the contract will be written cannot be changed for
four years, but the tax is increased every for these reasons. for two years now the
payment of tax is and little by little the fear of the residents here of the word is
being dispelled, which our ancestors had feared so much. The is bargaining, like
they do in buying fish. It is advisable to offer figure and payment can be postponed,
unlike before when people very much afraid to pay after May.

"I'm looking for a receipt to send you, but I cannot find any, because don't get
a receipt every time we pay, anyway it is value-less as not state the amount
paid; it only says that the tax for that year paid, without stating whether it is
five centavos. twenty-five one hundred, or one thousand pesos. The residents
who ask or get the said receipt accept it with closed eyes. The receipt has no
signature in the place where the amount paid ought to be, although it bears
their name. Until now I cannot comprehend why some are signed and others
are not. This is more or less what is happening here in the payment of the land
tax and it has been so for many years since I can remember.
"Besides this. the taxes On the plants in the fields that are far from the town.
like the land in Pansol, are various. The tax on the palay is separate from the
tax on maize, mongo. or garlic. There is no limit to this tax, for they fix it
themselves. Since July no One Buys Sugar and since June locusts are all over
the town and they are destroying palay and sugar cane, which is what we
regret here. The governor gave 50 pesos to pay the catchers Of but when they
took them to the town hall they were paid only 25 cents a cavan and a half:
and it seems that the locusts are not decreasing. According to the guess Of the
residents here only 300 cavanes Of locusts have been caught in this town.
Many still remain. Though the governor has not sent any more money, the
people have not stopped catching them."

Taxation "under the Americans

The Americans who acquired the Philippines aimed to make the economy self-
sufficient by running the government with the smallest possible sum of revenue
and create surplus in the budget. From 1898 to 1903, the Americans followed the
Spanish system of taxation with some modifications, noting that the system
introduced by the Spaniards were outdated and regressive. The military
government suspended the contracts for the sale Of opium. lottery. and mint
Charges for coinage of money. Later on the urbana will be replaced by tax on real
estate. which became known as the land tax. The land tax was levied on both
urban and rural real estates.

4 Economic, and 53
The problem with land tax was that land titling in the rural area was Very
disorderly. the appraising Of land value was influenced by political and familial
factors. and the introduction of a taxation system on agricultural land faced
objections from the landed elite. Tax evasion was prevalent, especially among the
elites.

The Internal Revenue Law of 1904 was passed as a reaction to the problems of
collecting land tax. It prescribed ten major sources of revenue: (1) license taxes
on firms dealing in alcoholic beverages and tobacco, (2) excise taxes on alcoholic
beverages and tobacco products. (3) taxes on banks and bankers. (4) document
stamp taxes. (5) the cedula, (6) taxes on insurance insurance companies. (7)
taxes on forest products, (8) mining concessions, tax on business and
manufacturing, and (10) occupational licenses.

The cedula went through changes in the new law as the rate was per adult male,
which resulted to a great decline in revenues. In 1907, provinces were authorized
to double the fee for the cedula to support construction and maintenance of roads.
The industria tax was levied on business community and became a highly complex
system that assigned a certain tax to a an industrial or commercial activity
according to profitability. The new Act also imposed a percentage tax on sales
quarterly.

In 1913, the Underwood-Simmons Tariff Act was passed, resulting reduction in the
revenue of the government as export taxes levied on tobacco, hemp, and copra
were lifted. To make up for the loss, then Governor General Francis Burton
Harrison urged that tax receipts be increase to make up for the loss. Minor
changes Were made to the 1904 Revenue Act such as the imposition of taxes on
mines, petroleum products and dealers of petroleum products and tobacco.

New sources of taxes were introduced later on. [n 1914, an income was introduced,
in 1919, an inheritance tax was created, and in 1932. national lottery was
established to create more revenue for the government However, these new
creations were not enough to increase government revenues.

Taxation during the Commonwealth Period

New measures and legislation were introduced to make the system appear more
equitable during the Commonwealth. Income tax were increased in 1936, adding a
surtax rate on individual net incomes excess of 10,000 pesos. Income tax rates of
corporations were also increased in 1937, the cedula tax was abolished, which
appeared to be a progressive move; but in 1940 a residence tax was imposed on
every citizen aged years old and on every corporation.
In 1939, the Commonwealth government drafted the National Internal
Revenue Code, introducing major changes of the new tax system, as

1. The normal tax of three percent and the surtax on income replaced by a
single tax at a progressive rate.
2. Personal exemptions were reduced,

3. Corporation income tax was slightly increased by introducing taxes on

inherited estates or gifts donated in the name of dead persons.

