Human Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology

CHAPTER 3: CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

OUTLINE Fluid-mosaic model
I. Cell Structure
II. Functions of the Cell
III. Cell Membrane
IV. Movement Through the Cell Membrane
A. Diffusion
B. Osmosis
C. Carrier-Mediated Transport Mechanisms
D. Endocytosis and Exocytosis
V. Organelles
VI. Whole-Cell Activity
A. Gene Expression
B. Cell Cycle • Hydrophilic head -polar, water-loving, phosphate
C. Differentiation containing
D. Apoptosis • Hydrophobic tail -nonpolar, water-fearing, fatty acid ends
VII. Cellular Aspects of Aging
• Cholesterol -adds strength and stability; limits amount of
movement of phospholipid
I. CELL STRUCTURE • Protein molecules -float among phospholipid molecules;
extend from inner to outer surface
• Organelles -perform specific functions • Carbohydrates -bound to some protein molecules,
o Nucleus -an organelle containing the cell’s material modifying their function
• Cytoplasm -living material surrounding the nucleus;
contains many types of organelles Membrane proteins
• Cell membrane -aka plasma membrane; encloses the
-function as membrane channels, carrier molecules, receptor
cytoplasm
molecules, enzymes or structural supports

• Integral membrane proteins -penetrate deeply into the

II. FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL lipid bilayer; extending from one surface to other
• Peripheral membrane proteins -attached to either the
1. Cell metabolism and energy use inner or the outer surfaces of the lipid bilayer
2. Synthesis of molecules
3. Communication Membrane Protein Protein Function
4. Reproduction and inheritance Marker Molecules Allow cells to identify other cells or
other molecules

III. CELL MEMBRANE

Cell membrane/plasma membrane Attachment Proteins Anchor cells to other cells

(cadherins) or to extracellular
‑ outermost component of a cell molecules (integrins)
‑ encloses the cytoplasm
‑ forms the boundary between inside and outside of cell
• Extracellular substances -substances outside the cell Transport Proteins
• Intracellular substances -substances inside the cell Channel Proteins Form passageways through the
‑ primarily made up of two major types of molecules: plasma membrane, allowing specific
phospholipids and proteins ions or molecules to enter or exit the
cell; may be leak or gated
‑ contains other molecules, such as cholesterol and
carbohydrates Carrier Proteins Move ions or molecules across the
membrane; binding of specific
chemical to carrier proteins causes
changes in the shape of the carrier
proteins

@[Link] | by MAPB Chapter 3: Cell Structures and Their Functions

 ATP-powered pumps Move specific ions or molecules Diffusion Through the Cell Membrane
across the membrane; require ATP
molecules to function Phospholipid bilayer -act as a barrier to most water-soluble
substances
Receptor Proteins Function as binding sites for chemical
signals in the extracellular fluid;
binding of chemical signals to
receptors triggers cellular responses

Enzymes Catalyze chemical reactions either

inside or outside cells

Non-lipid-soluble molecules (red), such as ions, diffuse

IV. MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE through membrane channels. Lipid-soluble molecules
(orange), such as O2, CO2, and steroids, diffuse directly
Cell membranes are selectively permeable, meaning it allows
through the cell membrane.
some substances to pass into or out of cell membrane
Leak and Gated Membrane Channels
• Intracellular material -enzymes, glycogen, and potassium
ions (K+) • Leak channels -constantly allows ions to pass through
• Extracellular material -Na+, Ca2+, and Cl • Gated channels -limit the movement of ions by opening
and closing

Active membrane transport Passive membrane

transport
requires energy (ATP) no energy required
lower concentration to higher concentration to
higher concentration lower concentration
• active transport • diffusion
• secondary active • osmosis
transport • facilitated diffusion
• endocytosis
In this example, the K+ leak channel (purple) is always open,
• exocytosis
allowing K+ to diffuse across the cell membrane. The gated
Na+ channel (pink) regulates the movement of Na+ across
A. Diffusion the membrane by opening and closing.

