EIFAC

The transport TECHNICAL

PAPER
of live fish
48
A review

by
R. Berka
Fisheries Research Institute
Scientific Information Centre
389 25 Vodňany
Czechoslovakia

FOOD
AND
AGRICULTURE
ORGANIZATION
EUROPEAN INLAND FISHERIES OF THE
ADVISORY COMMISSION UNITED NATIONS
(EIFAC) Rome, 1986
 The designations employed and the presentation
of material in this publication do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part
of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations concerning the legal status of any
country, territory, city or area or of its authorities,
or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or
boundaries.

M-47
ISBN 92-5-102380-8

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© FAO 1986
 PREPARATION OF THIS DOCUMENT
The present document is based on a general review of the existing literature
concerned with live fish transport. It has been prepared by the author in 1983–84 as a
voluntary contribution, for which EIFAC is most grateful.
The cover photo graph is by A.G. Coche. It represents the transport of carp fry in
plastic bags with addition of oxygen.

ABSTRACT

The basic principles of fish transport and the main factors affecting it (fish
species, fish developmental stages and quality, transport time,
temperature, oxygen content, fish metabolism products, etc.) are evaluated
on the basis of an analysis of the pertinent literature. For the two basic fish
transport systems, the closed and the open ones, the transport units are
described and the densities of transported fish per unit volume under
actual conditions are tabulated for guidance. The survey is complemented
by the description of the existing methods for the chemical treatment of the
environment inside the transport systems and for the treatment of the fish
transported, such as fish anaesthetics, chemical water conditioning and
antibacterial treatment.

Distribution: For bibliographic purposes this document

should be cited as follows:
Author
EIFAC Mailing List
Berka, R., The transport of live fish. A
FAO Fisheries Department
1986 review. EIFAC [Link].,
FAO Regional Fishery Officers
(48):52 p.
 CONTENTS
Page
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. THE MAIN FACTORS AND PRINCIPLES ASSOCIATED WITH FISH TRANSPORT 1
2.1 Quality of Fish 1
2.2 Oxygen 1
2.3 pH, Carbon Dioxide and Ammonia 2
2.4 Temperature 4
2.5 Density and Activity of Transported Fish 4
2.6 Biochemical Changes and Stress in Transported Fish 6
2.7 General Notes 7
3. CLOSED SYSTEMS OF FISH TRANSPORT 7
3.1 Polyethylene Bags 7
3.2 Other Sealed Containers 9
3.3 Fry Densities in Plastic Bags 9
3.4 General Notes on the Transport of Juvenile Fish in Bags 11
3.5 Transport of Large Fish in Bags 15
3.6 General Notes on the Transport of Brood Fish in Bags 15
4. OPEN SYSTEMS OF FISH TRANSPORT 22
4.1 General Technological Notes 22
4.2 Technical Designs of Transport Units 24
4.2.1 Small Transport Units 24
4.2.2 Large Transport Tanks 26
4.2.3 Single-purpose Transport Trucks 29
4.3 Water Aeration/Oxygenation and Temperature 35
4.4 Fish Densities in Transport Units 38
4.5 Transport of Pike-Perch 41
4.6 Railway Fish Transport 45
5. CHEMICAL METHODS FOR WATER AND FISH TREATMENT DURING TRANSPORT 45
5.1 Use of Fish Tranquilizers 46
5.2 Application of Sodium Chloride and Calcium Chloride 47
5.3 Chemicals as Oxygen Sources 48
5.4 Bacteriostatic Chemicals 48
5.5 Buffers 48
5.6 Ammonia Control 48
5.7 Antifoam Chemicals 48
6. CONCLUSION 49
7. REFERENCES 49
1. INTRODUCTION
There are two basic transport systems for live fish - the closed system and the
open system. The closed system is a sealed container in which all the requirements for
survival are self-contained. The simplest of these is a sealed plastic bag partly filled with
water and oxygen. The open system consists of water-filled containers in which the
requirements for survival are supplied continuously from outside sources. The simplest
of these is a small tank with an aerator stone.
These systems will be reviewed with respect to the problems of fish preparation
for transport, types of vehicles and equipments, problems of water quality and its
changes during transport, and chemical aids used during fish transport.
There is ample literature on fish transport and associated problems; however, the
literary sources overlap and give partly differing interpretations of the recommended
ways of transport. These are the reasons why this survey aims at comprising mainly
those published results which have been fully verified in practice and which are,
therefore, reliably instructive.
The basic factors and principles associated with any live fish transport systems,
or influencing them, are evaluated before the actual ways of fish transport are
commented on.
2. THE MAIN FACTORS AND PRINCIPLES ASSOCIATED WITH FISH
TRANSPORT
Fish survival in a good state of health during transport is influenced by a number
of factors, or combination of factors.
2.1 Quality of Fish
The quality of fish transported is a decisive criterion. The fish to be transported
must be healthy and in good condition. Weakened individuals should be eliminated from
the consignment, particularly when the temperature during shipment is high. When the
fish are of poor quality, even a great reduction of fish density in the transport container
fails to prevent fish losses. Weak fish are killed at a much higher rate than fish in good
condition when the transport time is longer.
A need for adapting the fish to a lower water temperature may also arise before
transport. Natural ice is used to cool the water; the ice of carbonic acid should be
avoided. As a guide ratio, 25 kg of ice will cool 1 000 litres of water by 2°C. If the water
contains fish during the cooling process, the temperature drop should not be faster than
5°C per hour. Direct contact of fish with ice should be prevented at the same time. The
total temperature difference should not be greater than 12–15°C, with respect to the
species and age of the fish (FRG recommendation, 1979).
The fish to be transported, except for the larval stages should be left to starve for
at least a day; if the digestive tract of the fish is not totally cleaned, the possible time of
transport is reduced to a half, though the conditions may be the same (Pecha, Berka and
Kouril, 1983; Orlov et al., 1974). The fish with full digestive tracts also need more
oxygen, are more susceptible to stress, and produce excrements which take up much of
the oxygen of the water. However, when fish larvae are transported, their time of survival
without food should be taken into consideration. The transport time of the larvae of
herbivorous fishes should not last longer than 20 hours and that of many aquarium
species should be shorter than 12 hours (Orlov, 1971).
2.2 Oxygen
The most important single factor in transporting fish is providing an adequate
level of dissolved oxygen. However, an abundance of oxygen within a tank does not
necessarily indicate that the fish are in good condition. The ability of fish to use oxygen
depends on their tolerance to stress, water temperature, pH, and concentrations of
carbon dioxide and metabolic products such as ammonia.
The crucial factors underlying oxygen consumption by fish in relation with oxygen
metabolism during transport are fish weight and water temperature. Heavier fish and
those transported in warmer water need more oxygen. For instance, if the water
temperature increases by 10°C (e.g., from 10 to 20°C), oxygen consumption is about
doubled. From the point of view of fish transport, for each 0.5°C rise in temperature, the
fish load should be reduced by about 5.6%; conversely, for each 0.5°C decrease in
temperature, the load can be increased by about 5.6% (Piper et al., 1982). Oxygen
consumption also increases with fish excitement by handling. Excitement increases
oxygen demand three to five times and, for instance, salmonid fry need up to several
hours to return to the normal level of oxygen metabolism which is, in fact, usually after
the end of the transport (Lusk and Krcál, 1974).
In water provided with an unlimited amount of oxygen, a fish at rest will consume
a minimum amount of oxygen. In a fish transport system, the fish will require more than
the minimum amount since they are not at rest. Furthermore, if they are excited at
loading or disturbed during transport they may consume near to the maximum amount.
The amount of oxygen a fish consumes also depends on the amount of oxygen
available. At high levels, the fish will consume at a steady rate. When water oxygen
levels are low, fish consume lower amounts of oxygen than when oxygen levels are
high, despite the degree of activity.
Fish transport systems often contain water with oxygen levels that do not provide
enough oxygen required to satisfy the fish bodies. To offset this predicament, the fish will
shift its metabolism to use the stored oxygen of the body. This condition is likened to that
of a man who is at rest and suddenly performs strenuous activity before a proportionate
amount of oxygen is taken in. For the man and the fish, an oxygen “debt” is created
which must be repaid when favourable oxygen conditions are experienced.
The first hour after loading is a particularly critical time for fish in respect to their
oxygen needs. They are excited and require a large amount of oxygen with a short time
for adjustment. Significant differences in oxygen demand exist also within fish families.
As asserted, for instance, by Uryn (1971), when water temperature increases (4–14°C)
during transport, the fry of Coregonus lavaretus consume 2.4 times more oxygen than
the fry of C. albula. Fish size is also important. A large fish consumes less oxygen per
unit weight than does a small one. Oxygen levels of water for most warm water fish
should be above 5 mg.1-1 for normal conditions. This level should prevent oxygen from
becoming a major stress factor.
Some conversion coefficients of oxygen demand are indicated by the FRG
recommendation (1979): 25 kg of rainbow trout at an individual weight of 250 g have the
same oxygen demand as 20 kg of 12 cm stock trout (1 100 fish), or 17 kg of 8 cm stock
trout (3 200 fish), or 12 kg of forced fry at the length of 4 cm (ca. 23 000 fish). Taking the
oxygen demand of carp as 1, the converted oxygen demand levels for other fishes are
as follows:
 trout 2.83 bream 1.41
pike-perch 1.76 pike 1.10
roach 1.51 eel 0.83
perch 1.46 tench 0.83
According to Shevchenko (1978), the oxygen consumption of Coregonus peled
per kg of weight per hour at a temperature of 10°C is 100 mg; in sturgeon this value is
68 mg, in pike 50–60 mg, and in carp weighing 500–600 g it is 45 mg.
During fish transport in closed systems with pressurized oxygen atmosphere,
oxygen content in water usually is not a limiting factor because there is enough
pressurized oxygen in a closed bag. Oxygen deficit may occur in exceptional cases
when the density of fish is too high or the transport is longer than the fish can stand. The
dead fish compete with the living ones for oxygen: they increase bacterial multiplication
requiring much oxygen, and this multiplication may further produce toxic metabolites.
The slime produced by the fish is another substrate for bacterial growth resulting in a
decrease of the water oxygen content; this process is intensified when water
temperature is higher.
A high oxygen content of water has no unfavourable influence on the fish, e.g.,
the limit for rainbow trout is 35 mg per litre which is not attainable in practical conditions,
as asserted by Heiner (1983); the fish are able to regulate the volume of oxygen entering
their bodies. This holds generally with possible exceptions; for the time being there are
no data on the effect of a longer exposure to a high oxygen content at a higher
temperature in the larval stages of fish unable to keep oxygen content of their blood at
an optimum level.
In closed systems, slight shaking of the bag supports the penetration of
atmospheric oxygen to water. During long steps when the bags with fish are left without
movement, the fish may die though the oxygen reserve in the bag is still high. This
applies mainly to dense stocks of salmonids, requiring much oxygen; no such problems
are encountered when cyprinids, except their sac fry, are transported, because these
fish move the water in the bag by their own movement, thus driving it into sufficient
contact with the oxygenated atmosphere. The time of the onset of the threshold oxygen
concentrations during salmonid fry transport in closed bags left without movement is
suggested in Table 1 (Orlov et al., 1974).
2.3 pH, Carbon Dioxide and Ammonia
Water quality is a function of the load of fish concentration and the length of time
for which the fish are transported. The source of the water used during transport must
have been tested before dispatching a mass consignment of fish. The water pH level is a
control factor because the proportions of toxic ammonia and CO2 contents are direct
functions of pH (Fig. 1).
With increasing transport time, CO2 production through fish respiration shifts
water pH towards acidity. Water pH levels about 7–8 are considered as optimum. Rapid
changes in pH stress fish, but buffers can be used to stabilize the water pH during fish
transport. The organic buffer trishydroxylmethylaminomethane is quite effective in fresh
and salt water. It is highly soluble, stable and easily applied. This buffer has been used
on 29 species of fish with no deleterious effects. Levels of 1.3–2.6 g/litre are
recommended for routine transport of fish (Piper et al., 1982).
 Table 1
The onset of the threshold concentrations of oxygen during salmonid fry transport in
closed bags without movement
(in hours)
Individual Total weight of fish
average Temperature (kg)
weight (°C)
0.25 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
(g)
0.5 5 10.0 - - - - - -
10 10.0 - - - - - -
15 6.0 - - - - - -
20 3.9 - - - - - -
1–2 5 10.0 10.0 - - - - -
10 10.0 6.0 - - - - -
15 6.7 3.3 - - - - -
20 4.4 2.2 - - - - -
5–10 5 10.0 10.0 7.3 4.7 - - -
10 10.0 6.6 3.2 2.1 - - -
15 8.0 3.9 1.9 1.2 - - -
20 5.3 2.6 1.3 0.8 - - -
20–50 5 10.0 10.0 9.1 5.9 4.3 - -
10 10.0 7.3 3.5 2.3 1.7 - -
15 9.2 4.5 2.2 1.4 1.0 - -
20 5.8 2.8 1.4 0.9 0.7 - -
100 5 10.0 10.0 10.0 6.7 4.9 3.8 3.1
10 10.0 8.2 4.0 2.6 1.9 1.5 1.2
15 10.0 4.9 2.4 1.5 1.1 0.9 0.7
20 6.5 3.2 1.5 1.0 0.7 0.6 0.5