4 Economic, and 54
 4. The cumulative sales tax was replace by a single turnover tax Of on
luxuries.

5. Taxes on liquors, cigarettes, forestry products and mining were increased.

6. Dividends were made taxable.

The introduced tax structure was an improvement of the earlier system
introduced by the Americans, but still remained inequitable. The lower class still
felt the bulk of the burden of taxation. while the upper class, the landed elite. the
people in political positions, were able to maneuver the situation that will benefit
them more. The agriculture sector was still taxed low to promote growth, but there
was no incentive for industrial investment to take root and develop.

Finally, a common character of taxation during the American occupation in

the Philippines was that it was not used to diversify the economy or direct
economic development, as some sectors still carried the disproportionate share of
the tax burden.

As World War 11 reached the Philippine shores, economic activity was put to a
stop, and the Philippines bowed to a new set of administrators, the Japanese. The
Japanese military administration in the Philippines during World War Il
immediately continued the system of tax collection introduced during the
Commonwealth, but exempted the articles belonging to the Japanese armed forces.
Foreign trade fell, and the main sources of taxation came from amusements,
manufactures. professions, and business licenses. As the war raged, tax collection
was a difficult task, and additional incomes of the government were derived from
the sales of the National Sweepstakes and sale of government bonds.

The expenditure of the Japanese military government grew greatly, and they
issued military notes in order to cover the costs of the war.

Fiscal Policy from 1946 to Present

The impact of the war on the Philippine economy was effective disparate, as
Manila. the capital. wag razed to the ground while the rest the Philippines was
relatively untouched. But the highly economy was disrupted. The United
States may have declared the Philippine independent, but, as the country needed
rehabilitation funds from United States. the dependency of the Philippines to the
Americans was opportunity to be taken advantage by the former colonial
administrators The economic situation was so problematic that by 1949, there
was a lack of funds in many aspects of governance, such as the military aa
education sectors. No efforts were made to improve tax collection, and the United
States advised the adoption of direct taxation. The administration of President
Manuel Roxas declined the proposal because it did not want u alienate its allies in
Congress.
The impetus for economic growth came during the time Of Presida Elpidio Quirino
through the implementation of import and exchange controls that led to import
substitution development. This policy for the expansion of a viable manufacturing
sector that reduced economic dependence on imports. New tax measures were also
passed, which higher corporate tax rates that increased government revenues—tax

4 Economic, and 55
 revenue in 1953 increased twofold compared to 1948. the year when
Quirino first assumed presidency.
While the succeeding presidencies of Magsaysay, Garcia, and promised to
study the tax structure and policy of the country (through creation of a Tax
Commission in 1959 by means of Republic Act 2211) make way for a
more robust and efficient tax collection scheme, post- fiscal policy remained
regressive, characterized by the overburdening Of lowest classes while
the landed elite who held business interests were z Congress to ensure
that taxes will not be levied to them who belong to higher classes of
society. The period of the post-war republic also saw an in corruption.
From 1959 to 1968. Congress did not pass any tax despite important
changes in the economy, and the vested interests Filipino
businessmen in Congress will manifest in many instances such the
rejection Of taxes On imports. Indirect taxation still contributed to
three quarters of tax revenues, and the Omnibus Tax Law Of 1969 did not
increase the ratio of income tax to general tax revenue, Collection of
taxes poor, tax structure is still problematic. and much of public funds
were lost corruption. which left the government incapable of funding
projects geared toward development.

Under the Marcos authoritarian regime. the tax system remained

regressive. During the latter part of the Marcos years (1981—1985).
the tax system was still heavily dependent on indirect taxes, which made
up 70% of total tax collection. The tax system also remained
unresponsive. Taxes grew at an average annual rate of 15% and
generated a low tax yield. Tax effort, defined as the ratio between the
share of the actual tax collection in gross domestic product and predictable
taxable capacity, was at a low 10.7%.
As Corazon Aquino took the helm of the government after the EDSA
Revolution, she reformed the tax system through the 1986 Tax
Reform Program. The aim was to improve the responsiveness of the
tax system, promote equity by ensuring that similarly situated
individuals and firms bear the same tax burden, promote growth by
withdrawing or modifying taxes that reduce incentives to work or
produce, and improve tax administration by simplifying the tax
system and promoting tax compliance.