‑ molecules tend to move from an area with higher

concentration to lower concentration
Factors affecting rate of diffusion:
‑ results from the natural, constant random motion of all
solutes in a solution 1. Temperature
Solution -made up of solute and solvent • the higher temperature, the faster the rate of
diffusion
• Solute -substances to be dissolved by solvent 2. Molecular weight
• Solvent -predominant liquid/gas in a solution • the higher the molecular weight, the slower the rate
of diffusion
Concentration gradient -difference in the concentration of a
3. Concentration difference/gradient
solute in a solvent between two points

• Moves down (with CG) -solute diffuses from and area of

B. Osmosis
higher concentration to lower
• Moves up (against CG) -moves from an area of lower ‑ diffusion of water across a selectively permeable
concentration to higher membrane from higher water concentration to lower
water concentration

@[Link] | by MAPB Chapter 3: Cell Structures and Their Functions

• Osmotic pressure -force required to prevent the Active Transport
movement of water across a selective permeable
membrane; measure of the tendency of water to move by ‑ moves substances across the cell membrane from lower
osmosis concentration to higher
• Hydrostatic pressure -moves the water out of the tube ‑ against concentration gradient
back into distilled water surrounding the tube ‑ accumulate substances on the cell membrane; stops w/o
ATP
↑ concentration of solution, ↑ osmotic pressure • Cystic fibrosis -genetic disorder that affects active
Hypotonic Isotonic Hypertonic
transport of Cl- into ells
Higher solute inside Equal solute Higher solute outside • Sodium-potassium pump -example of exchanging one
Higher water Equal water Higher water inside substance for another; moves Na+ out of cells and K+ into
outside cells
Water moves in No net movement Water moves out
Cell swells Normal Cell shrinks Secondary Active Transport

‑ involves the active transport of one substance across the

cell membrane, establishing a concentration gradient
• Cotransport/Symport -diffusing substance moves in the
same direction as the transported substance
Hypotonic solution • Countertransport/Antiport -diffusing substance moves in
a direction opposite to the transported substance
‑ lower concentration of solutes, higher concentration of
water relative to cytoplasm; less tonicity and osmotic
pressure; water moves into the cell causing it to swell
D. Endocytosis and Exocytosis
‑ lysis -the process of rupturing of cell caused by too much
swelling Vesicle -a membrane-bound sac where large water-soluble
molecules can be transported
Isotonic solution
Endocytosis
‑ concentration is same both sides of cell membrane;
neither shrinks nor swells ‑ uptake of material through the cell membrane by the
formation of a vesicle
Hypertonic solution ‑ the cell membrane invaginates (folds inward) to form a
vesicle
‑ higher concentration of solutes; lower concentration of • Receptor-mediated endocytosis -specific substance binds
water relative to cytoplasm; higher tonicity and osmotic to the receptor molecule, endocytosis is triggered, and the
pressure; water moves out of cell causing it to shrink substance is transported into the cell
‑ crenation -cell shrinkage
• Phagocytosis -cell-eating; solid particles are ingested
• Pinocytosis -cell-drinking; smaller vesicles are formed
C. Carrier-Mediated Transport Mechanisms Exocytosis

‑ move larger water-soluble molecules or electrically ‑ export of material

charged ions across cell membrane ‑ secretory vesicles move to the cell membrane, where the
‑ exhibit specificity (only specific molecules are transported vesicle membrane fuses with the cell membrane, and the
by the carriers) material in the vesicle is released from the cell
‑ Secretory vesicles -accumulate materials for release from
Three Kinds of Carrier Mediated Transport
the cell
Facilitated Diffusion
Summary: Movement Across Membranes
Types Transport ATP
‑ moves substances across the cell membrane from an area Diffusion With the concentration gradient through No
of higher concentration to lower concentration the lipid portion of the cell membrane or
‑ movement is with the concentration gradient through membrane channels
‑ ATP is not required Osmosis With the concentration gradient (for No
‑ uses transport membrane water) through the lipid portion of the cell
membrane or through membrane
channels

@[Link] | by MAPB Chapter 3: Cell Structures and Their Functions

 Facilitated With the concentration gradient by carrier No Endoplasmic reticulum
diffusion molecules
Active Against the concentration gradient by Yes ‑ series of membranes forming sacs and tubules
transport carrier molecules
• Rough ER -ribosomes attached; protein synthesis
Secondary Against the concentration gradient by Yes
active carrier molecules; the energy for • Smooth ER -lacks ribosomes; lipid synthesis; participated
transport secondary active transport of one in detoxification; stores calcium ions in skeletal muscle
substance comes from the concentration
gradient of another Golgi apparatus
Endocytosis Movement into cells by vesicles Yes
Exocytosis Movement out of cells by vesicles Yes ‑ also called Golgi complex or Golgi body
‑ closely packed stacks of curse, membrane-bound sacs;
collects, modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and
V. ORGANELLES
lipids