Figure 1 Proportion of each chemical species of ammonia and

carbon dioxide expressed as a percentage at various
pH levels (Amend et al., 1982)
 Elevated carbon dioxide concentrations are detrimental to fish and can be a
limiting factor in fish transport. A product of fish and bacterial respiration, CO2 acidifies
transport water. Although this reduces the percentage of un-ionized ammonia in the
water, it also reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of fish blood. Fish may succumb if
CO2 levels are high, even though oxygen levels are seemingly adequate. Trout appear
to tolerate carbon dioxide at levels less than 15 mg 1-1 in the presence of reasonable
oxygen and temperature, but become distressed when carbon dioxide levels approach
25 mg 1-1 (Piper et al., 1982).
Fish transported in tanks are exposed to gradually increasing concentrations of
carbon dioxide. Unless aeration is adequate, CO2 levels may exceed 20–30 mg 1-1, in
general, for each milliliter of oxygen a fish consumes, it produces approximately 0.9
milliliters of CO2. If the CO2 level increases rapidly, as with heavy fish loads, fish become
distressed. However, elevated concentrations of CO2 can be tolerated if the rate of
buildup is slow.
Adequate ventilation is a necessity for transport units. Tight covers or lids on the
units can result in a buildup of CO2 which will stress the fish. Aeration of the water will
reduce concentrations of dissolved CO2, if there is adequate ventilation.
As Pecha, Berka and Kouril (1983) assert, the critical CO2 concentrations in
closed systems range about 140 ml/litre for thermophilous fish and about 40 ml/litre for
those preferring cold conditions. Kruzhalina, Averina and Vol'nova (1970) give a closer
specification of these critical CO2 concentrations in closed fish transport systems and
suggest the following levels: 60–70 ml/litre for salmonids, 40 ml/litre for mature
sturgeons and 20 ml/litre for sturgeon fry, 140–160 ml/litre for mature herbivourous
fishes, 100 ml/litre for herbivorous fish fry and 80 ml/litre for the larvae of the
herbivourous species. All these data hold for closed systems; in open systems CO2 is
released from water by any system of aeration. When the fish concentration in the
container of a closed system decreases, the critical CO2 concentration loses much of its
importance.
Another important factor is chlorine concentration in water, although - like carbon
dioxide - chlorine is also removed from the water by aeration. The concentration of 0.5
mg/litre is considered as dangerous, though even lower chlorine levels, e.g., 0.2 mg/litre
disturb the fish respiration mechanism considerably (Shevchenko, 1978).
Ammonia (NH3) builds up in transport water due to protein metabolism of the fish
and bacterial action on the waste. Decreasing metabolic rate of the fish by lowering the
water temperature, and thus lessening fish activity, reduces the production of NH3. The
production of NH3 by bacterial action can be decreased by shipping fish only after food
has been witheld long enough to void the stomach and intestine.
Temperature and time of last feeding are important factors regulating ammonia
excretion. For example, trout held in water at 1°C excrete 66% less ammonia than those
held in 11°C water, and fish starved for 63 h before shipment produce half as much
ammonia as recently fed fish. Fish larger than 10 cm should be starved at least 48 h;
those 20 cm and larger should be starved 72 h (Piper et al., 1982).
The amount of un-ionized ammonia increases as water temperatures and pH
increase (Table 2).
No maximum permissible values can be given because the toxicity of ammonia is
so greatly affected by water temperature and pH. However, critical concentrations of
toxic ammonia are scarcely obtained under standard fish transport conditions.
2.4 Temperature
Water temperature is an important factor. When water temperature is low, the pH
remains higher and fish metabolism decreases. The generally applicable zones of
optimum temperatures for transported fish are 6–8°C for cold-water fishes and 10–12°C
for warm-water fishes in summer, 3–5°C for cold-water fishes and 5–6°C for warm-water
fishes in spring and autumn, and 1–2°C for all in winter. Naturally, these temperature
ranges do not apply to the early stages of fish fry. The early fry of cyprinids cannot be
transported at temperatures below 15°C, early fry of salmonids at temperatures higher
than 15–20°C, and the temperature of 10°C, is considered as optimum for the early
stages of the fry of coregonids (Pecha, Berka and Kouril, 1983; Orlov et al., 1971, 1974;
Shevchenko, 1978).
2.5 Density and Activity of Transported Fish
Consideration should also be given to the factor of space. As to fry, the ratio of
the volume of the fish transported and the transport water should not exceed 1:3.
Heavier individuals, e.g., parent fish can be transported in a fish: water weight ratio of
1:2 to 1:3, but with smaller organisms this ratio decreases to 1:100 to 1:200 (Pecha,
Berka and Kouril, 1983). In the FRG recommendation (1979), the following ratios
between fish weight and the volume of water in the transport tank (with good aeration of
water at a temperature of 8–12°C during shorter transports lasting (1–2 h) are table carp
1:1, stock carp 1:1.5, table rainbow trout 1:3, stock trout 1:4.5, stock pike 1:2,
herbivorous fishes 1:2.
Table 2
Percent un-ionized ammonia in water at 0 to 30°C and pH 6 to10
(Emerson et al., 1975)
Temperature pH
(°C) 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
0 0.008 0.08 0.82 7.64 45.3
2 0.01 0.10 0.97 8.90 49.3
4 0.01 0.12 1.14 10.3 53.5
6 0.01 0.14 1.34 11.9 57.6
8 0.02 0.16 1.57 13.7 61.4
10 0.02 0.19 1.83 15.7 65.1
12 0.02 0.22 2.13 17.9 68.5
14 0.03 0.25 2.48 20.2 71.7
16 0.03 0.29 2.87 22.8 74.7
18 0.03 0.34 3.31 25.5 77.4
20 0.04 0.40 3.82 28.4 79.9
22 0.05 0.46 4.39 31.5 82.1
24 0.05 0.53 5.03 34.6 84.1
26 0.06 0.61 5.75 37.9 85.9
28 0.07 0.70 6.56 41.2 87.5
30 0.08 0.80 7.46 44.6 89.0
The conditions of fish transport are also influenced by overexertion and fatigue of
fish. When fish are placed in transport containers, they usually exert a large amount of
muscular activity. When muscles are actively used, there is not enough blood (thus
oxygen) to supply their needs. An alternate system shifts into use where energy is
provided in the absence of normal amounts of oxygen. Lactic acid accumulates in the
muscles and blood and causes the pH of the blood to drop. Oxygen utilization is reduced
by the lower pH of the blood. Following a few minutes of strenuous muscular activity,
lactic acid accumulation may not be reduced for 24 h. Excitability and recovery from the
side effects excitement vary with the species. More oxygen is consumed within the first
15 min. in the transport unit than during any subsequent 15-min period (Dupree and
Huner, 1984). For this reason, additional oxygen, as much as twice the flow normally
required should be provided during loading and the first hour of hauling. The oxygen flow
can be reduced to normal level 6 mg 1-1 after this acclimation period, when the fish have
become settled and oxygen consumption has stabilized (Piper et al., 1982).
A lower individual weight of fish means a much lower total weight of the fish that
can be kept in a transport container (Fig. 2); this is due to the higher oxygen
consumption and greater demand for space (the space factor increases considerably).

Figure 2 The dependence of cyprinid stock density in closed

systems on the individual fish weight, in water
temperature 20°C and transport time 5 h (Orlov et al.,
1974)
Stock density of the fish in container also depends on the length of transport time
(Fig. 3). The pattern of this dependence is characterized by hyperbolic curve, not straight
line.

Figure 3 The dependence of the stock density of cyprinids in a

closed system on shipment time; individual weight 10 g,
transport time 5 h, water temperature 20°C (Orlov et al.,
1974)
 The relation between the fish stock density in the container and water
temperature is shown in Fig. 4. Higher temperatures mean a lower total stock weight.

Figure 4 The dependence of cyprinid stock density in a closed

system on water temperature; 1 - individual weight 10 g,
transport time 15 h; 2 - individual weight 5 g, transport
time 25 h (Orlov et al., 1974)
The time of shipment experts its influence mainly on the larval stages of
cyprinids; transport longer than 24 h always means some risk, although all conditions
are otherwise good (Pecha, Berka and Kouril, 1983).
Salmonid stock densities in the transport container are always lower than the
standard densities for cyprinids, owing to a higher oxygen consumption and a lower
critical CO2 concentration.
2.6 Biochemical Changes and Stress in Transported Fish
Shipment conditions also influence the composition of fish blood and the
parameters of blood serum biochemistry. Increased temperature and a lower fish weight-
to-water concentration ratio mean a higher number of erythrocytes and a greater
haemoglobin concentration of fish blood. No such changes occur at lower temperatures
and a lower fish proportion in relation to water volume (Shevchenko, 1978).
Haematological conditions changed by transport were also recorded by Carmichael
(1984) in advanced fingerlings (15–24 cm) of largemouth bass. When fish were
transported at higher densities, the levels of corticoids and glucose in the plasma
increased and were retained when the transport was finished. Although mortality as a
direct consequence of transport was low, the secondary effects of stress were
responsible for delayed mortality, caused by the consequences of osmoregulatory
disfunction and disease. For largemouth bass, the author recommends to let the fish
recover for at least 64 h.
It should also be noted that release of fish at the destination can be the most
critical stage of the transport process. The fish are under some degree of stress in the
transport unit and sudden exposure to water of different characteristies or low quality will
further stress the fish, often beyond what they can stand. Poor-quality water may mean
freshly pumped ground water with low oxygen or high carbon dioxide content. Different
characteristics of water often mean a pH, temperature or gas saturation difference
between the transport unit and the receiving water.
2.7 General Notes
Finally, several concluding notes, or technical and organizational considerations,
can be quoted from the literature. The majority of authors recommend, irrespective of the
guide numbers of stock density during transport, to consider the specific transport
conditions in each case and to change the basic guide numbers if such a change
appears necessary after a brief test. It is also recommended to use a fish density at
which the time of transport can be prolonged at least 1.5 times to prevent the
consequences of a possible delay during transport, e.g., failure of a truck, failure to stick
to the train or plane schedule, etc. When fish are transported for acclimation, or when
endangered species are transported, the stock density should be lower: in such cases
the economic aspects are not of primary importance and 100% survival is required.
Nevertheless, the economic side of transport can never be neglected; hence, when the
transport costs are high and the value of fish of transported comparatively low, the stock
density in the transport units can be increased though losses of fish may be expected to
be higher.
3. CLOSED SYSTEMS OF FISH TRANSPORT
The closed systems are represented by polyethylene bags and other sealed
transport units. They are used mainly for the transport of the early fry, but also brood
fish. The transport of fry in polyethylene bags with oxygen is particularly widespread in
the world, being used as a very effective method. It substantially reduces the total
volume and weight of transport water, enables public transport to be used for fish-
transport purposes, makes it possible to prolong the transport time, and is economically
advantageous.
The methods of fish transport in sealed medium are described in detail in several
general studies (Orlov et al., 1974; Kozlov et al., 1977; Pecha, Berka and Kouril, 1983;
Vollmann-Schipper, 1975; Woynarowich and Horváth, 1980) and in a number of
separate specific studies (Bogdan, 1972; Hamman, 1981; Lusk and Krcál, 1974; Snow,
Brewer and Wright, 1978; Garádi and Tarnai, 1983; Varga, 1984; Ioshev, 1980; Amend
et al., 1982; Popov, 1975; Kruzhalina, Averina and Vol'nova, 1970, 1984; Orlov, 1971,
1973, 1975; Orlov et al., 1973, 1974). Soviet authors prevail because this method of
stocking fish transport from hatcheries is used particularly frequently in the USSR.
3.1 Polyethylene Bags
The bags used for fish transport in water with oxygen atmosphere are produced
in a number of modifications. They are manufactured from a thin (soft) or thicker (hard)
transparent polyethylene foil and usually have the shape of sack or sleeve.
The bags of the traditional shape (sacs) usually have the dimensions of 0.8–1.1 ×
0.35–0.45 m. The upper end is usually fully open. The bottom either has a seam in the
middle or consists of a rectangular piece of foil; the latter variant is better because it
helps avoid losses of the fish squeezed in the corners. For safety reasons, the bags are
sometimes duplicated: a thin (soft) bag is inserted in another thin bag, or a thin bag
forms a lining in a thicker (harder) bag.
The other type of bags has the form of a sleeve. Its width usually is 0.4–0.5 m.
The final length of the sleeve depends on where the sleeve is cut. One of the ends has
to be completely closed, sealed: a suture is welded, or the folded end of the sleeve is
fused in, after tightening with a rubber seal or a plastic adhesive tape, or binding with a
rope. The welding is done with a special device, whereas for the fusing (sealing) the
flame of a candle will suffice (Fig. 5). Another possibility is to bind a knot on the end of
the sleeve. It is important to make the knot as tight as possible. One sleeve equalling
about 2.5 times the length of the future bag suffices, after binding a simple knot, to make
a duplicated bag.
 During transport the bags with fry are placed in outer cases protecting the bags
against mechanical damage, mainly punching or tearing in contact with the ground. The
case keeps the bags in the desired position, enables easier handling and/or provides
thermal insulation of the bags.
These cases can be cardboard boxes, suitable plastic containers, wide
polyethylene cans, polystyrene boxes. The kind of outer casing depends on the number
of bags transported, length and method of transport, requirements for further handling
(transloading), and on the differences between ambient temperature and the
temperature of water inside the bag.