A major reform in the tax system introduced under the term of Aquino
was the introduction of the value-added tax (VAT), with the following
features:

a. uniform rate of on sale of domestic and imported goods and services and zero
percent on exports and foreign-currency denominated sales;

b. ten (10) percent in lieu of varied rates applicable to fixed taxes (60 nominal
rates), advance sales tax, tax on original sale, subsequent sales tax,
compensating tax. miller's tax, contractor's tax, broker's tax, film lessors and
distributor's tax, excise tax on solvents and matches, and excise tax on
processed videotapes;
c. two percent tax on entities with annual sales or receipts of less than P200,000;
d. adoption of tax credit method of calculating tax by subtracting tax on inputs
from tax on gross sales;

4 Economic, and 56
e. exemption of the sale of basic commodities such as agriculture and marine
food products in their original state, price-regulated petroleum products,
and fertilizers; and
f. additional tax on non-essential articles such jewelry, perfumes, toilet
waters, yacht and other vessels for pleasure and sports.
The VAT law was signed in 1986 and put to effect in 1988. While it was a
reliable source of revenue for the government, new tax laws would reduce
its reliability, as legislated exemptions grew.

Of residential units with monthly rental per unit of not more

than P8, OOO, subject to adjustment using CPI

Sale. importation, printing, or publication Of books and any

newspaper
The succeeding term of President Joseph Estrada in 1998 was short to effect any
change in the tax system. His vice president Gloria Macapagal Arroyo was swept to
power through another EDSA Revolution. AS president, she undertook increased
government spending without adjusting tax collections. This resulted to large
deficits from 2002 to 2004. The government had to 100k for additional sources Of
revenue, and in 2005. the Expanded Value Added Tax ([Link]) was signed
into law as Republic Act 9337. This expanded the VAT base, subjecting to VAT
energy products such as coal and petroleum products and electricity generation,
transmission. and distribution. Select professional services were also
taxed. In February 2006, the VAT tax rate was also increased from 10% to 12%.
As President Benigno Aquino Ill Succeeded President Arroyo in 2010. he promised
that no new taxes will be imposed, and additional revenue would have to come
from adjusting existing taxes. The administration ventured into the adjustment Of
excise tax on liquor and cigarettes or the Sin Tax Reform, motivations for which
was primarily fiscal, public health, and social order related considerations.
Republic Act 10351 was passed. and government revenues from alcohol and
tobacco excise taxes increased. Collections from tobacco and alcohol in 2015 made
up 1.1% Of the Gross Domestic Product, and the improvement in tax collection
resulted to the Philippines receiving a credit rating upgrade into investment grade
status. The Sin Tax Reform was an exemplar on how tax reform could impact
social services. as it allowed for the increase of the Department of Health budget
(triple in 2015) and free health insurance premiums for the poor people enrolled in
PhilHealth increased (from P5.2 million in 2012 to P15.4 million in 2015).

The administration of the new president Rodrigo Duterte promised tax reform,
particularly in income taxes. as it vowed to lower income tax rates shouldered by
working- Filipinos. The present income tax scheme of the Country is the second
highest in Southeast Asia, and the current laws on income taxes were outdated, as
they were drafted two decades ago. The proposed tax reform also seeks to limit VAT
exemptions and increase excise taxes on petroleum products and automobiles. It is
hoped that reforms in the country's tax policy Will result into the much-desired
economic development hat will be felt even by the lowest classes in society. Along
with tax reform came the administrative reforms, such restructuring of the
Department of Finance and its attached agency. Bureau Of Internal Revenue (BIR)
through Executive Order 127. collection and tax audits were intensified,
computerization was introduced and corruption relatively reduced, which improved

4 Economic, and 57
the trust in the general. As a result of the tax reform of the Aquino administration,
and revenue effort rose, increasing from 10.7% in 1985 to 15.4% in