Secretory vesicles

‑ pinch off from Golgi apparatus and move to cell

membrane; contains materials produced in cell
‑ Vesicles is a small, membrane-bound sac that transports
or stores materials within cells

Lysosomes and Peroxisomes

• Lysosomes -formed from Golgi apparatus; contains

enzymes that function as intracellular digestive systems
• Peroxisomes -small, membrane-bound vesicles
containing enzymes that break down fatty acids, amino
acids, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
o Hydrogen peroxide -by-product of fatty acid and
amino acid; can be toxic to cell

Mitochondria
Nucleus
‑ small organelles with inner and outer membranes
‑ contains genetic material of cell (DNA) and nucleoli; site of separated by a space
RNA synthesis and ribosomal subunit assembly; located at ‑ powerhouse of the cell; site of aerobic respiration; ATP
the near center of the cell synthesis
• Cristae -numerous folds that projects into interior of
• Nuclear envelope -bounds nucleus; consists of outer and mitochondria
inner membranes with space in between • Mitochondrial matrix -material within the inner
• Nuclear pore -connection between inner and outer membrane; contains enzyme and mitochondrial DNA
membranes where materials can pass through (mtDNA)
• Chromosomes -consists of DNA and proteins; 23 pairs Cytoskeleton
• Chromatin -loosely coiled chromosomes
• Nucleoli -diffuse bodies with no surrounding membrane ‑ internal framework of the cell; consist of protein
where subunits of ribosomes are formed structures that support the cell, hold organelles in place,
• Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) -produced within and enable the cell to change shape
nucleolus; form large and small ribosomal subunits when • Microtubules -hollow structures formed from protein
joined by proteins subunits; support the cytoplasm; assist in cell division;
forming cilia and flagella
Ribosomes
• Microfilaments -small fibrils; support cytoplasm;
‑ site of protein synthesis; may be attached to other determine cell shape; some are involved in cell
organelles movements; enable cell to shorten or contract
‑ free ribosomes -not attached to organelle • Intermediate filaments -smaller than microtubules but
larger than microfilaments; mechanical support ; example
is keratin (protein associated with skin cells)

@[Link] | by MAPB Chapter 3: Cell Structures and Their Functions

Centrioles VI. WHOLE-CELL ACTIVITY

‑ normally oriented perpendicular to each other; facilitate A. Gene Expression

movement of chromosomes during cell division; each is
‑ production of RNA and/or proteins from the information
composed of microtubules organized into nine triplets
stored in DNA
• Centrosome -close to the nucleus where microtubule
• DNA molecule -consists of nucleotides joined together to
formation occurs; contains 2 centrioles
form two nucleotide strands
Cilia, Flagella, and Microvilli • Gene -functional units of heredity; sequence of
nucleotides that provides a chemical set of instructions
• Cilia -projects from the surface of cells; composed of • Heredity -transmission of genetic traits from parent to
microtubules; moves substances over surfaces of certain offspring
cells; transports mucus; keeps the lungs free from debris
Transcription
• Flagella -longer than cilia; usually occur only one per cell
propel sperm cells ‑ first step in gene expression; takes place in the nucleus
• Microvilli - specialized extensions of the cell membrane ‑ synthesis of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA molecules based on
that are supported by microfilaments; increase surface the nucleotide sequence in DNA
area of certain cells • DNA: thymine, adenine, cytosine, guanine
Summary: Organelles • RNA: uracil, adenine, cytosine, guanine
Organelles Location Functions • messenger RNA (mRNA) -copy of the gene produced;
Nucleus Often near Contains genetic material of travels from the nucleus to the ribosomes
center of cell (DNA) and nucleoli; site of o exons -regions of the mRNA that do code for proteins
the cell RNA synthesis and ribosomal o introns -regions that do not code for a protein
subunit assembly
Ribosomes In cytoplasm Site of protein synthesis
• transfer RNA (tRNA) -carry amino acids to the ribosomes
Rough ER In cytoplasm Has many ribosomes attached; • codons -three nucleotide in a group that carries info in
site of protein synthesis mRNA
Smooth ER In cytoplasm Site of lipid synthesis;
participates in detoxification Translation
Golgi In cytoplasm Modifies protein structure and
apparatus packages proteins in secretory ‑ synthesis of a protein at the ribosome based on the
vesicles sequence of the codons of mRNA; requires tRNA and
Secretory In cytoplasm Contains materials produced in ribosomal RNA (rRNA); ribosome binds to an mRNA and
vesicle the cell; formed by the Golgi aligns it with tRNA
apparatus; secreted by
‑ During translation, the sequence of codons in mRNA is
exocytosis
Lysosome In cytoplasm Contains enzymes that digest used at ribosomes to produce proteins. Anticodons of
material taken into the cell tRNA bind to the codons of mRNA, and the amino acids
Peroxisome In cytoplasm Breaks down fatty acids, amino carried by tRNA are joined to form a protein.
acids, and hydrogen peroxide • anticodon -three-nucleotide in tRNA that pairs with codon
Mitochondrion In cytoplasm Site of aerobic respiration and
the major site of ATP synthesis
Microtubule In cytoplasm Supports cytoplasm; assists in
cell division and forms B. Cell Cycle
components of cilia and
flagella Cell division -formation of daughter cells from single parent
Centrioles In cytoplasm Facilitate the movement of cell
chromosomes during cell
division Meiosis -forms sex cells necessary for reproduction
Cilia On cell Move substances over
surface with surfaces of certain cells • Haploid -has half of the usual number of chromosomes
many on (egg and sperm)
each cell
Flagella On sperm cell Propel sperm cells Mitosis -division of parent cell to produce two daughter cells;
surface with forms new cells necessary for growth and tissue repair
one per cell
Microvilli Extensions of Increase surface area of • Diploid -has paired chromosomes (23 pairs in human; 1
cell surface certain cells out of 23 is sex chromosome)
with many on
each cell • Autosomes -remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes

@[Link] | by MAPB Chapter 3: Cell Structures and Their Functions

Interphase 3. Anaphase

‑ nondividing phase; consume most of cell’s life; DNA is ‑ chromatids separate (each will be called chromosome);
replicated each of two sets of 46 chromosomes is moved to different
‑ G1 phase, S phase, and G2 phase pole of centriole by the spindle fibers
‑ at the end, chromosomes reached opposite poles and
cytoplasm begins to divide

4. Telophase

‑ chromosomes become organized to form two separate

nuclei for each daughter cell, begin to unravel and
resemble genetic material during interphase

Mitosis

1. Prophase
Mitosis is complete, and a new interphase begins. The
chromosomes have unraveled to become chromatin. Cell
‑ chromatin condenses to form visible chromosomes;
division has produced two daughter cells, each with DNA that
centrioles divide and migrate to each pole
is identical to the DNA of the parent cell.
‑ in late prophase, nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappea
• Chromatids -two genetically identical strands of
chromatin
• Centromere -specialized region where chromatids are
linked
• Spindle fibers -microtubules that extend from the
centrioles; some attach to the centromeres of each
Cytokinesis
chromosome
‑ division of the cell’s cytoplasm to produce two new cells
‑ begins in anaphase and continues through telophase
‑ the first sign of cytokinesis is the formation of a cleavage
furrow, an indentation of the plasma membrane that
forms midway between the centrioles

CLINICAL IMPACT
2. Metaphase
• tumor -any abnormal mass of tissue that occurs within the
‑ chromosomes align near the center of cell (movements body, usually involving cell proliferation
regulated by spindle fibers) • benign tumors -less dangerous; not inclined to spread, but
they may increase in size
• malignant tumors -can spread by local growth and
expansion or by metastasis
• cancer -refers to a malignant, spreading tumor and the
illness that results from it

@[Link] | by MAPB Chapter 3: Cell Structures and Their Functions

C. Differentiation

Differentiation -process which cells develop with specialized

structures and functions; results from selective activation and
inactivation of segments of DNA

D. Apoptosis

Apoptosis -programmed cell death; normal process by which

cell numbers within tissues are adjusted and controlled;
removes extra tissues in fetus

Macrophages -specialize cells that phagocytize the cell

fragments

VII. CELLULAR ASPECTS OF AGING

1. Cellular clock -after certain passage of time or a certain

number of cell divisions results in death of given cell line
2. Death genes -causing cells to deteriorate and die
3. DNA damage -DNA will be damaged through time
resulting in degeneration and death
4. Free radicals -atoms and molecules with unpaired
electrons which may damage the DNA directly resulting in
mutation that may lead to cellular dysfunction and cell
death
5. Mitochondrial damage -mitochondrial DNA may be more
sensitive to free-radical damage that may result in loss of
proteins

@[Link] | by MAPB Chapter 3: Cell Structures and Their Functions