Figure 5 Procedure of closing the bottom end of a polyethylene

sleeve (Woynarowich and Horváth, 1980)
If water with transported fry is to be cooled, bags with ice should be placed under
the fish-transport bags on the bottom of the polystyrene box (Fig. 6). It is not
recommended to put the ice inside the transport bag. The amount of ice depends on the
size of the bag with water, transport time and difference of temperature. The volume of
ice placed under the bag with transport water is usually 10–20% of the transport water.
This method of packing enables transport by public transport routes.
The water to be used for fry transport in a bag should comply with all
requirements. It is best to use water of the same quality as that in which the fish were
kept before transport, but there should be no organic pollutants and no dispersed mud of
mineral origin. Sac fry, in particular, need transport water with air bubbles, i.e., released
air contained in water in oversaturated condition.
Before putting the fry in the bag, the procedure of catching, counting and
distributing the fry in the bags should have been thoroughly prepared to finish the
operation as quickly as possible.
The polyethylene sac, or sleeve with a closed bottom end, is first put in the outer
transport case; if a double bag is to be used the inner bag is to have been inserted in the
outer one. Then, water is poured in the bag, about 20 litres if the volume of the bag is 50
litres, and the fry are placed inside. Air is displaced from the space above water in the
bag and a hose, connected to the pressure regulator of an oxygen cylinder, is introduced
in the bag, the upper end of the bag being held tight around the hose by hand. Then,
technical oxygen from the pressure cylinder is left to blow via the pressure regulator to
the upper part of the bag. If the volume of water with fry is 20 litres, the volume of
oxygen atmosphere should be 30 litres. The supply of oxygen is stopped when the bag
is filled: the hose is quickly drawn out of the bag and the upper end of the bag is twisted
to prevent oxygen from leaking and to produce some overpressure by reducing the
volume. If the bag if to be transported in a horizontal position, the pressure should be
0.05 to 0.06 MPa but for vertical transport the pressure should be 0.02 to 0.04 MPs
(Pecha, Berka and Kouril, 1983; Orlov et al., 1973). In practice, this means that after
filling the bag is tight: when pressed with thumb the foil quickly returns to its original
position. During air transport the pressure in a vertically kept bag reaches -0.01 MPa
(Orlov et al., 1973), owing to the lower outside pressure. Finally the opening of the bag is
closed. There are several ways of closing the bag; the simplest way is to tighten the end
of the plastic foil with rubber, preferably duplicated. Rope or adhesive tape can also be
used. The bag can also be closed with a metal screw cap. The procedure of bag filling is
described in Fig. 7.
In hatcheries or fry rearing farms with regularly repeating mass dispatching of the
fish, it is recommended to build a dispatching line (Fig. 8).
After transport, or during control on a longer journey, the condition of the fry
should be checked before release. The fry are examined for position, i.e., swimming,
lying on the bottom, staying in physiological position or turning to one side, for motility,
readiness of reaction to light, touch, and/or number (proportion) of dead individuals.

Figure 6 Transport of a bag in styrofoam case (Vollmann-Schipper,

1975)
1 - lid, 2 - insulation filling, 3 - oxygen atmosphere, 4 - water
with fish, 5 - insulation lining, e.g., foam rubber, 6 - ice
The fish are released only when the temperature of the water in the bag reaches
the same level as that of the receiving water. For sac fry the difference in water
temperature should not be greater than 1°C, for older fry 2°C in both directions. To
balance the temperatures it is best to put the closed bag on the surface of the receiving
water. When the temperature difference is reduced to 2–3°C at the maximum, the bags
are opened step by step and the receiving water is slowly added to the transport water.
Releasing can start when about 50% of the receiving water has been added to the bags.
The behaviour of the fry should be constantly examined (Fig. 9).
If the bags are handled with maximum care, if they are closed in the most careful
manner and transported in suitable outer cases, they can be used repeatedly. However,
this is not a general recommendation because damage to the bags, however tiny it may
seem, can never be avoided during fish release.
As Kruzhalina, Averina and Vol'nova (1970) assert, it is also possible to use bags
- tanks, made of 4–12 layers of polyethylene foil (“sleeve” 80 cm in width), having a total
volume of 300 litres. However, these types of bags are hard to handle and are used only
for individual transports of large and broad fish.
3.2 Other Sealed Containers
Containers similar to polyethylene bags may be sealed. Generally made of cured
plastics (Fig. 10) they can do the same job as bags and do not require as much care
during handling, despite repeated use. However, their unit price is much higher.
3.3 Fry Densities in Plastic Bags
Calculation fromulae were worked out for the theoretical determination of fish
densities in plastic bags (Orlov, 1971; Orlov et al., 1974, 1975); they take into account
factors such as changing environment, transport time, volume of water and coefficient of
free space. Nevertheless, for practical purposes, it is simpler to use the guide data
published by some authors, either individually or as fish-transport tables.
 Figure 7 Procedure of filling the bag with water, stocking with the fish,
displacing the air, introducing oxygen and closing the upper
end (Woynarowich and Horváth, 1980)
For instance, the recommended numbers of fry to be transported in polyethylene
bags according to Czechoslovak Instructions for fish-farming practices (Pecha, Berka
and Kouril, 1983) are shown in Tables 3–5.
About the same standard densities of transported fish are indicated in the West
German recommendation for fish transport (1979) - Tables 6–8.

Figure 8 ispatching line of the pike hatchery of the Czech Angler's

Union at Tábor (Pecha, Berka and Kouril, 1983)
1- water tank with the float system of water filling, with water
aeration and tempering, 2 - filling valve, 3 - calibrated vessel
with a turning joint, 4 - handling banch with rollers for
carrying the boxes, 5 - cardboard box, 6 - polyethylene bag,
 7 - valve for filling the bag with oxygen, 8 - rubber band
magazine, 9 - packing table, 10 - cylinder pressure
regulator, 11 - pressure cylinder with oxygen, 12 - oxygen
atmosphere in bag, 13 - water in bag, 14 - oxygen supply
from pressure cylinder to filling valve 7
Hungarian experience with specialized transport of pike-perch in closed bags is
interpreted by Horváth, Tamás and Tölg, (1984). The conditions of transport are
documented in Table 9.
The standards of fish fry transport published in the instructions by Orlov et al.,
(1974) for Soviet conditions can also be considered as practically verified. The data
apply to fish densities in bags, volume 40 litres, including 20 litres of water and 20 litres
of oxygen, from the point of view of the possible total weight and number of fish
transported; the standards are indicated for cyprinids (Tables 10 and 11), salmonids
(Tables 12 and 13), for fish of the perch family (Tables 14 and 15), and for Soviet
sturgeons.
Similar details concerning the transport of fish fry in polyethylene bags are given
in the monograph by Kozlov et al., (1977) on the acclimatization of aquatic organisms in
which fish transport forms an inseparable part of the acclimatization processes.
As to other commercially important fish not separately referred to in the above
tables, it should be mentioned that Snow, Brewer and Wright (1978) transported sac fry
of largemouth bass. The transport distances were up to 2 500 km. The fry were kept in
polyethylene bags containing 7.57 litres of water with a supply of oxygen, and the bags
were protected in insulated polystyrene containers. The transport density of the fry was 3
000 per litre. To ensure that the fry would be ready to begin feeding when they were
released into rearing ponds, they were shipped at 1, 2 or 3 days of age, depending on
the distance of their destination. Shipments were made by commercial airline or bus, but
automobiles were also successfully used.
Literature also contains other data on the transport capacity of polyethylene
bags, e.g., Ioshev (1980), Kruzhalina, Leis and Ovchinnikova (1984), Bogdan (1972),
and others. But a large proportion of these data lack detailed documentation on all the
aspects that can substantially affect the results of transport.
3.4 General Notes on the Transport of Juvenile Fish in Bags
In the final comments on fry transport in polyethylene bags, some findings and
information should be mentioned, as given generally in the relevant literature. Emphasis
should be laid on the requirements to transport the fry after the absorption of food: when
the fry are freshly fed the amount to be transported should be reduced by at least 50%.
The water in which sac fry are transported should be kept as still as possible (the fry
could be damaged in the bags). On the other hand, advanced fry and fingerlings are not
affected by increased movement of the transport water. When oxygen is replaced in the
bag during shipment survival increases by 20–40%; when half the water and all oxygen
are replaced survival increases by 50–60%. and when all water and all oxygen are
replaced the increase in survival is by 90–100% (Orlov et al., 1973). Differences in the
nature of each group of fishes also have a marked influence on the results of shipment:
in the case of the sac fry of cyprinids the losses highly increase when temperature
during transport is under 20°C, and the transport time should never be longer than 24 h;
when salmonid fry are transported, longer stops during transport threaten to create an
oxygen deficit. Adherence to the recommended standards of the transport of different
fish groups would keep the losses of larvae below 5%, fry 3%, and yearlings 1%. There
is one exception still waiting for satisfactory explanation: at temperature above 15°C the
yearlings of big head may suffer up to 50% losses, despite a comparatively low transport
density (Orlov et al., 1973).