Greater political stability during the administration Of Fidel in 1992 allowed for
continued economic growth. The Ramos administration ventured into its own tax
reform program in 1997 through the Comprehensive Tax Reform Program, which
was implemented to (l) make the tax broad-based. simple, and with reasonable tax
rates: (2) minimize avoidance allowed by existing flaws and loopholes in the
system; encourage payments by increasing tax exemptions levels. lowering highest
tax rates. and simplifying procedure; and (4) rationalize the tax incentives, which
was estimated to be worth Pal. 7 billion in 1994.
The VAT base was also broadened in 1997 to include services,
Republic Act 7716, The features of the improved VAT law were as
a. Restored the VAT exemptions for all cooperatives (agriculture electric,
Credit or multi-purpose, and others provided that share capital of each
member does not exceed p 15,000.
b. Expanded the coverage of the term "simple processes" by including broiling
and roasting, effectively narrowing the tax base products.

c. Expanded the Coverage of the term "original state" by including molasses.

d. Exempted from the VAT are the following:
Importation of meat
Sale or importation of coal and natural gas in whatever or state
Educational services rendered by private educational institutions duly
accredited by the Commission on Education (CHED)
House and lot and other residential dwellings valued million and
below, subject to adjustment using the Cons Price Index (CPI)

TAKE ACTION

True or False. Write true if the statement id true. Otherwise, write false.

__________ 1. The 1935 commonwealth constitution was a result of the passage in

the united states congress of the hare-hawes cutting act.

__________ 2. The Philippine commonwealth was interrupted by the cold war.

__________ 3. Before 1973, the constitution in effect in the Philippines was the 1935
constitution.

__________ 4. Landownership in the Philippines during the Spanish period was a

great source of hatred and resentment among the Filipinos

__________ 5. The American period ushered in a great improvement in

landownership in the country

__________ 6. Agrarian reform under the dictator Ferdinand Marcos was a failure

__________ 7. The cedula personal was optional during the Spanish period
4 Economic, and 58
__________ 8. Direct taxation was suggested by the Americans after world war II,
but then president Manuel Roxas declined it.

__________ 9. The VAT or value added tax was introduced during the time of
president Elpidio Quirino.

__________ 10. The sin tax reform is a good example on how tax reform could
impact social services.

SELF-CHECK
Extended Essay:

1. Is it really necessary for the Philippines to pursue a genuine agrarian reform

program for economic development? Or is industrialization the way to go forward?
Explain your thoughts.

2. Explain on your own words the concept of the attempts to amend the 1987
constitution. Is it significant to amend the constitution? Why or why not?

SELF REFLECT
CHUGA-CHUGA, CHOO-CHOO… TRAIN.
1. Instructions: in 2017, the Train Law revolutionized taxation in the Philippines as
it was seen to financially empower the people by reducing personal income tax.
However, it was also seen in a negative light because of drastically inflated
consumer prices due to the increase in custom duties on petroleum products and
sweetened beverages. Research on the significant provisions of the TRAIN Law and
analyze their implications by citing concrete examples. After your analysis, give
your personal view on the issue.

2. What are the differences of the landownership in the Philippines under Spain,
landownership in the Philippines under the American? Cite at least 2 differences.

4 Economic, and 59
Chapter 5
Doing History: A Guide for Students

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
 To manifest interest in local history and cultural
heritage
 To apply historiographical methods in the writing of
the history of one’s locality or country
 To incorporate technology in the discipline of history
 To appreciate the value of doing history to the
present day

It is not enough to that we know our history. We must also realize as agents of
social change, we can contribute to the narrative of the by participating in writing
about our past and our present. This c will focus on applying the skills we have
learned in the previous cha in writing history. Special attention will be given to
doing online res library/archival research, biographies/life history, and local
Journal history. additional discussion on interacting with history through
historical s and museums will also help us in appreciating the story of the past
comes to life through our own experiences in visiting and interacting these learning
spaces.

Doing Historical Research Online

Let us start with the first tool that any student nowadays would use to do
research—the Internet. It has increasingly become the primary means by which
anyone would find any information that they need. With a single click. you are able
to access tons and tons of available information. So much information, in fact, that
it would be easy to get lost in all the data available.

Cyberspace is a great for research. if you know how to do it properly. Remember

that just because information is available. does not mean that you should just get
it and use it—appropriating something, such as an idea, as yours is plagiarism,
one of the worst crimes in the academe. Treat anything you find online as a source,
and use the same historical methods you have learned to analyze the data you get
online.

A simple skill that will get you far in doing historical research online is knowing
where to look and how to look. Search engine websites such as Yahoo!
([Link]) or Google ([Link]) could lead you to a lot of sources.
with the right search strings. A search string is a combination of words that you
use to come up with relevant results and lead you to what you are looking for. The
more refined your search string is. the more definite and refined the results will be.

