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HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE

1. Health:
A state of complete physical, mental, and,social well-being & not merely an absence of disease (WHO)

2. Health can be affected by-:

i) genetic disorders
ii) infections
iii) life style
3. Factors to maintain good health -:
i) Balance diet
ii) Personal hygiene
iii) Regular exercise
4. Good health can be achieved by-:
i) Awareness about disease & their affect on body functions.
ii) Control of vectors.
iii) Use of clean food and drinking water.
iv) Vaccination against infectious disease.
v) Proper disposal of wastes.
5. Benefits of good health –
1. Healthier people are more efficient at work.
2. Productivity increases and brings economic prosperity.
3. It also increases longevity of people and reduces infant and maternal mortality.
6. Disease:
Disease can be broadly classified into two – a) infectious b) non-infectious
a) Infectious -: Transmitted from one to other caused by pathogen. e.g AIDS, Hepatitis B etc.
b) Non-infectious-: Not transmitted from one to another. Due to heredity factors, deficiencies, habits
etc. e.g cancer.
7. COMMON DISEASE OF HUMAN
Disease causing organisms are called pathogens. Some common disease with causing organisms are
described below:

A. Bacterial disease –
I. Typhoid-
a. Salmonella typhi is a pathogenic bacterium with causes typhoid fever in human begins.
b. These pathogens generally enter the small intestine through food and water contaminated with
them and migrates to other organs through blood.
c. Sustained high fever (39o to 40o C), weakness, stomach pain, constipation, headache and loss of
appetite are some of the common symptoms of this disease. Typhoid fever could be confirmed by
Widal test.
d. It was spread by a cook Mary Mallon nicknamed Typhoid Mary through the food she prepared.
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II. Pneumonia ----

a. Bacteria like Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae are responsible for the
disease pneumonia in humans which infects the alveoli .
b. As a result of the infection, the alveoli get filled with fluid leading to severe problems in
respiration.
c. The symptoms of pneumonia include fever, chills, cough and headache. In severe cases, the
lips and finger nails may turn gray to bluish in colour.

I. Dysentery--
Dysentery is an inflammatory disorder of intestine, characterized by inflammation of the
intestines. It is spread among humans through contaminated food and water. The symptoms of
this is diarrhea, fever, weakness etc.
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Some major diseases & their symptoms

Name of disease Name of pathogen Mode of Symptoms

infection
Typhoid Salmonella typhi Contaminated High fever, weakness, stomach
(Bacterial disease) food & water pain, loss of appetite constipation &
headache.
Pneumonia Streptococcus Droplet Fever,chills, cough & headache,
(bacterial disease) pneumonia & infection/aeroso problem in respiration (infects
Haemophilus ls inhalation alveoli)
influenza
Common cold Rhino virus Droplet infection Nasal congestion & discharge,
(viral disease) through shore throat, hoarseness, cough,
contaminated headache, tiredness etc.
objects.
Malaria (protozoan Plasmodium vivax, Female Chill & high fever recurring every 3-
disease) P.falciparum, anopheles 4 days. (infect liver then RBC)
P. malaria
Amoebiasis Entamoeba House fly, Constipation, abdominal pain,
(protozoan histolytica contaminated cramps, stools with excess mucus &
disease) food & water blood clot.

Ascariasis (worm Ascaris Eggs of parasite Internal bleeding, muscular pain,

disease) through fever, anaemia, blockage of
contaminated intestinal passage.
water,
vagetables,
fruits
Elephantiasis or Wuchereria Bite by female Chronic inflammation of organs,
filariasis (worm) (W.bancrofti & mosquito culex lymphatic vessel
W.malayi) .
Ring worm (fungal Microsporum, Soil & by direct Dry, scaly lesions, on body-skin,
disease) Trichophyton, contact nails & scalp, intense itching
Epidermophyton

II. Plague ---

It is deadly infectious bacterial disease infecting lung. It is transmitted by Fleas. The causal bacteria
are found in rat. It is transmitted to human by infected flea through bite. It can be spread in the air by
direct contact, or by contaminated food. Symptoms are fever chill headache, vomiting, bleeding etc.

III. Diphtheria ------

This is a respiratory disease caused by anaerobic bacteria. It is characterized by sore throat, & low
fever. It is spread by direct physical contact or by nasal discharge etc.
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B. VIRUS: -
Common cold —
Rhino viruses represent one such group of viruses which
cause one of the most infectious human ailments- the
common cold. Symptoms of common cold are Nasal
congestion and discharge, sore throat, hoarseness cough,
headache, tiredness etc.