Figure 9 Transport of young fish packed in plastic bags (Woynarowich

and Horváth, 1980)
 (a) Aerator with screw cap; (b) Water;
(c) Water inlet with screw cap;
(d) Tight cover; (e) Tightening ring;
(f) Plastic pipe; (g) Plastic container
Figure 10 Sealed plastic containers
A - container volume 25 litres, the oxygen-inlet B - container volume 50–150 litres,
value is built in the screw cap; vertical plastic pipe keeps water at
the required level (Vollmann-
Schipper, 1975)
 Table 3
Numbers of sac fry, in thousands, to be transported in a polyethylene bag with a volume
of 50 litres, i.e., 20 litres of water and 30 litres of oxygen
Water temperature
10°C 15°C 20°C 25°C
Fish species
Duration of transport (in h)
4 8 12 24 4 8 12 24 4 8 12 24 4 8 12 24
Brown trout 20 15 10 5
Brook trout 20 15 10 5
Rainbow trout 25 20 15 10 20 15 10 5 15 10 5 3
Grayling 40 30 25 20 30 25 20 15
Lavaret 80 60 50 40
Peled 120 80 70 60 100 60 40 30
Pike 80 50 40 30 50 30 25 20
Carp 200 150 100 50 120 80 60 40 100 80 60 30
Tench 100 80 60 30 60 40 30 15 60 40 30 15
Grass carp 60 50 40 30 40 30 25 15
Sheatfish 60 50 40 30 40 30 25 15
Asp 100 80 60 40 80 60 40 20
Chub 100 80 60 40 80 60 40 20
Barbel 100 80 60 40 80 60 40 20
Nase 100 80 60 40 80 60 40 20
Note: Water of 15°C is the minimal temperature level for cyprinid fishes
Table 4
Numbers of advanced fry 2–3 cm long, in thousands, to be transported in a polyethylene
bag with a volume of 50 litres, i.e., 20 litres of water and 30 litres of oxygen
Water temperature
Fish 10°C 15°C 20°C 25°C
Species Duration of transport (in h)
8 12 24 48 8 12 24 48 8 12 24 48 8 12 24 48
Pike 5 3.5 3 2 3 2.5 2 1
Pike-perch 4 3 2.5 1 3 2 2 1 2 1.5 1 0.5
Carp 15 12 10 8 12 10 8 6 10 8 6 4
Grass carp 10 8 6 5 8 6 4 3
Sheatfish 8 6 5 3 5 4 3 2
Asp 10 8 6 4 8 6 5 3
Chub 10 8 6 4 8 6 5 3
Note: Every 12 h the oxygen should be replaced or the amount of fish should be
reduced to 50%
 Table 5
Numbers of young fish to be transported in a polyethylene bag with a volume
of 50 litres, i.e., 20 litres of water and 30 litres of oxygen
Size of Water Fish density Total weight of Maximal time of
Losses
Fish Species fish temperature in bag fish in bag transport
(%)
(cm) (°C) (ind.) (g) (h)
Brown trout 4–6 10 500 800–1 200 - 12
Rainbow trout 9–12 10 200 2 000–2 500 - 12
12–15 10 100 2 000–2 500 - 12
Pike 4–6 10 1 000 800–1 200 <3 24
6–9 12 500 800–1 200 <3 12
Pike-perch 4–6 12 1 000 1 000 <1 12
6–9 10 1 000 1 300–1 600 <1 12
9–12 10 500 2 000–3 000 <1 8
Carp 4–6 15 1 000 2 000–3 000 <2 8
Note: Transport should not be interrupted for longer than 15 minutes
Table 6
Numbers of sac fry, in thousands, to be transported in bags containing 30
litres of water and 30 litres of oxygen
Water temperature
10°C 15°C 20°C 25°C
Fish Species
Duration of transport (in h)
2 5 8 12 2 5 8 12 2 5 8 12 2 5 8
Pike 150 100 80 50 75 50 30 20
Carp 400a 300 250 200 200 150 120 100 120 100 80
Grass carp 150a 120 100 80 80 60 40
a
Minimal temperature level. After 12 h of transport, the oxygen should be replaced or the amount of fry should be
reduced by 25–50% according to the duration of transport

Table 7
Numbers of advanced fry 2–3 cm long, in thousands, to be transported in
bags containing 30 litres of water and 20–30 litres of oxygen
Water temperature
Fish 10°C 15°C 20°C 25°C
Species Duration of transport (in h)
8 12 24 48 8 12 24 48 8 12 24 48 8 12 24 48
Pike 3.5 3 2 1.5 2.5 2 1.5 1
Pike-perch 3 2.5 1 0.7 2 1.5 1 0.5 1 0.8 0.6 0.3
Carp 15 12 10 8 12 10 8 6 10 8 6 5
Grass carp 10 8 6 5 8 6 4 3
Sheatfish 8 6 5 4 4 4 3 2
Note: Every 12 h, the oxygen should be replaced or the amount of fish should be
reduced to 50%
 Table 8
Numbers of young fish to be transported in oxygen-filled bags, volume
50 litres, oxygen:water ratio from 3:1 to 3:2
Amount of Water Maximal time
Size of fish Fish density; Losses
Fish Species water temperature of transport
(cm) Weight (%)
(litre) (°C) (h)
Trout 4–6 15 10 500 ind. - 15
800–1 200 g
9–12 10 10 100 ind. - 12
1 500 g
12–15 15 10 100 ind. - 12
2 500 g
Pike 4–7 10 6–8 1 000 ind. 2 16
900–1 200 g
Pike-perch 4–6 10 10 1 000 g 1 15
6–9 15 - 1 000 ind. 1 15
1 500 g
9–12 15 - 1 000 ind. 1 15
1 800 g
Note: Transport should not be interrupted for longer than 30 minutes
3.5 Transport of Large Fish in Bags
Individual shipments of large brood fish can also be made in polyethylene bags.
This possibility is suggested by several literary sources. The transport of brood carp and
herbivorous fish from Hungary to Egypt and Iran is commented on by Varga (1984) and
by Varádi and Tarnai (1983); however, it is only Orlov who published tables (Table 16)
with values of the survival of large carp, herbivorous fish, pike-perch and also some
sturgeons, enabling to derive some guide parameters for shipment.
3.6 General Notes on the Transport of Brood Fish in Bags
Naturally, when large fish of these species are transported for introduction or
acclimatization, it is not recommended to apply the theoretical critical possibilities. The
main requirement is to keep the fish healthy and physiologically intact throughout the
transport, because brood fish are of a high potential value and their transport is to pay
off in future. With respect to this, the safe transport densities of these fish, as
recommended by Orlov et al., (1974) are 5 to 10 times lower than those of the fish of the
same size transported to market.
 Table 9
Transport of pike-perch fry in polyethylene bags
Plastic bag (30 lit. water + 30 lit. O2)
Duration of transport
Age group - total length Temperature °C
(h)
10 15 20 25
Early fry of 6–7 mm 2 100 50 40 -
(thousand) 5 80 40 30 -
10 60 25 20 -
15 50 20 15 -
Advanced fry of 3–5 2 5 3 2 1
cm 5 4 2.5 1.5 0.8
(thousand) 10 2.5 1.8 0.8 0.5
15 2 1.2 0.6 0.3
One summer fingerling 2 300 250 200 -
5 250 200 150 -
10 200 150 100 -
15 140 120 100 -
Note: It is not recommended to transport large fish in bags due to the possibility of
bag damaging by fin rays
 Table 10
The amounts in kg of cyprinid juveniles to be transported in 40-litre bags
containing 20 litres of water and 20 litres of oxygen
Temperature Individual weight
Duration of transport (in h)
of fish
(°C) (g) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
5°C 5.03.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.7 2.4
10.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.9 4.1 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.7 2.4
20.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.6 4.8 4.4 4.0 3.6 3.4
10°C 1.02.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.9 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.1 0.9
2.0 3.0 3.0 2.9 2.3 1.9 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.1 0.9
5.0 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.0 2.5 2.2 1.9 1.6 1.5 1.4
10.0 5.0 5.0 3.8 3.0 2.5 2.2 1.9 1.6 1.5 1.4
20.0 6.0 6.0 5.2 4.2 3.5 3.0 2.6 2.4 2.2 1.9
15°C 0.20.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
0.5 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.88 0.77 0.68 0.62
1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.8 1.5 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.89 0.8
2.0 3.0 3.0 2.3 1.8 1.5 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.89 0.8
5.0 3.8 3.8 3.3 2.6 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.1
10.0 5.0 4.6 3.3 2.6 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.1
20.0 6.0 5.1 3.7 2.9 2.4 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2
20°C 0.00150.15 0.0830.083 0.075 0.075 - - - - -
0.02–0.030.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.45 0.4 0.36 0.31
0.2 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.57 0.51 0.46
0.5 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.0 0.92 0.76 0.66 0.57 0.51 0.46
1.0 2.0 2.0 1.8 1.3 1.0 0.92 0.79 0.69 0.61 0.55
2.0 3.0 2.5 1.8 1.3 1.0 0.92 0.79 0.69 0.61 0.55
5.0 3.8 3.4 2.5 1.9 1.6 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.93 0.83
10.0 5.0 3.4 2.5 1.9 1.6 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.93 0.83
20.0 6.0 4.4 3.2 2.5 2.0 1.8 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.1
25°C 0.00150.15 0.0830.083 0.075 0.075 - - - - -
0.02–0.03 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.43 0.38 0.34 0.2
0.2 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.58 0.5 0.45 0.4
0.5 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.0 0.8 0.66 0.58 0.5 0.45 0.4
1.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.3 1.0 0.84 0.71 0.63 0.55 0.5
2.0 3.0 2.3 1.5 1.3 1.0 0.84 0.71 0.63 0.55 0.5
5.0 3.8 3.8 2.4 1.9 1.5 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.89 0.8
10.0 5.0 4.0 2.4 1.9 1.5 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.89 0.8
20.0 6.0 4.1 3.0 2.3 1.9 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.0
 Table 11
The numbers of cyprinid juveniles to be transported in 40-litre bags
containing 20 litres of water and 20 litres of oxygen
Individual
Temperature Weight of Duration of transport (in h)
fish
(°C) (g) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
5°C 5.0 760 760 760 760 760 720 640 560 540 440
10.0 500 500 500 490 410 360 320 280 270 240
20.0 300 300 300 300 280 240 220 200 180 170
10°C 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1
1.0 900
000 000 000 000 900 600 400 200 100
2.0 1 500 1 500 1 450 1 150 950 800 700 600 550 450
5.0 760 760 760 600 500 440 380 320 300 280
10.0 500 500 380 300 250 220 190 160 150 140
20.0 300 300 260 210 175 150 130 120 110 95
15°C 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
0.2
000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
0.5 2 600 2 600 2 600 2 600 2 200 2 000 1 760 1 540 1 360 1 240
1.0 2 000 2 000 2 000 1 800 1 500 1 200 1 100 1 000 890 800
2.0 1 500 1 500 1 150 900 750 600 550 500 445 400
5.0 760 760 660 520 420 360 320 280 240 220
10.0 500 460 330 260 210 180 160 140 120 110
20.0 300 255 185 145 120 105 90 80 70 60
20°C 0.0015 100 000 55 000 55 000 50 000 50 000 - - - - -
0.02–0.03 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 22 500 20 000 18 000 15 550
17 000 17 000 17 000 17 000 17 000 17 000 15 000 13 300 12 000 10 300
0.2 3 000 3 000 3 000 3 000 3 000 3 000 3 000 2 850 2 550 2 300
0.5 2 600 2 600 2 600 2 000 1 840 1 520 1 320 1 140 1 020 920
1.0 2 000 2 000 1 800 1 300 1 000 920 790 690 610 550
2.0 1 500 1 250 900 650 500 460 395 345 305 275
5.0 760 680 500 380 320 260 220 200 186 166
10.0 500 340 250 190 160 130 110 100 93 83
20.0 300 220 160 125 100 90 75 65 60 55
25°C 0.0015 100 000 55 000 55 000 50 000 50 000 - - - - -
0.02–0.03 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 21 500 19 000 17 000 15 000
17 000 17 000 17 000 17 000 17 000 17 000 14 500 12 500 11 500 10 000
0.2 3 000 3 000 3 000 3 000 3 000 3 000 2 900 2 500 2 250 2 000
0.5 2 600 2 600 2 600 2 000 1 600 1 320 1 160 1 000 900 800
1.0 2 000 2 000 1 500 1 300 1 000 840 710 630 550 500
2.0 1 500 1 150 750 650 500 420 355 315 275 250
5.0 760 760 480 380 300 260 220 200 178 160
10.0 500 400 240 190 150 130 110 100 89 80
20.0 300 205 150 115 95 75 65 60 55 50
 Table 12
The amounts in kg of salmonid juveniles to be transported in 40-litre bags
containing 20 litres of water and 20 litres of oxygen
Individual
Temperature Duration of transport (in h)
Weight of fish
(°C) (g) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
5°C 0.0012–0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
0.5 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
2.0 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
5.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.95 0.91 0.83
10.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.1 0.95 0.91 0.83
20.0 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.5 1.4 1.2 1.1 1.0
10°C 0.0012–0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.45 0.4
2.0 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.66 0.57 0.5 0.45 0.4
5.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.87 0.73 0.63 0.55 0.48 0.44
10.0 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.0 0.87 0.73 0.63 0.55 0.48 0.44
20.0 1.8 1.8 1.5 1.1 0.91 0.8 0.69 0.6 0.54 0.48
15°C 0.0012–0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.18 0.16
0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.27 0.24
1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.44 0.38 0.33 0.3 0.27
2.0 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.66 0.53 0.44 0.38 0.33 0.3 0.27
5.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.64 0.53 0.46 0.4 0.36 0.32
10.0 1.5 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.64 0.53 0.46 0.4 0.36 0.32
20.0 1.7 1.7 1.2 0.92 0.74 0.61 0.53 0.46 0.41 0.37
 Table 13
The numbers of salmonid juveniles to be transported in 40-litre bags
containing 20 litres of water and 20 litres of oxygen
Individual
Temperature Weight of Duration of transport (in h)
fish
(°C) (g) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
5 0.0012–0.2 166 700 166 700 166 700 166 700 166 700 166 700 166 700 166 700 166 700 166 700
1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000
0.5 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600
1.0 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
2.0 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350
5.0 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 190 182 166
10.0 150 150 150 150 150 130 110 95 91 83
20.0 90 90 90 90 90 75 70 60 55 50
10 0.0012–0.2 166 700 166 700 166 700 166 700 166 700 166 700 166 700 166 700 166 700 166 700
1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000
0.5 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600
1.0 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 450 400
2.0 350 350 350 350 350 330 285 250 225 200
5.0 200 200 200 200 174 146 126 110 96 88
10.0 150 150 140 100 87 73 63 55 48 44
20.0 90 90 75 55 45 40 34 30 27 24
15 0.0012–0.2 166 700 166 700 166 700 166 700 166 700 166 700 166 700 166 700 150 000 133 000
1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 900 800
0.5 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 540 480
1.0 500 500 500 500 500 440 380 330 300 270
2.0 350 350 350 330 265 220 190 165 150 135
5.0 200 200 200 160 128 106 92 80 72 64
10.0 150 150 100 80 64 53 46 40 36 32
20.0 85 85 60 46 37 30 26 23 20 18
 Table 14
The amounts in kg of juveniles of the perch family to be transported in 40-litre bags
containing 20 litres of water and 20 litres of oxygen
Individual Weight
Temperature Duration of transport (in h)
of fish
(°C) (g) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
5 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
1.0 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
2.0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
5.0 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
10.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.97
20.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.97
50.0 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.2
10 0.0004–0.0009 0.1 0.085 0.075 0.06 0.05 - - - - -
0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
1.0 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
2.0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.57
5.0 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.63 0.57
10.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 0.91 0.8 0.71 0.64
20.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.2 1.0 0.91 0.8 0.71 0.64
50.0 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.4 1.1 1.0 0.91 0.81 0.73
15 0.0004–0.0009 0.1 0.985 0.075 0.06 0.05 - - - - -
0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
1.0 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
2.0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.54 0.48 0.43
5.0 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.72 0.61 0.54 0.48 0.43
10.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.94 0.78 0.67 0.59 0.52 0.47
20.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.1 0.94 0.78 0.67 0.59 0.52 0.47
50.0 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.3 1.0 0.93 0.8 0.7 0.62 0.56
20 0.0004–0.0009 0.1 0.085 0.075 0.06 0.05 - - - - -
0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
1.0 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.36 0.32
2.0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.53 0.46 0.4 0.36 0.32
5.0 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.68 0.57 0.49 0.43 0.38 0.34
10.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.72 0.6 0.51 0.45 0.4 0.36
20.0 1.5 1.5 1.1 0.9 0.72 0.6 0.51 0.45 0.4 0.36
50.0 1.8 1.8 1.4 1.0 0.9 0.75 0.64 0.56 0.5 0.45
25 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
1.0 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.36 0.32 0.29
2.0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.58 0.48 0.41 0.36 0.32 0.29
5.0 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.75 0.6 0.5 0.43 0.38 0.33 0.3
10.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.64 0.53 0.46 0.4 0.36 0.32
20.0 1.5 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.64 0.53 0.46 0.4 0.36 0.32
50.0 1.8 1.8 1.3 1.0 0.8 0.68 0.58 0.5 0.46 0.41
 Table 15
The numbers of juveniles of the perch family to be transported in 40-litre
bags containing 20 litres of water and 20 litres of oxygen
Individual
Temperature Duration of transport (in h)
Weight of fish
(°C) (g) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
5 0.2 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
0.5 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400
1.0 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400
2.0 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300
5.0 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
10.0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 97
20.0 75 75 75 75 75 75 65 55 50 48
50.0 36 36 36 36 36 36 32 28 26 24
10 0.0004–0.0009 250 000 212 500 187 500 150 000 125 000 - - - - -
111 000 94 500 83 500 66 500 55 500
0.2 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
0.5 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400
1.0 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400
2.0 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 285
5.0 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 126 114
10.0 100 100 100 100 100 100 90 80 71 64
20.0 75 75 75 75 60 50 45 40 35 32
50.0 36 36 36 34 28 22 20 18 16 14
15 0.0004–0.0009 250 000 212 500 187 500 150 000 125 000 - - - - -
111 000 94 500 83 500 66 500 55 500
0.2 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
0.5 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400
1.0 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400
2.0 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 270 240 215
5.0 160 160 160 160 160 144 122 108 96 86
10.0 100 100 100 100 94 78 67 59 52 47
20.0 75 75 75 55 47 39 33 29 26 23
50.0 36 36 36 26 20 18 16 14 12 11
20 0.0004–0.0009 250 000 212 500 187 500 150 000 125 000 - - - - -
111 000 94 500 83 500 66 500 55 500
0.2 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
0.5 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400
1.0 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 360 320
2.0 300 300 300 300 300 265 230 200 180 160
5.0 160 160 160 160 134 114 98 86 76 68
10.0 100 100 100 90 72 60 51 45 40 36
20.0 75 75 55 45 36 30 25 22 20 18
50.0 36 36 28 20 18 15 13 11 10 9
25 0.2 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
0.5 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400
1.0 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 360 320 290
2.0 300 300 300 300 290 240 205 180 160 145
5.0 160 160 160 150 120 100 86 76 66 60
10.0 100 100 100 80 64 53 46 40 36 32
20.0 75 75 50 40 32 26 23 20 18 16
50.0 36 36 26 20 16 14 12 10 9 8
 Table 16
Basic parameters of polyethylene bags and survival of large individuals of
some important fish (in h)
(a) Carp
Individual Amount of Amount of
Length of fish Length of bag Volume of bag
Weight of fish water oxygen
(kg) (cm) (cm) (lit.) (lit.) (lit.)
1 37 65 40 19 20
2 46 65 40 18 20
3 53 65 40 17 20
4 58 65 40 16 20
5 63 73 45 17 23
6 67 77 47 17 24
7 70 80 49 17 25
8 74 84 52 18 26
9 76 86 53 17 27
10 79 89 87 33 44
15 91 101 99 34 50
20 100 110 108 34 54