Google also provides its own customized platform for scholarly research. called
Google Scholar ([Link])[Link]). You may use it to find electronic journal
articles. materials from institutional repositories, and book chapters from many
different sources. It could be a good starting point in building your research by
providing you an overview of existing published material for your topic. Google
Books ([Link]) also provide sources for scanned books, where you
4 Economic, and 60
may be able to read some chapters for free. This could be useful if you want to
know if a certain book would be useful to your research before going to a physical
library to loan the book or photocopy pages of it.
Sometimes, a simple search online is all you need to find the data you need. And
most often, one of the first results that will come out will be pages from Wikipedia.
Wikipedia is the biggest open source encyclopedia in the whole of cyberspace. In
2017. it has 40 million articles in 293 languages. Being an open source
encyclopedia, anyone could contribute or edit articles in the site, which makes
some of the information in the site unreliable. Nonetheless, Wikipedia provides a
useful launch pad to sources that you use for research. When you read from
Wikipedia, 100k at the linked.

Doing Life Histories and Biographical Research

Studying history is always focused on history of nations and different collectives.

Studying the life of an individual is often incidental to a great event that has been
significant to the life of a larger unit that he or happened to contribute to. Life
history is an oft-neglected sub discipline history because it is seen as trivial to
larger narratives of nations, societies and civilizations. However, students of
history should realize that individual is a significant contributor to various
historical breakthrough across periods of time. Individuals make up societies. and
individual actin can cause large-scale social change.

Doing Local and Oral History

The history subjects and courses usually taught to students in school are
Philippine history, world history, and history Of Asia. The coverage is always
expansive and taught in broad strokes Of historical periods. large spaces, and of
prominent personalities. Little is known about sub discipline of local history. Local
history is the study of the history a particular community or a smaller unit of
geography. Debates however continuously persist On the definition of this sub
discipline. particularly the subject of its study. Does local history study local
communities?

institutions? local groups? Local heroes? In recent studies, local history tends to
cover these all of these topics. Local historians study the history local institutions
like churches. They also study the local economies, local heroes, and local events.
local history thus, is also a broad and dynamic field Of inquiry that aims to have
an in depth understanding of a certain locale.
The most compelling question however, is why study and do local history? In the
first chapter, we discussed how history could serve as a repository Of collective
memory. Such memory is important in forging of national unity through
identification with a Common collective past. Nevertheless, nationalism, like Other
ideologies, when taken into extreme can produce the most horrendous of human
tragedies. The atrocities of the Second World War that killed six million Jewish
people in Europe were perpetrated by an extreme nationalist rhetoric propagated
by Nazi Germany. Totalitarian states at present like the North Korea also use
nationalism in justifying the dictatorial and anti-democratic character of the

4 Economic, and 61
country. In these cases Of extreme nationalism, history is being used by states in
forms of official national history to rally the people behind them.

Local history can serve as a balancer of these tendencies by showing the

peculiarities in certain locales in a particular nation, region. or continent. Studying
local history can provide new and alternative interpretations on different aspects of
a nation's history. Local history also facilitates a historical narrative emanating
from the people. Historians call this the history from below. Ultimately, studying
local history shall provide new provisions and perspectives On the already
established national history. What used to be a generalizing narrative of the nation
would start to recognize certain nuances and uniqueness in the experience of
people coming from different localities in the nation. Thus, local history is not just
aimed at opposing the discourse in the national histories but is also a tool of
enriching these national narratives.
Doing local history however is not an easy task. Despite the seemingly smaller
scope of study, historians are often faced with challenges in locating sources for
local and specific objects of study. For example, it is much easier to study the life
of national heroes than that of a local hero. Sources abound on subjects of
national importance but tend to be scarce on local subjects. Nevertheless,
this limitation should encourage historians to innovate and recreate local
historical methodology. One important historical methodology to local
history is oral history,
Oral history is important in the midst of scarcity in written sources, historical
documents, and other material evidences. This method uses oral
accounts of historical subjects. witnesses, members of the communi and
the like. Oral history primarily relies on memory. The subject informant will
recount his experiences to the researcher as he it. In Other instances,
the informant will relay what he learned ancestors or older members of the
community to the historian. This definition of oral history caused
positivist historians, or those who to the belief that history should be
primarily based on written to criticize the methods of oral history.
Memory is seen as something is faulty and inaccurate. At best, positivist
historians see oral mere supplement to the history written from written
documents.