C. PROTOZOA
1. Malaria:
Malaria is one of the most common diseases of mankind.
This disease is caused by a Protozoan of Plasmodium
species (P. vivax, P.malaria, P. falciparum). In this
P.falciparum is most serious and malignant.
There are two host of plasmodium so it is dimorphic;-
a. Primary host– Man – here it completes its asexual life
cycle
b. Secondary host- Female Anopheles mosquito- which
act as vector. Sexual life cycles complete here
Life cycle of Plasmodium involves-:
i. Sporozoites enter the human body through the bite of
infected female Anopheles mosquito, a vector
transmitting the disease.
ii. From the blood they enter liver cells and multiply within the liver cells.
iii. Infected liver cells burst and release the
parasites again in the blood.
iv. They attack RBCs repeatedly, multiply and
cause their rupture.
v. Ruptured RBCs released toxic called
haemozoin which is responsible for high
recurring fever and resultantly the chill/
shivering
vi. When a female Anopheles mosquito bites an
infected person, these parasites as male and
female gametocytes enter the mosquito body
and undergo further development.
vii. Parasites multiply in the stomach wall of the mosquito and again form sporozoites which are stored
in salivary glands and are transferred to human body during bite of the mosquito.
2. Amoebiosis–
It is caused by a endoparasitic protozoa named Entamoeba histolytica. Infective stage of this
parasite is tetranucleate cyst. Symptoms are acute diarrhea and blood and mucus in their stool.
Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite in the large intestine of human which causes
Amoebiasis (Amoebic Dysentery). Symptoms of this disease include constipation, abdominal pain
and cramps, stools with axcess mucous and blood clots. Houseflies act as mechanical carriers and
serve to transmit the parasite from faeces of infected person to food and food products, thereby
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contaminating them. Drinking water and food contaminated by the faecal matter are the main
source of infection.
D. Nematodes
1. Ascariasis: -
Caused by Ascaris lumbricoides commonly called round worm. It is an intestinal parasite.
2. Wuchereria (W. bancrofti and W. malayi), the filarial worms cause a slowly developing chronic
inflammation of the organs in which they live for many years, usually the lymphatic vessels of the
lower limbs and the disease is called elephantiasis or filariasisThe pathogens are transmitted to a
healthy person through the bite by the female mosquito vectors.

E. Fungus –
Ring worm; -
It is most infectious fungal disease caused by Microsporum, Trichophyton and Epidermophyton.

IMMUNITY

1. It is the ability of the body to fight the disease causing organisms.

2. The system of animal body which protects it’s from various infectious agents is called immune
system. The resistance or mechanism used by the body for protection from foreign environmental
agent, toxin and disease is called immunity.
3. Edward jenner (1970) is considered as the father of immunology.
4. Louis Pasture (1879) develops immunization from Rabbies, Anthrax and cholera.

Types –Immunity is of 2 types:

A. Innate immunity:
It is nonspecific type of defense and is inborn in us. These may be-
i. Physical barriers: e.g.: - skin, Mucous membrane of organs, gastro intestinal &urino- genital
tracts to trap microbes
ii. Physiological barriers: body temperature, acid in the stomach and various body secretion like
saliva, tears etc.
iii. Cellular barriers:e.g:- W.B.C., Macrophages, monocytes and Neutrophils etc.
iv. Inflammatory barriers; e.g. Swelling and redness of injured part, occurrence of fever& pain
These responses occur due to releases of chemical Histamin and prostaglandins from the
damaged cell.
v. Cytokinin barriers: virus infected cells secrets protein called interferons which protect non
infected cell from further viral infection. There are three types of interferones
a. α b. β c.𝜸.All body cell have almost α & β interferons where as 𝛾 interferons is
produced only by particular leucocytes.
B. Acquired Immunity:
This immunity is acquired during life time of the organism against specific microbes or pathogen. It is
characterized by Memory and gives primary and secondary responses.
Primary response: -
When body encounters a pathogen for the first time produces a response called Primary response. It is
of low intensity.
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Secondary response or Anamnestic response: -

It is subsequent encounter with primary pathogen. It is highly intensified and strong response. Specific
Immunity has two major groups of
cell-
i. Lymphocytes
ii. Antigen presenting cell
iii. Lymphocytes: found in our blood
& are of two types:
a. T-lymphocytes
b. B-lymphocytes
Both cells are produced in bone
marrow by the process known as
haematopoiesis. T-cells mature in
thymus whereas B cells mature in
bone marrow.
B-cells produce antibody & this is
called humoral immune system
because their antibody is found in
blood. Whereas T-cells give cell
mediated immunity to B cell & do
not produce antibody but help B cell
to produce antibody.
Antibodies are glycoprotein and are collectively termed as Immunoglobulins (Ig). Each Ig has 4
polypeptide chains in which two are long chain called Heavy or H2 chain and two are short chain called
light or L2 chain. These four polypeptide chains are arranged in Y shaped fashion in which antigen
unites. The free antibodies help in agglutination of particulate matter, coating of bacteria and
neutralization of toxin released by bacteria.
Ig are grouped in following 4 groups:
a. Ig A b. Ig E c. Ig G d. Ig M.