Individual Water temperature (°C)

Weight of fish
(kg) 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
1 116 108 101 95 89 82 78
2 121 117 101 89 84 76 69 63 61 56 52 49 46 43 40 38
3 110 100 90 76 66 58 55 49 45 41 40 37 34 32 30 28 26 25
4 106 92 80 73 65 55 48 42 40 36 33 30 29 27 25 23 22 21 19 18
5 110 94 82 71 65 58 49 42 37 35 32 29 27 26 23 22 20 19 18 17 16
6 94 80 70 61 55 50 42 36 32 30 27 25 23 22 21 20 18 17 16 14 14
7 83 71 62 53 48 44 37 32 29 27 24 22 20 19 19 17 16 15 14 13 12
8 76 65 56 49 44 40 33 29 26 24 22 20 18 18 17 15 14 13 13 12 11
9 67 58 50 43 40 36 30 26 23 22 20 18 16 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 10
10 106 91 79 68 62 56 47 41 36 34 31 28 26 25 23 21 20 19 18 16 15
15 77 66 57 49 45 41 34 30 26 24 22 20 19 18 17 15 14 14 13 12 11
20 61 52 45 39 36 32 27 23 21 20 18 16 15 14 13 12 11 11 10 9 9
 (b) Grass carp
Individual Amount of Amount of
weight of fish Length of fish Length of bag Volume of bag water oxygen
(kg) (cm) (cm) (lit.) (lit.) (lit.)
1 39 65 40 19 20
2 49 65 40 18 20
3 56 65 40 17 20
4 62 72 44 18 22
5 67 77 47 18 24
6 71 81 50 19 25
7 74 84 52 19 26
8 77 87 54 19 27
9 81 91 56 19 28
10 84 94 92 36 46
15 95 105 103 36 52
20 105 115 113 36 57
25 114 124 122 36 61
30 121 131 129 34 65

Individual
Weight of Water temperature (°C)
fish
(kg) 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
1 116 108 100 95 89 82 78
2 117 101 89 84 76 69 63 61 56 52 49 46 43 40 38
3 110 100 90 76 66 58 55 49 45 41 40 37 34 32 30 28 26 25
4 118 103 89 81 73 62 53 47 44 40 36 33 32 30 28 26 24 23 21 20
5 116 99 86 75 68 61 52 45 40 37 34 31 28 27 25 23 22 20 19 18 17
6 101 86 75 65 59 53 45 39 35 33 29 27 24 23 22 20 19 18 17 15 15
7 89 76 66 57 52 47 40 34 30 29 26 23 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13
8 79 68 59 51 47 42 35 34 27 26 23 21 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 12
9 72 61 54 46 43 38 32 28 25 23 21 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10
10 113 96 84 73 66 60 50 44 39 36 33 30 27 26 24 23 21 20 19 17 16
15 81 69 60 52 47 43 36 31 31 26 23 21 20 19 17 16 15 14 13 12 12
20 64 55 48 41 38 34 27 24 21 20 19 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 11 10 9
25 54 46 40 34 31 28 24 21 18 17 16 14 13 12 11 11 10 9 9 8 8
30 46 39 34 29 27 24 20 18 16 15 13 12 11 11 10 9 9 8 8 7 7
 (c) Bighead carp
Individual Amount of Amount of
weight of fish Length of fish Length of bag Volume of bag water oxygen
(kg) (cm) (cm) (lit.) (lit.) (lit.)
1 40 65 40 19 20
2 50 65 40 18 20
3 57 65 40 17 20
4 63 73 45 18 23
5 68 78 48 19 24
6 72 82 50 19 25
7 76 86 53 19 27
8 80 90 55 19 28
9 83 93 57 19 29
10 86 96 4 37 47
15 98 108 106 38 53
20 107 117 115 37 58
25 116 126 124 37 62
30 123 133 130 35 65

Individual Water temperature (°C)