However, one cannot discount the importance of oral history the history
Of underprivileged sectors and communities like the or indigenous
peoples. These groups are usually left out on records. Were
undocumented because of their status. In these instances, task of the
historian to search for alternative methods that will experience and
collective pasts of these communities. Oral history role.
Local and oral history are important endeavors in the develop and enrichment in
the discipline of history. These efforts fill the discipline by highlighting alternative
areas of study and method toward a more holistic, inclusive, and progressive study
of our past.

Interacting with History through Historical Shrines and Museum

We have been discussing ways to study the past through sources available to us,
while research is valuable tool to learn the experiences Of the nation and our
history, there exists venues we can experience history, and these are through
historical museums.
4 Economic, and 62
These venues for living history provide us a certain level of and trustworthiness
that could impact the way we view the past. interacting with artifacts such as a
World War 11 rifle or the Filipino hero, we can better imagine the past beyond the
mere words we read and painstakingly memorize. These tangible reconstructions of
the past; experiencing these artifacts directly is best thing to actually being there
when a particular event happened a historical personality lived. These firsthand
experiences make events more real for us: and research shows that learning by
experiencing aids with retention of the learnings later in life.

Historical shrines and museums serve as portals to the past. But one must also
take note that visiting a museum entails preparation. In the course Of your study,
you are bound to visit One or two of these sites. Once you know what you will be
visiting, it is essential to do a background reading on the place you will visit so
that you may know what to expect and you can situate the importance of the
place you will be visiting in the national historical narrative. For example, a visit
to the Rizal Shrine in Calamba, Laguna, will be more enriching if you are able to
do a little reading about Jose Rizal's early life.
Upon arriving in the historical shrine Or museum, one thing that you Can do is to
100k for the historical marker. These markers put up by the National Historical
Commission of the Philippines (NHCP. or formerly National Historical
Institute or NHI) provide the basic details on what makes a certain site historical.
These markers ensure that the site where it is located is indeed, of historical and
cultural value to the nation.
The instructor or professor, who handles your course and who will organize your
visit to the shrine or museum, should provide you with a handout or a worksheet
to accomplish while in the site and maybe assign you to write a reflection paper
that should represent your own critical evaluation of the site. That is why it is
important to spend time reading the Captions/ texts accompanying the artifacts
or exhibits on display. Some museums and shrines allow mobile photography and
may even encourage you to take "selfies" while in the site. Take the opportunity to
be able to retain more of the information being presented by these sites so that
you may be guided once you are to write the paper required by your instructor or
professor.
Shrines and museums are a lot more interactive now, aided by the available
technology. Take the chance and participate in these interactive opportunities to
experience history first hand. Watch the videos, listen to the sounds, and enjoy the
experience. This is also a great chance to analyze the artifacts, since artifacts are
also texts that are open for reading, interpretation, criticism, and evaluation.

OTHER RELATED INFORMATIONS:

The Philippines is a nation of diverse cultures but this is not adequately

documented and existing documentation is not easily accessible. Cultural forms
and creative expression are as diverse as the number of communities existing in
the country. There are about 120-170 languages spoken by 110 ethno linguistic

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groups. Culture also varies according to age group, gender, spirituality, and socio-
economic class- even person with disabilities have their own culture.

CULRURAL PERFORMANCES

There’s a number of festival in the Philippines throughout the year. It doesn’t

matter which month you travel, there will be a festival you’ll surely enjoy in
different seasons. There are even festivals that last for a month.

Festivals in the Philippines offer people a chance to exhibit their culture and
pay homage to the history and patrons saints. They are vibrant, big, and celebrated
with a lot of pomp and show. No wonder, each province has its own Filipino Fiesta
that they are very proud of.

Tourist from all over the world visits the Philippines not just to see its
beautiful beaches and breath taking sights, but also to experience the country’s
grand festivals that, without a doubt, makes it more fun in the Philippines.

Here are some festivals in the Philippines that you surely don’t want to miss!

1. SINULOG FESTIVAL
Cebu city (Third week/Sunday of January)

Sinulog Festival is annually celebrated for

cultural and religious purposes. This event is
celebrated for cultural and religious purposes.
This event is celebrated in other parts of the
country where the local government arranges
the festival. The event will consist of a street
party, dancing, and performing locals in
traditional costumes. The catholic Santo Niño
is the centre of this celebration, but the
Sinulog dance ritual also commemorates the Filipino’s pagan past, along with their
acceptance to Christianity.