Antigen: - are large and complex foreign molecule that activate the specific immunity. Our immune
system can recognize the antigens by the antibody and receptor present on T & B cells. The receptor of
B & T calls are activated by the association of antigen. Now this divide to form a clone of cells called
clonal selection. Some cells of these are acting like Memory cells which don’t produce antibody and kill
infected cells. These cells help in secondary responses.

Active and Passive Immunity

When a host is exposed to antigens, which may be in the form of living or dead microbes or other
proteins, antibodies are produced in the host body. This type of immunity is called active immunity.
Active immunity is slow.
In passive immunity antibodies from another individual is transferred or readymade antibodies are
directly given to the individual e.g.: Infant receive colostrum through milk from the mother. This milk has
abundant antibodies Ig A to protect the infant. During pregnancy fetus also receives some antibody
from their mother through the placenta.
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Vaccination& Immunization-
1. The principle of immunization or vaccination is based on the property of ‘memory’ of the immune
system.
2. In vaccination, a preparation of antigenic proteins of pathogen or inactivated/weakened pathogen
(vaccine) is introduced into the body.
3. The antibodies produced in the body against these antigens would neutralize the pathogenic
agents during actual infection.
4. The vaccines also generate memory- B and T-cells that recognize the pathogen quickly on
subsequent exposure and overwhelm the invaders with a massive production of antibodies.
5. If a person is infected with some deadly microbes to which quick immune response is required as
in tetanus, we need to directly inject the performed antibodies, or antitoxin (a preparation
containing antibodies to the toxin). Even in cases of snakebites, the injection which is given to the
patients, contain performed antibodies against the snake venom. This type of immunization is
called passive immunization.
6. Vaccines are produced using DNA recombinant technology (e.g Hepatitis B vaccine produced from
Yeast).

ALLERGIES
The exaggerated response of the immune system to certain
antigens present in the environment is called allergy. The
substances to which such an immune response is produced are
called allergens. The antibodies produced to these are of IgE type.
Symptoms of allergic reaction: -
a. Sneezing
b. Watery eyes
c. Running nose
d. Difficulty in breathing
Reason of allergy: - Allergy is due to release of chemicals like
histamine and serotonin from the mast cells.
Drugs :The use of drugs like anti-histamine, adrenalin and steroids
quickly reduce the symptoms of allergy. E.g.: - Avil, Citrazin etc.
AUTOIMMUNITY-
This is an abnormal immune response in which immune system of
the body starts attacking and destroying self-cells and damage to
the body molecules and this is called autoimmune disease. Some
common autoimmune diseases are Rheumatoid arthritis, chronic hepatitis, Insulin dependent diabetes.

LYMPHOID ORGANS.
These are those organs where origin/ or maturation and proliferation of lymphocytes occur. This is of
two types: -
a. Primary lymphoid organs eg:- Bone marrow & Thymus- where immature lymphocytes
differentiate into antigen sensitive lymphocytes.
b. Secondary lymphoid organs: - Here fully differentiated lymphocytes migrate and interact with
specific antigens- e.g.: - Lymph nodes, Spleen, Tonsil etc.
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Bone marrow: -
The bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ where all blood cells including lymphocytes are
produced.
Thymus:-
The thymus is quite large at the time of birth but keeps reduces in size with age and by the time puberty
is attained it reduces to a very small size.
Spleen: -
The spleen is a large bean- shaped organ. It mainly contains lymphocytes and phagocytes.It acts as a
filter of the blood by trapping blood-borne micro-organisms. Spleen also has a large reservoir of
erythrocytes.
The lymph node: -
The lymph nodes are small solid structures located at different points along the lymphatic system.
Lymph nodes serve to trap the micro-organisms or otherantigenswhichhappen to get into the lymph and
tissue fluid.
MALT:-
Mucosa associated lymphoid tissue present in mucosa of respiratory, digestive and urino-gential tracts.
It constitutes about 50% the lymphoid tissue in human being.