Weight of fish
(kg) 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
1 114 109 101 94 88 83 78 72 68
2 121 102 89 78 74 67 60 55 53 49 46 43 40 38 35 33
3 111 96 87 78 66 58 51 48 43 39 36 35 32 30 28 26 25 23 22
4 106 92 80 72 65 55 48 42 40 36 33 30 29 27 25 23 22 21 19 18
5 109 93 81 70 64 57 48 42 37 35 32 29 26 25 23 22 20 19 18 17 16
6 89 75 66 57 52 47 39 34 30 29 26 23 21 21 19 18 17 16 15 14 13
7 79 68 59 51 46 42 35 31 27 26 23 21 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 12
8 71 60 53 46 42 37 32 27 24 23 21 19 17 16 15 14 13 12 12 11 10
9 64 55 48 41 38 34 29 25 22 21 19 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 11 10 9
10 101 86 75 65 59 53 45 39 35 33 29 27 25 24 22 20 19 18 17 15 15
15 73 62 54 47 43 39 33 28 26 24 21 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 11
20 57 49 43 37 34 30 26 22 19 18 17 15 14 13 12 11 11 10 10 9 8
25 48 41 36 31 28 25 21 18 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 10 9 8 8 7 7
30 40 34 29 26 24 21 18 16 14 13 12 11 10 9 9 8 8 7 7 6 6
(d) Pike-perch
Individual Amount of Amount of
weight of fish Length of fish Length of bag Volume of bag water oxygen
(kg) (cm) (cm) (lit.) (lit.) (lit.)
1 40 65 40 19 20
2 50 65 40 18 20
3 58 65 40 17 20
4 65 75 46 19 23
5 70 80 49 19 25
6 75 85 52 20 26
7 78 88 54 20 27
8 83 93 57 20 29
9 86 96 59 20 30
10 90 100 62 21 31
 Individual Water temperature (°C)
weight of fish
(kg) 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
1 114 98 85 76 68 62 57 55 51 47 46 44 41 40 39 37 34 33 31 30 28
2 55 48 42 37 33 30 28 27 25 23 22 22 20 20 19 18 17 16 15 15 14
3 36 31 27 24 22 20 18 17 16 15 14 14 13 13 12 12 11 10 10 9 9
4 31 26 23 20 18 17 15 15 14 13 12 12 11 11 11 10 9 9 8 8 8
5 26 22 19 17 15 14 13 12 11 11 10 10 9 9 9 8 8 7 7 7 6
6 22 19 17 15 13 12 11 11 10 9 9 9 8 8 8 7 7 6 6 6 6
7 20 17 15 13 12 11 10 9 9 8 8 8 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 5 5
8 18 15 13 12 11 10 9 9 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5
9 16 14 12 11 10 9 8 8 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 4 4 4
10 15 13 11 10 9 8 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4
The general principles, as recommended by a number of authors, e.g.,
Woynarowich and Horváth (1980); Pecha, Berka and Kouril (1983) and others, are that
in every specific case the existing conditions and circumstances should always be
considered and that the guide parameters should be adjusted on the basis of preliminary
trials.
4. OPEN SYSTEMS OF FISH TRANSPORT
The open systems have many technical variants, ranging from small transport
fish-cans, containers for fish transport within the territory of a fish farm, up to special fish
transport trucks and tank wagons.
4.1 General Technological Notes
In all cases of fish transport in open systems, it should be borne in mind that
even a short-time transport of 10–30 m in open plastic or metal tanks should be done
under the conditions of constant air or oxygen supply. This is very important to the
welfare of fish even if dissolved oxygen content of water seems to be satisfactorily high
in the tank. Transport longer than half an hour should be in completely filled and closed
tanks to prevent splashing and injuries to young fish bumping into each other in the well
of the tank.
The weight of fish that can be safely transported in a tank depends on the
efficiency of the aeration system, duration of the transport, water temperature, fish size
and fish species.
If environmental conditions are constant, the carrying capacity of a transport unit
depends upon fish size. It has been suggested that the maximum permissible weight of
trout in a given tank is directly proportional to their length. Thus, if a tank can safely hold
50 kg of 5 cm trout, it could hold 100 kg of 10 cm trout, and 150 kg of 15 cm trout (Piper
et al., 1982).
Reported loading rates for fish vary widely among farms, and maximum carrying
capacities of different types of transport units have not been determined.
Some calculations of loading rates for various fish species are presented by
Piper et al., (1982). Under ideal conditions, the maximum load of 20–28 cm rainbow trout
is 3–3.1 kg/litre of water for 8 to 10 h. Similar loading rates are appropriate for brook,
brown, and lake trout of the same size. Channel catfish can be safely transported at
loadings presented in Table 17. If the trip exceeds 16 h, it is recommended that a
complete water change be made during transport.
 Table 17
Weight (in kg) of channel catfish that can be transported per litre of 18°C water
(Piper et al., 1982)
Number of fish Transit period
(per kg) (in h)
8 12 16
2 0.75 0.66 0.57
4 0.71 0.57 0.41
9 0.60 0.49 0.35
110 0.41 0.30 0.24
276 0.35 0.26 0.21
552 0.26 0.21 0.18
1 100 0.21 0.20 0.15
2 200 0.15 0.12 0.08
22 000 0.02 0.02 0.02
The following guidelines may be of value for transporting channel catfish (Piper
et al., 1982):
− 0.5 kg of 40 cm channel catfish can be transported per litre of water at 18°C;
− loading rates can be increased by 25% for each 5°C decrease in water
temperature, and reduced proportionately for an increase in temperature;
− as fish length increases, the weight of fish per litre of water can be increased
proportionally for an increase in temperature. For example, a tank holding
120 g of 10 cm catfish will safely hold 250 g of 20 cm or 500 g of 40 cm fish
per litre of water;
− if the transport time exceeds 12 h, the loading rate should be decreased by
25 percent;
− if the transport time exceeds 16 h, loading rates should be decreased by 50
percent or a complete water change should be arranged;
− during the winter, transporting temperature of 7–10°C are preferred, whereas
15–21°C are preferable during summer months.
Table 18 suggests loading rates that have proved successful for northern pike
and walleye.
Table 18
Weight (in kg) of northern pike and walleye that can be carried per litre of water at
temperatures between 13–18°C (Piper et al., 1982)

Size of fish kg of fish Transit period

(cm) per litre (h)
7.6 0.15 8.0
5.1 0.08 8.0
2.5 0.07 8.0

From the technical point of view, most tanks constructed in recent years are
insulated, usually with styrofoam, fiberglass or urethane. Styrofoam and urethane are
preferred materials because of their superior insulating qualities and the minimal effect
that moisture has on them. A well-insulated tank minimizes the need for elaborate
temperature-control systems and small amounts of ice can be used to control the limited
heat rises.
Circulation is needed to maintain well-aerated water in all parts of the tank.
Transport success is related to tank shape, water circulation pattern, aerator type and
other design criteria. Warmwater transport tanks may be compartmented. Compartments
facilitate fish stocking at several different sites on a single trip, permit separation of
species, and act as baffles to prevent water surges. Tanks in current use have 1 000–2
700 litre capacities, averaging about 1 700 litres. However, 4 500 litre tanks occasionally
are used in the USA to transport catchable size catfish, trout and bass (Piper et al.,
1982).
Although most tanks presently in use are rectangular, the trend in recent years
has been towards elliptical tanks, such as those used to transport milk. This shape has
several advantages: V-shaped, elliptical or partially round tanks promote better mixing
and recirculation of water as the size of the tank increases. This shape also conforms to
a truck chassis and holds the centre of gravity towards the area of greatest strength.
Water circulation systems are of various sizes and designs. Suction lines to the
pumps lie on the bottom of the tank and are covered by perforated screens. Water is
carried to the pumps and then forced through overhead spray heads mounted above the
waterline. In most systems, oxygen is introduced in one of the suction lines just ahead of
the pump. This usually is controlled by a medical gas-flow meter; because of the danger
involved in handling and transporting bottled oxygen, care must be taken to follow all
prescribed safety procedures.
Self-priming pumps powered by gasoline engines are used to circulate water in
many transport units. Pumps may be close-coupled or flexibly coupled. Although the
former type is more compact, it tends to transfer heat to the water. Depending upon
ambient air temperature, close-coupled pumps may increase the temperature of 1 500
litres of water by about 4°C an hour, whereas flexible coupling will reduce heat transfer
to approximately 1.7°C per hour (Piper et al., 1982).
A method of circulating water with 12-volt mechanical aerators uses carbon rods
and micropore tubing for dispensing oxygen. Aerators alone may not be sufficient to
provide the oxygen needed to transport large loads of fish, but a supplemental
oxygenation system can increase the carrying capacity of the transport tank. Some
advantages of aerator systems over gasoline-driven water pump systems are (Piper et
al., 1982):
− Temperature increases from aerators are less than 0.5°C per hour, compared
with 1.3°C with pumps;
− aerators and the oxygen injection system can operate independently. There
are advantages to carrying small sizes of certain species of fish on oxygen
alone. Oxygen also can be used as a temporary backup system if aerators
fail;
− usually, aerators have fewer maintenance problems;
− costs of recirculating equipment and aerators strongly favor aerators;
− use of aerators eliminates the space required between the tank and truck cab
for pumps and plumbing.
 The most efficient tanks have the highest water circulation rates, but circulation
rates must be balanced with water capacity. Pumping or aerating systems should be
able to circulate at least 40 percent of the tank water per minute when 20–22 cm
salmonids are transported, though lesser rates are appropriate for smaller fish (Piper et
al., 1982).
4.2 Technical Designs of Transport Units
4.2.1 Small Transport Units
The survey of the technical designs of the open systems of fish transport can be
started from a small fish can (Fig. 11), described by Gilev and Krivodanova (1984). Its
volume is 39 litres, transport time without replacement of the oxygen cylinder 30 hours,
oxygen cylinder capacity 2 litres, full can weight 53.5 kg. The oxygen is conducted from
the cylinder into porous distributor installed in can bottom to oxygenate the water with
the fish.
The small transport container for fish fry or for a small number of trout (Vollmann-
Schipper, 1975) is similar to the can. Its volume is from 50 to 150 litres, oxygen is
conducted from the cylinder into the porous distributor in container bottom (Fig. 12).
Aeration grates connected with separate sources of air, e.g., compressors or
oxygen are usually installed in the bottoms of the larger containers (Fig. 13 and 14).
The transport tanks for internal transports inside the fish farm are supplied
without the top closure (Fig. 15). Their volume is from 200 to 1 000 litres. A removable
gutter is used for releasing the fish through the sluice. Tanks for internal transports,
commercially produced by the Ewos Company, are shown in Fig. 16.

Figure 11 Fish fry transport can (Gilev and Krivodanova,

1984)
 (a) Removable cover; (b) Reduction valve;
(c) Oxygen tank (5–7 lit.); (d) Handle; (e) Support;
(f) Pressure piping; (g) Aeration device.
Figure 12 Small transport container for fish fry or trout (Vollmann-
Schipper, 1975)
Small transport tanks, usually of glass-reinforced plastic, which can be
transported in a passenger car are used with success for the transport of small amounts
of fish (Fig. 17). The commercial product of Tess Aquaculture Ltd., shown in Fig. 18, is
an example of such a tank. The tank has a separate pump, managed from the electrical
system in car, with a capacity of 1 800 litres of water/hour; it keeps good oxygen
conditions for the fish.
Small amounts of fish can also be transported by passenger-car trailers on which
the fish tank is divided into two compartments. The trailer also has a compressed
oxygen cylinder. It may also be equipped with a non-traditional tank of plastic foil,
suspended on a tubular frame (Fig. 19). The commercial product - a passenger-car
trailer for fish transport - of Grice and Young Ltd. is shown in Fig. 20.
 (a) pumice-filled tube; (b) ceramic distributors; (c) porous hose.
Figure 13 Aeration grates of transport tanks (Vollmann-Schipper,
1975)

Figure 14 Aeration grate of a transport tank (Vollmann-Schipper,

1975)
Porous PVC hose fitted in a frame corresponding to the
size of the tank
4.2.2 Large Transport Tanks
Large transport tanks are produced in a great variety of types. The tanks can be
equipped with aeration grates, double bottoms, filters and water distributors, separate
aerators, thermally insulated walls and the like. Large tanks may have a valve at the
bottom for draining the water with mud. The general diagram of these tanks is shown in
Fig. 21, i.e., tank with a big sluice, requiring a removable gutter for releasing the fish,
and Fig. 22, i.e., tank with an outlet hopper and own discharge hose. The size of the
hopper and the hose should be adjusted to the size of fish. The diameter of the hopper
and the hose should be 30–40 cm in case of fingerling and 20–30 cm in case of fry, and
50–60 cm for fish larger than 1 kg in weight (Horváth, Tamás and Tölg, 1984).
There is a whole range of commercial producers of these fish transport tanks.
Figures 23 to 30 show only some of their products.
 (a) Protection against splashing; (b) Draining device with rocking
plate; (c) Hook for chain; (d) Protruding collar for attachment of
neck; (e) Draining neck; (f) Fixing chain
Figure 15 Tank for internal transport (Vollmann-Schipper, 1975)

Figure 16 Tank for internal transport (product of EWOS). Dimensions:

110 × 65 × 65 cm, volume 400 litres; full top opening with
baffle edge
 (a) Aeration tube with T- joint; (b) Metal frame (ab. 50 × 60 cm);
(c) Perforated plastic pipe
Figure 17 Small tank to be carried in a car (Vollmann-Schipper, 1975).
Container volume 100–150 litres; the aeration grate is adjusted
to fit the dimensions of the tank

Figure 18 Mini transport tank (product of TESS);

dimensions: 80 × 37 × 39 cm; weight 9 kg, pump 12 volts
(a) Flexible cover; (b) PVC - Chamber; (c) Draining tube; (d) Oxygen
Figure 19 Passenger-car trailer for fish transport (Vollmann-Schipper,
1975)

Figure 20 Passenger-car trailer for fish transport (product of GRICE and

YOUNG Ltd., England)
 Figure 21 Transport tank of volume usually larger than 1
000 litres; F - big sluice; B - value at bottom for
water replacement. (a) Tightening handle
(Vollmann-Schipper, 1975)
Large tanks used in the USA usually have two compartments with a maximum
volume of 2 × 1 m3 (Fig. 31), as described by Okoniewski (1975). Each compartment
can be handled separately, or both can be connected, on the other hand, by pulling out
the partition. The tank can be equipped with up to six aerators (Fig. 32), three in each
compartment.
A transport tank with four compartments is presented in Fig. 33.
These transport tanks are installed on trucks (Fig. 34) and are complemented by
life-support equipment (air, gaseous oxygen, liquid oxygen). Separate tanks are useful
for transporting several species or sizes of fish. It is recommended to fill the space
between tanks with insulating polystyrene foam.
4.2.3 Single-purpose Transport Trucks
Special single-purpose trucks are also built for fish transport. For instance,
Leitritz and Lewis, 1976, Californian fish farmers, use vehicles with four sizes of tanks -
11 400, 5 400, 2 700 and 1 800 litres - for fish distribution (Figures 35–38). All tanks are
insulated so that temperatures can be held more constant. The three larger tanks have
refrigerating units; ice is used for temperature control in the smallest unit. The newer
tank trucks are equipped with a generator so that the refrigerators and water circulating
pumps can be run by electricity.
 Figure 22 Transport tank with hopper (a) during transport; (b) unloading
(Horváth, Tamás and Tölg, 1984)

Figure 23 Transport tanks with 100, 300 and 600-litre volume (EWOS).
Standard equipment: one lid with cutting out for a tube for
oxygen. The latter two types are equipped with water drawing
as well as fittings for mounting
The pumps and refrigerators are driven by separate gasoline engines on other
models. The aeration system is generally designed with the water drawn from the bottom
of the tank by pumps. It passes through a venturi to inject air into the water and is then
sprayed back into the tank over refrigeration coils. The 1 800-litre tanks have small
electric pumps at each end of the tank which operate from a heavy-duty truck battery.
The water is picked up at the bottom of the tank and sprayed back. This type of tank
holds the temperature very constant without refrigeration because the water does not
pass through a venturi on the outside of the tank and warm air is drawn from the
atmosphere into the water. Some tanks are also supplied with bubbles of oxygen
through a carborundum stone from a bottle of compressed oxygen. The fish planting
equipment, particularly the larger tank trucks, are complicated and expensive. There
should be an operating manual with each piece of equipment.

Figure 24 Transport tank of volume 900 litres, specially made for the
transport of eel (EWOS). As a standard, the tank is equipped
with a double bottom, under which an air hose can be
installed
Figure 25 Transport tank (EWOS). Dimensions 150 × 100 × 85 cm,
volume 1 200 litres. The capacity of the tank for short
transports of 4–5 hours and with access to water below 10°C
is 100–150 kg of fish in good condition. The tank is equipped
with a tight-fitting lid. It has a 5 cm drain with a valve and can
also be delivered with a protruding collar 20 × 25 cm
 Figure 26 Transport tank (EWOS). Dimensions 200 × 100 × 100 cm,
volume 2 000 litres. Tank is mainly used for short transports
of live rainbow trout but can be used for all kinds of live fish.
For rainbow trout it has a capacity of 200–300 kg during day-
long transports and a water temperature not exceeding 18°C.
As a standard, tank is delivered with a lockable, screened lid
and 2 inches valve with inside screen for drainage. Extra
equipment: protruding collar 20 × 25 cm or 30 × 40 cm for
larger fish; double bottom (installed when air hoses are used);
large opening with splash board; top with 2 lids; gutter
Another type of fish transport truck, described by Piper et al., (1982), is
presented in Fig. 39.
A small special vehicle for fish transport is shown in Fig. 40. It is a well-equipped
system of a ¾-ton heavy-duty truck. The tank is constructed of stainless steel and is
divided into two compartments. Quick-release gates and removal chutes permit rapid
unloading of the fish. Agitators provide aeration, but compressed oxygen is available for
emergencies.
Soviet special vehicles for fish transport are also differentiated as to capacity, the
container volume being usually between 2 400 and 4 000 litres. Their detailed
descriptions and operation conditions are given by Mackevich and Shiyanov (1984),
Pavlov (1973), Kozlov et al., (1977) and Dyagilev (1974). A typical diagram of such
vehicles is shown in Fig. 41. The water in the tank is aerated by means of an own
compressor; truck engine is used for supplying the air in some types of trucks, or water
is oxygenated with gaseous oxygen from pressure bottles. In large-volume tanks
partitions are installed to damp water movements during transport. Bigger trucks
(volume above 4 000 litres) are also equipped with an aggregate for water cooling; a
thermoregulator is used to control this device.
A special truck with a 13 000-litre tank (Barekyan et al., 1975) is used in the
USSR for fish shipment, mainly for transporting brood fish to longer distances (Fig. 42).
The truck has a powerful ejector device for water aeration, keeping the orientation of the
fish during transport. The transport tank is thermally insulated, the space for the fish has
the dimensions of 4.2 × 1.4 × 1.6 m. The minimum flow rate of water through the tank for
orientating the fish is 0.2 m.s-1.
There are many other specialized fish transport trucks in the world; they include,
for instance, fully equipped fish transporters in which the triple-compartment steel tank (2
227 litres) forms an integral part of the special body, mounted on a wheel-base chassis
cab unit, for on-off road duties (Fig. 43), or transport vehicle equipped with liquid oxygen
(Fig. 44).

Figure 27 Transport tank (EWOS). Dimensions 236 × 108 × 112 cm,

volume 2 400 litres. Tank is specially designed for long
transports and is therefore built with double walls with a
polyurethane foam insulation. For draining, the tank is fitted
with a valve with an inside screen; the valve is operated with
a knob on the top of the tank. As a standard it also has an
outlet gate 20 × 25 cm. The capacity of this tank is about
300–400 kg of rainbow trout depending on the length of the
transport, water temperature and water quality. For day-long
transports of trout of a size 25–50 g, a load of 150–200 kg
can be suitable, providing the water quality is good and the
temperature not above 10°C
Figure 28 Transport tanks (STRATIMER, France) work with diffused air,
diffused oxygen or mixture. Volumes 150–1 400 litres,
insulated linings. Valve for draining the tank

Figure 29 Transport tanks (PUREWELL Ltd. England)

 Figure 30 Transport tanks (POLOPLAST; Italy)
For the transport of salmonid fry, US fish farmers use large fish transport trucks
(anonym, 1980) which have doubled the previous fish transport capacity (Fig. 45). The
system is designed to eliminate the need for recirculating water pumps which increase
water temperature and, accordingly, the need for refrigeration systems to control this
heat build-up. Instead, it will employ air-lift pumps to recirculate the water using oxygen
as the lifting or operating force. The water that is lifted will be injected into filter beds,
placed above the main body of water in the tank holding the fish, and then spread
throughout the tank so that velocities are minimized and zones of stagnation eliminated.
The filter beds control various media to physically remove protein-containing materials;
other waste products, such as carbon dioxide and ammonia, either chemically or by
absorption. Primary control of the water quality plays an important role. All dissolved
nitrogen is removed from the water so that oxygen saturation levels can be elevated by
over 2.5 times. The pH is controlled to ensure efficient chemical removal of the carbon
dioxide produced by the fish without increasing the ammonia content to toxic levels.
A 20-ton semi-trailer (Fig. 46) is in operation in Great Britain for transporting live
fish fry and fingerlings, principally to transport elvers. A maximum of 12 million elvers
weighing four tons can be carried on 18 insulated water tanks arranged in pairs down
the length of the vehicle. There is a life-support system, which is powered by two diesel
engines linked to three-phase alternators. The alternator supplies power to drive the
aeration, refrigeration and water-circulation system. Only one diesel engine is required,
but in the event of a power shutdown for any reason, the second will start within 30
seconds. The trailer was built for Bristol Channel Fisheries of Gloucester, England
(Anon., 1980, 1982). This vehicle was also used to transport 400 000 fingerling eels from
England to Hungary, a distance of 3 600 km in 3.5 days. A water temperature of 7°C
was maintained throughout the journey by a refrigeration plant in the trailer, and oxygen
levels were kept up by cooled compressed air distributed through ceramic diffusers in
each tank. The same water was used from start to finish. Exchange of water means
exposing the fish to different range of physical and chemical parameters, causing some
degree of stress; more important is the possibility of introducing exotic pathogens into
the consignment. The life-support systems are duplicated. During a sea crossing the
transporter is connected to the ship's three-phase electrical supply.
 Figure 31 Diagram of a two-compartment tank (Okoniewski, 1975).
1 - drain opening, 2 - openings for aerators, 3 - separating
gate, 4 - tank top, 5 - tank partition, 6 - separating gate

Figure 32 Aeration agitator. 1 - fan to cool the engine, 2 - electric motor,

3 - transmission shaft, 4 - agitator blades, 5 - protecting grid

4.3 Water Aeration/Oxygenation and Temperature

The system of water aeration or oxygenation still has to be evaluated in detail. Its
effectiveness depends on a number of technical and economic conditions. Discussion on
these problems has been published by Heiner (1982, 1983), Johnson (1979), Proske
(1982), Leis (1978) and others. Air and gaseous oxygen have become traditional ways
of conditioning the transport water; nevertheless, the use of liquid oxygen is becoming a
more accepted method in transport. Like compressed gaseous oxygen, there is an
advantage in avoiding problems with mechanical failure. In addition, the equipment is
lighter than for gaseous oxygen and the cost of oxygen is less. Liquified oxygen is
packaged in a different container than gaseous oxygen but when it comes out of the
container it is transformed into the gaseous state. The release is typically through
perforated piping in the tank bottom. Air and oxygen are also used simultaneously for
aeration to avoid the consequences of errors in oxygen supply during transport
(phenomenon called “burning the fish” during transport which has not yet been fully
explained). For this reason some advanced transport trucks such as, for instance, the
new transporter produced by German HTT-Fischzuchttechnologie GmbH (Anon., 1984)
are equipped with an integral air blower with no danger of “burning” the fish.