2. ATI-ATIHAN FESTIVAL
Kalibo, Aklan (Third week/Sunday of January)

Another celebration to honour the Santo Niño, Ati-

Atihan is where people go to the streets parading
their traditional costumes and weapons, and
painting their bodies black. Participants march
the dance in the town, matched with loud
drumbeats. This festival will definitely make you
dance your heart out while enjoying a true Filipino
atmosphere.

3. PANAGBINGA FESTIVAL
Baguio City (Febuary)
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 One of longest festivals in the Philippines,
Panagbenga is celebrated throughout the month
of February. This month highlights the season of
blooming flowers, at the same time, this is also
to commemorate our rise from the disastrous
1990 earthquake in Luzon. Marvellous floats,
designed with various types of flowers, conquer
the streets of Baguio City. Tourist can expect
street dancing by dancers wearing flowers-
inspired costumes. Expect it to be even colder in
Baguio when you visit as the festival is celebrated in February.

4. MORIONES FESTIVAL
Marinduque (Holy Week/March or April)

This is a festival that last for a week in

Marinduque. Moriones is the celebration of the
life of St. Longinus whose eye was healed by the
blood of Christ. Since most Filipinos don’t work
during the Holy Week and this event follows the
schedule of the Holy Week , a lot of locals stay in
Marinduque to celebrate the festival. Moriones
roam the streets for seven days, scaring children
and making noise to re-enact the search of
Longinus, the centurion who pierced Jesus on
the cross with a spear.

5. MASSKARA FESTIVAL
Bacolod City (October)

A festival that
(face) Festival is filled with people wearing
colourful smiling masks designed with
feathers, flowers, and native beads. The festival
allows tourist to enjoy 20 days of beer
drinking, street dancing, and merrymaking.
Every street is filled with locals wearing their
smiling masks and festive costumes while
dancing around and spreading the happy
atmosphere throughout the city.
During the festival, locals are encouraged to
forget the economic struggle brought about by
dead season of the sugar harvest. They also
see the festival as their way of escapism and
obscurantism. The sugar harvest is important
to the people of Bacolod since Negros
Occidental, where Bacolod is found, is known
as the Sugar Bowl of the Philippines

HISTORICAL PLACES

History has always been a good reason to travel, and the Philippines
has its fair share of places steeped in it. From places that have hardly changed over
the centuries to structures that have stood the test of time, here’s a list of historical
places in the Philippines that you should visit.

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 1. Intramuros, Manila
MANILA CATHEDRAL. Intramuros is also home to the Manila
Cathedral. /IMAGE Andronico del Rosario
Intramuros is known in history as the” Walled
City” because of its famous feature; a nearly three-
mile-long circuit of massive stone walls and
fortifications that almost completely surrounds the
entire district. It is the oldest district and historic
core of Manila where old Spanish era influences are
still plentiful. Photography and history lovers will
find Intramuros an interesting destination. If you
visit the place, you can still feel the Spanish
ambiance and appreciate the historical landmarks
and churches in the era. Plus, visiting Intramuros is very affordable and worth
your time. Going here you can re-experience knowthat past in the modern light.

2. RIZAL PARK
Roxas Blvd Ermita, Barangay 666 Zone 72, Metro Manila

Previously called Bagumbayan Field, Rizal

Park was built as a tribute to our greatest
national hero- Dr. Jose Rizal. It is one of the
leading historical sites in the Philippines where
Rizal was executed by the Spanish military firing
squad on December 30,1896 because he has
spread the ideas of revolution against Spanish
rule.
Nowadays, it is one of the major
tourist attraction of Manila. The park became a favorite spot for unwinding and
socializing. It is also a place for family bonding and picnics during Sundays and
holidays.

3. CORREGIDOR
Corregidor Island, Manila Bay,
Cavite
Known to be the “the Rock”, Corregidor is known
for its important historical attractions. When the
Japanese invaded the Philippines, Corregidor
became the headquarters of the Allied Forces and
also the seat of Philippine Commonwealth
government. The huge firearms of Corregidor
which are used in support for Filipino and
American defenders of Bataan are now silent but
the damage seen in buildings, structures, and
tunnels in the island continues on telling a very moving story of a war that has
claimed so many lives. A visit to this former battleground is a memorable
experience, especially for those people who value and cherish freedom and peace.