AIDS-Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome

1. It is not a congenital disease.

2. AIDS was first reported in 1981.
3. AIDS is caused by the Human immune deficiency Virus (HIV), a member of a group of viruses
called retrovirus, which have an envelope enclosing the RNA genome.
4. Transmission of HIV-infection generally occurs by
a. Sexual contact with infected person.
b. By transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products.
c. By sharing infected needles as in the case of intravenous drug abusers.
d. From sexual partners, drug addicts who take drugs intravenously, individuals who require repeated
blood transfusions and children born to an HIV infected mother.
5. HIV/AIDs is not spread by: -
i. HIV/AIDS is not spread by mere touch or physical contact; it spreads only through body fluids.
ii. It is, hence imperative, for the physical and psychological well-being, that the HIV/AIDS infected
persons are not isolated from family and society.
What happens when virus enter into the body?
1. After getting into the body of the person, the virus enters into macrophages where RNA genome of the
virus replicates to form viral DNA with the help of the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
2. This viral DNA gets incorporated into host cell’s DNA and directs the infected cells to produce virus
particles.
3. The macrophages continue to produce virus and in this way acts like a HIV factory.
4. Simultaneously, HIV enters into helper T-lymphocytes (TH), replicates and produce progeny viruses.
The progeny viruses released in the blood attack other helper T-lymphocytes. This is repeated leading
to a progressive decrease in the number of helper T-lymphocytes in the body of the infected person.
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5. Due to decrease in the number of helper T-lymphocytes, the person starts suffering from infections
that could have been otherwise overcome such as those due to bacteria especially Mycobacterium,
viruses, fungi and even parasites like Toxoplasma
Test: -
A widely used diagnostic test for
AIDS is enzyme linked immune-
sorbent assay (ELISA).
Prevention of AIDS: -
As AIDS has no cure, prevention is the
best option. WHO has started a
number of programsto prevent the
spreading of HIV infection.
1. Making blood (from blood banks)
safe from HIV.
2. Ensuring the use of only disposable
needles and syringes in public and
private hospitals and clinics.
3. Free distribution of condoms.
4. Controlling drug abuse.
5. Advocating safe sex.
6. Promoting regular check-ups for
HIV in susceptible population.
CANCER
i. Uncontrolled division of cells.
Normal cells show a property called
contact inhibition by virtue of which
contact with other cells inhibits their
uncontrolled growth. When this
property is lost cause cancer.
ii. Tumor or Neoplasm: -
undifferentiated mass of cells.
iii. Tumor are of two types-
a. Benign tumor or non Malignant or non- cancerous: They are confined to one place.
b. Malignant tumor or cancerous tumor- these cells pass into the blood stream and spread
cancer cells. Spread of cancer cells to different organs of body is called “Metastasis”.
Types of cancer-
i. Carcinomas:- Cancer of epithelial tissue. e.g cancer of stomach, pancreases and breast etc.
ii. Sarcomas:- cancer of mesodermal tissue like bone, cartilage, lymph nodes etc.
iii. Leukemia:- Cancer of blood.
Causes of Cancer-
Those compounds which cause cancer are called “carcinogens”. They may be
i. Physical—e.g. Ionizing radiations like X-ray and gamma rays and non-ionizing radiations like
UV.
ii. Chemical—tobacco smoke (major cause of lung cancer), vinyl chloride, caffeine, nicotine, mustard
gas etc.
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iii. Biological—e.g. oncogenic viruses, cellular oncogenes (c-onc or proto oncogenes) etc. when c-onc
(in normal cells) is activated the cells becomes oncogenic.
Cancer detection and diagnosis-
i. Presence of abnormal leukemias—Biopsy and histopathological studies. Blood and bone
marrow tests for increased cell counts.
ii. Biopsy test—A thin piece of suspected tissue is stained and examined under microscope
(histopathological studies).
iii. Pep test- It is cytological technique for determination of cancer of cervix or uterus.
iv. Mammography- It is a radiographic technique for determination of breast cancer.
v. Radiography (use of X-ray, CT (Computerized tomography) scan and MRI (magnetic resonance
imaging). CT uses X-rays to generate a three-dimensional image of the internals of
an object. MRI uses strong magnetic field and non-ionizing radiations to accurately detect
pathological and physiological changes in living tissue.
vi. Use of antibodies against cancer specific antigens.
vii. Techniques of molecular biology to detect genes related to cancer. Such individuals may be
advised to avoid exposure to particular carcinogens (e.g. tobacco smoke)
Treatment of cancer-
i. Surgery- Most cancers are treated by combination of surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy.
ii. Radiation therapy- tumor cells are irradiated lethally, without damaging surrounding normal tissue.
iii. Immunotherapy-the patients are given biological response modifies (e.g. α interferon) which activates
their immune system and helps in destroying the tumor.
iv. Chemotherapy- use of chemotherapeutic drugs. Many drugs have side effects like hair loss, anemia
etc.In immune therapy defense mechanism of body are strengthen by given biological response
modified such as Alpha-interferon.
Cancer- Gene-P-53 checks cancer growth.
DRUGS AND ALCOHOL ABUSE
A. Opioids
1. These are the drugs, which bind to specific opioid receptors present in our central nervous system
and gastrointestinal tract. e.g.: - Heroin.
2. Heroin commonly called smack is chemically diacetylmorphine which is a white, odourless, bitter
crystalline compound.
3. This is obtained by acetylation of morphine,which is extracted from the latex of poppy plant
Papaver somniferum. Generally taken by snorting and injection, heroine is a depressant and slows
down body functions.
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B. Cannabinoids
1. These are a group of chemicals which interact with cannabinoids receptors present principally in
the brain.
2. Natural cannabinoids are obtained from the inflorescences of the plant Cannabis sativa. Different
parts of plants like flower, leaves, and the resins of Cannabis are used in various combination to
produce marijuana, hashish, charas and ganja.
3. They effect on cardiovascular system of the body. They are taken by inhalation and oral injection.