4. EDSA Shine
Barangay Ugong Norte, Quezon City

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 The EDSA Shine, also known as the Shine of
Mary, Queen of Peace, and Our Lady of EDSA, is a
small church of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of
Manila located at the intersection of Ortigas
Avenue and Epifanio de los Santos Avenue(EDSA)
in Quezon City. It is a place that witnessed the two
demonstrations that overthrew the presidencies of
Ferdinand Marcos and Joseph Estrada. This shine
is a towering proof that fighting for freedom doesn’t
have to be a blood-spattered cause. Rather, it can
be achieved through peaceful means and with no casualty.

5. LEYTE LANDING MEMORIAL PARK

Res Beach Palo, Leyte
If you ever drop by Tacloban City, the Leyte
Landing Memorial Park, formerly known as
the “McArthur Park”, is a must-visit
destination. Remember the promise made by
Gen. Douglas McArthur “I shall return” He
kept this promise when he returned with an
army of 700 ships containing 174, 000
American soldiers at the Red Beach, Polo,
Leyte on October 20, 1944. The “Red” in the
Red Beach doesn’t refer to the natural color of
the sand, but its color after being drenched in
blood. Many tourist visits the park to reminisce an important event in history- the
Fulfilment of Gen. McArthur’s promise to the Filipinos to come back and help them
win against the Japanese colonies. It always brings inspirational memories of how
our beloved ancestors fought for our freedom.

6. EMILIO AGUINALDO SHRINE, KAWIT CAVITE

Originally the house where the first and

youngest President of the Philippines lived,
this mansion in Kawit, Cavite also become
the site where the Philippine Independence
from Spanish rule was declared in 1898.
President Emilio Aguinaldo’s home is now a
national shrine that also houses a museum
filled with significant artifacts of the
historical event.

7. SANDUGO SHRINE, BOHOL

In 1565, Spanish explorer Miguel Lopez

de Legazpi and Bohol chieftain Datu Sikatuna
performed a blood Compact, a tribal tradition
that seals friendship. The historic moment
marked the first treaty of friendship between
Spaniards and Filipino.

A bronzed sculpture by National Artist

Napoleon Abueva marks Sandugo Shrine,
frequented by many tourist who come to
Bohol, an island full of natural wonders such as the Catholic Hills, Panglao Beach
and the world’s smallest primate, the tarsier.
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 FILIPINO HEALING TRADITIONS

Traditional Filipino medicine takes a holistic view of the individual,

including environment factors that affect a person’s physical, mental, emotional,
and spiritual well-being.

Healing practices were first documented in the 16th century at the

start of Spanish colonization, so it’s hard to tell how early they begun. The
Babaylans or shamans- who were women but also men who dresses as women or
changed genders- maintained culture, religion, and medicine for their tribes,
communities with spirits that were thought to be associated with natural
phenomena.

Each area and groups of people had their own set of healers, who
passed down their knowledge to children at an early age. Along with other cultural
tradition, the healing arts began to fade in the 17 th century, and continued with the
introduction of hospitals and Western medicine after the American arrived.

There are more traditional techniques still practiced in the Philippines,

but these are the most known.

1. HILOT/ABLON

A recognized technique also practiced in other

parts of Asia, Hilot or Ablon is often
characterized as a type of massage and offered
at spas to attract tourist.

It involves the hands and skin to

osteopathy, acupressure, and
chiropractic or physical therapy. Herbs,
plants and oils may also be integrated. Subcategories of Ablon include
Pekkel- using hands to rub the injured are- and Ablon seated therapy, which
treats the upper body, such as neck and shoulder joints.

2. TUOB

The tuob (boiling) rituals involves the sick

person wrapped in a blanket or cloth, sitting
over a jar heated by coal, or hovering above a
steaming pot. The healer rubs essential oils ever
the heated patient and chants a healing mantra.

Benefits of tuob include detoxification,

cleansing the skin, muscle relaxation,
increasing body metabolism, boosting the
immune system, keeping mucous
membranes from drying, and relieving
comfort from asthma, allergies, and arthritis.

TAKE ACTION

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 Explore the wonders of (Name of Municipality or Barangay)

Activity No. 1

I- Brief History background of your Municipality or Barangay.

II- Showcase the culture of your municipality or Barangay (festivals, dialect,

tradition, beautiful scenery, cultural heritage, etc.)

III- Conclusion (Why do you need to preserve your municipality’s history and
culture?)

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