C.Coca alkaloid or Cocaine

1.It is obtained from coca plant Erythroxylum coca,
2.It is a native plant of South America.
3.It interferes with the transport of the neuro-
transmitter dopamine. Cocaine, commonly called
coke or crack is usually snorted.
4. It has a potent stimulating action on central
nervous system, producing a sense of euphoria
and increased energy. Excessive dosage of
cocaine causes hallucinations.
5. Other well-known plants with hallucinogenic
properties are Atropa belladonna and Datura.
6. These days cannabinoids are also being abused
by some sportspersons.
OBJECTIVES
1. DDT: Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane.
2. Dop test: test to estimate the level of certain drugs present in urine & blood.
3. Pink ribbon is an international symbol for support of breast cancer awareness.

Alcohol
Alcohol is a depressant. It affects the central nervous system.

Addiction & Dependence-:

1. Following are the causes of drug/ alcohol abuse
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a) Curiosity
b) Need for adventure
c) Excitement
d) Experimentation
e) To escape from stress
f) Unsupportive family structure
2. With repeated use of drugs/ alcohol, the tolerance level of the receptors in our body increases &
consequently they respond only to higher doses of drugs/alcohol.
3. If the regular dose of drugs/ alcohol is abruptly discontinued, the body of manifests characteristic
and unpleasant withdrawal symptoms, which can be anxiety, nausea, sweating etc.

Effects of Drug/ Alcohol Abuse

1. The immediate effects of drugs/ alcohol abuse are manifested as reckless behavior, vandalism &
violence.
2. Excess dose can lead to coma & death due to cerebral haemorrhage, respiratory& heart failure.
3. A combination of drugs or their intake with alcohol leads to death.
4. The most common warning signals o drug/ alcohol abuse include
a) Drop in academic performance
b) Lack of interest in personal hygiene
c) Withdrawal & isolation from family & friends.
d) Aggressive & rebellious behavior
e) Lack of interest in hobbies.
f) Change in sleeping & eating habit.
g) Fluctuation in weight, etc.
5. When the drug is taken intravenously, it can lead to infections like AIDS & hepatitis.
6. Use of alcohol during adolescence can lead to heavy drinking in adult hood.
7. Chronic use of drug & alcohol damage central nervous system and liver (cirrhosis).
8. Misuse of anaerobic steroids causes the following in females:
a) Masculinization b. Increased aggressiveness. C. Mood swings d. Abnormal menstrual cycle
e. Excess hair growth on the face & body. f. Enlargement of clitoris g. Deepening of voice etc.
9. Misuse of anaerobic steroids cause following in males:
a) Acne
b) Increased aggressiveness
c) Depression
d) Reduction in size of testicles.
e) Decreased sperm production.
f) Potential for kidney & liver dysfunction.
g) Premature baldness.
h) Enlargement of Prostrate gland.
i) Enlarged breasts etc.
10. Prevention & control
a) Avoid undue peer pressure.
b) Educating & counseling.
c) Seeking help from parents and peers.
d) Looking for danger signs. e Seeking professional and medical help