Figure 33 Fiberglass transport tank with four compartments, each with

an electric aerator (arrow). Additional oxygen is provided
through carbon rods or micropore tubing on the bottom of the
tank (Piper et al., 1982)
Figure 34 Installation of transport tanks on a truck. The transport
capacity of the truck is about 8 000 litres; when the truck is
combined with a trailer, the volume of the fish tanks is about
15 000 litres

Figure 35 A 11 400-litre fish transport truck. The water pumps and

refrigeration units are operated by electricity which is
generated by a diesel-driven unit on the truck (Leitritz and
Lewis, 1976)
Figure 36 A 5 400-litre fish transport truck. The water pumps and
refrigeration units are powered with gasoline engines (Leitritz
and Lewis, 1976)

Figure 37 A 2 700-litre fish transport truck. Electric water pumps and

refrigeration units are powered by a gasoline generator
(Leitritz and Lewis, 1976)
 Figure 38 A 1 800-litre fish planting tank is mounted on a flat-bed pickup
truck. It is equipped with a small electric pump at each end of
the tank which operates from a generator or a heavy-duty
truck battery, and sprays the water to the middle of the tank. It
holds the temperature very constant (Leitritz and Lewis, 1976)

Figure 39 Aluminium elliptical tank with refrigeration unit mounted at the

front. Aeration is by gas-driven pumps and pure oxygen. Note
air scoops (arrow) for CO2 removal on front and rear of tanks
(Piper et al., 1982)

Besides the general principles presented in Chapter 2, it is suggested by

practical experience that air or oxygen supply should be adjusted already before loading
the fish, because later it is practically impossible to change the size of the bubbles. A
short time after starting transport, 10–15 m after departure, it is recommended to stop
and to check the behaviour of the fish in the tanks. In winter the transported fish are
exposed to increased danger: a small amount of water frozen in the oxygen distribution
piping or in the fittings may cause the failure of the whole system, however sophisticated
it may be.
Water temperature is an important factor of fish transport. General-orientation
data on the changes in water temperature in specialized fish transport trucks in
dependence on transport time and ambient temperature, evaluated by Leis, Kruzhalina
and Dyagilev (1984), are given in Table 19.
4.4 Fish Densities in Transport Units
Data on the possible densities of fish transported in open systems are scarce in
literature. Though Leis (1978) described a calculation method for the oxygen
requirement in fish transport, his methodology cannot be widely used in practice
because the calculation formulae are very complicated. On the other hand, many
authors state that fish consume only a small portion of the oxygen offered (10 percent at
the maximum, as asserted by Proske, 1982), so that the calculations of oxygen
requirement, based on the amount consumed by the fish, are not reliable. Like in the
closed systems, it is also true that the optimum fish densities in transport containers are
influenced by a number of factors which should be learned and evaluated by practical
experience rather than by theoretical calculation. Most of the authors also recommend to
take into account the possibility of delay during the journey which may be up to 24 hours
in longer transports.

Figure 40 Small fish transport truck equipped with aerators and oxygen
bottle for emergency (Dupree and Huner, 1984)
Figure 41 A transport truck (A) equipped with an aeration system (B)
(Mackevich and Shiyanov, 1984) 1 - tank, 2 - perforated air
hoses, 3 - air supply, 4 - air supply regulator, 5 - safety valve,
6 - pressure tank for air, 7 - valve for discharging the
condensate, 8 - pressure gauge, 9 - check valve, 10 –
compressor

Figure 42 Soviet 13 000-litre fish transport truck (Barekyan et al., 1975)

1 - space for the fish transported, 2 - grate wall, 3 - bottom of
the fish space, 4 - space for water-air mixing, 5 - ejector, 6 -
centrifugal pump, 7 - deflectors, 8 - air-tight sealing of the
tank, 9 - engine, 10 - trailer, 11 - towing vehicle
Figure 43 A 2 227-litre fish transporter (BUCKINCHAM VEHICLES Ltd.)

Figure 44 A fish transport vehicle equipped with liquid oxygen supply,

oxygen flow valves, agitators, side ramps, and lighting for
night hauling (Johnson, 1979)

Figure 45 Fish truck, used in the USA, equipped for water quality control
during transport
 Figure 46 Semi-trailer used by Bristol Channel Fisheries for transporting
live fish
Some guide figures concerning fish transport are given by Horváth, Tamás and
Tölg (1984) in Table 20, Proske (1982) in Table 21, and Dupree and Huner (1984) in
Table 22.
Exact standards of the densities of transported fish are suggested by Uryn (1971)
for the early fry of Coregonus lavaretus and Coregonus albula. Though belonging to the
same family, these two species have a markedly different oxygen demand during
transport: fry of C. Lavaretus consume 2.4 times more oxygen, on an average, than the
fry of C. albula. The calculation is based on the lethal threshold of oxygen (Table 23) and
on the intensity of oxygen utilization (Table 24) in each of the two species. The
calculation of the transport density standard for the fry can be demonstrated by the
following example (the calculation applies to C. lavaretus): planned transport time is 2 h;
water at the temperature of 6°C contains 7.5 mg. 1-1 oxygen; at this temperature, the
lethal oxygen threshold is 1.50 mg.1-1, and the intensity of oxygen utilization is 3 mg. per
1 000 fry per hour (Tables 23 and 24). Hence, one litre of water contains the following
amount of oxygen available to the fry: 7.5-1.5 mg. 1-1 = 6 mg. 1-1. This amount per litre,
converted per one hour of transport time, can be utilized by the following amount of fry:
For 1 000 fry, one needs 3 mg. h-1 oxygen
For x fry, one has 6 mg. h-1 oxygen, therefore
-1 -1
x = 2 000 fry x 1 x h
Transport time is planned to be 2 h; hence, the amount of fry should be divided
by two: 2 000 fry : 2 = 1 000 fry ◦ 1-1.
4.5 Transport of Pike-Perch
The transport of pike-perch is of a somewhat specialized nature; pike-perch is a
species extraordinarily sensitive to any handling. It holds generally that the smaller the
fry of pike-perch the better the transport. Vollmann-Schipper (1975) recommends a
special container for the transport of pike-perch fry (Fig. 47), equipped with a water-tight
cover and aeration; Horváth, Tamás and Tölg (1984), in turn, recommend plastic tanks
80–150 litres (Fig. 48) or 800–1 000 litres in size.
 Table 19
The changes in water temperature in specialized trucks
having no cooling equipment
Initial water Duration of transport
Temperature (in h)
(°C) 10 20 30 40 50
at ambient air temperature + 5°C
10 10 9 8 7 7
15 13 11 9 8 7
20 16 14 12 10 9
25 20 16 14 12 10
at ambient air temperature + 15°C
5 7 9 11 12 13
10 11 12 13 13 14
20 19 18 17 17 16
25 23 21 19 18 17
at ambient air temperature + 25°C
5 10 14 16 18 20
10 14 16 18 20 21
15 17 19 21 22 23
20 21 22 23 23 24
at ambient air temperature - 5°C
5 3 1 - - -
10 6 4 2 - -
15 10 6 4 2 -
20 14 9 6 4 2
Table 20
Guide numbers for 5–20 h transports of fish with average body weight of
1 000 g with a proper oxygen supply
Fish species Amount of fish (kg) in 1 000 liter water at
0–5 5–8 8–10 10–15 15–20 20–25 25–28 30°C
Common carp and tench 700 600 450 400 350 280 220 180
Grass carp 750 650 500 450 400 310 250 200
Silver carp 300 250 200 150 100 80 no suggestion
Bighead carp 700 650 500 450 400 300 220 180
Sheatfish 800 700 600 500 400 320 250 200
Pike-perch 250 200 150 120 100 80 no suggestion

Notes:
1. The amount of water for transport can be calculated by substracting the volume of
fish to be transported (with 1 kg/1 litre index) from the total volume of the tank
2. Data at a temperature value above 15°C refer to fasted fish
3. Transport guide numbers of fish with 1 000–1 700 g body weight can be increased
by 10–15% Numbers given can be decreased in the following way:
20–30% if the body weight is about 500–1 000 g
30–50% if the body weight is about 200–500 g
50–60% if the body weight is about 100–200 g
60–80% if the body weight is under 100 g
 Table 21
Fish weight in kg per 100 litres of water when the transport lasts 4–8 h
Carp Rainbow trout
Advanced One- Two- Marketable Advanced Young fish Marketable
Temperature
fry year- year- fish fry fish
(°C)
old fish old fish
(4 cm) (8 cm) (12 cm) (250 g)
5 - 30 50 70 15 25 30 35
10 - 25 35 50 12 20 25 30
15 10 20 25 35 - 10 15 20
Table 22
Capacity fish load in kg per 100 litres of water for transport by the tank method with
agitators or blower system in hard water at 18°C
Type of fish and average Duration of transport
length (in h)
(in cm) 1 6 12 24
Fingerlings
5 20 15 10 10
20 30 30 20 15
Adult fish
36 40 40 30 20
Table 23
Average lethal oxygen threshold for the early fry of Coregonusspp. in
function of water temperature (in mg. 1-1)
Temperature (in °C)
4 6 8 10 12 14
C. lavaretus 1.3 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.7 1.8
C. albula 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8

Table 24
Average oxygen consumption by the fry of Coregonusspp. in function of the water
temperature, in milligrams per 1 000 fry per 1 h
Temperature (in °C)
4 6 8 10 12 14
C. lavaretus 2.7 3.0 3.8 4.0 4.8 4.8
C. albula 1.1 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.9 2.1
 (a) Aeration device; (b) Rubber joint; (c) Removable cover; (d) Tightening
screw; (e) Outlet valve
Figure 47 Specialized tank for pike-perch transport (Vollmann-Schipper,
1975)

Figure 48 Plastic tank for pike-perch transport (Horváth, Tamás and Tölg,
1984)
Pike-perch get unjured - especially in the eyes - from the movement of water or
by bumping into each other. This can be prevented by filling the tank completely with
water and installing a valve for gas exchange (Fig. 48). In a hermetically closed tank,
oxygen supply stops due to overpressure and the fish die.
 Guide data on the transport of pike-perch in tanks are presented in Table 25
according to Horváth, Tamás and Tölg, 1984.
Table 25
Guide numbers for pike-perch transport
Closed water tank of 120 lit. (100 lit. Closed water tank of 1 200 lit. (1
Duration of
Age group water + 20 lit. O2) 000 lit. water + 200 lit. O2)
transport
Total length Temperature (in °C)
(in h)
10 15 20 25 10 15 20 25
Early fry of 2 280 180 90 - 2 000 1 000 500 -
6–7 mm 5 200 150 60 - 1 500 800 400 -
(thousand) 10 150 90 40 - 1 200 600 300 -
15 120 60 25 - 1 000 400 200 -
Advanced fry 2 15 10 6 2.5 180 120 80 25
of 3–5 cm 5 12 8 4 1.6 130 100 50 16
(thousand) 10 8 5 2.2 1.2 90 60 25 10
15 5 3 1.5 0.7 50 30 18 7
One summer 2 1 000 800 600 - 10 000 8 000 5 000 -
fingerlings 5 800 600 400 0 8 000 6 000 4 000 -
10 600 500 300 - 6 000 4 000 2 500 -
15 500 400 200 - 5 000 3 000 1 500 -
Two-summer 2 180 100 60 0 1 800 1 200 700 -
old fish 5 140 70 40 - 1 500 800 500 -
10 100 50 25 - 1 100 600 300 -
15 50 30 15 - 600 400 200 -
Nevertheless, juveniles of pike-perch can also be transported with success in
standard tank. Kavalec (1973) commented on the transport of pike-perch fry from
Czechoslovakia to Sweden over 1 200 km. The shipment lasted 41–55 h, depending on
the place of release in Sweden. The temperature of the water was 7°C and the oxygen
content 7 mg. 1-1; air compressors were used to aerate the water. During transport, the
oxygen level decreased even to 4 mg. One transport tank containing 2 000 litres of water
accommodated 5 000 pike-perch fry 11–14 cm in length; 1 000-litre containers were
carried on a trailer pulled by the truck and were stocked with 5 000 9–10 cm pike-perch
fry. The fish reached their destination in very good condition.
4.6 Railway Fish Transport
Shipment by special tank wagons should be mentioned if complete information of
fish transport is to be provided. However, this system of fish transport is being
abandoned. At present, when highly advanced road transport is available, the
disadvantages of railway fish transport have become obvious (usually two transloadings
of the fish, a longer transport time); they highly prevail over the possible advantage from
the point of view of transport economy.
The diagram of the technical design of the wagon is shown in Fig. 49 and a detail
of the aeration system is shown in Fig. 50. The wagon is designed for the transport of 8–
12 tons of fish, usually market cyprinids. The amount of fish transported depends on
temperature because the wagons usually have no cooling system. In the variant
described by Vollmann-Schipper (1975) the dimensions of the tank are 3 × 3 × 1.4 m.
Oxygen cylinders are kept as a reserve to replace, in case of failure, the air compressor
used during the journey. When the transport time is longer, water is completely replaced
in the tank in the marshalling yards. The mad deposited on the bottom is drained from
the tanks during the trip. Some experience with the railway transport of different fishes is
described by Soviet authors (Smorodinskaya and Khasman, 1973; Orlov, 1975;
Kruzhalina, Averina and Vol'nova, 1970; Shevchenko, 1978; Demchenko, 1970).
5. CHEMICAL METHODS FOR WATER AND FISH TREATMENT DURING
TRANSPORT
The chemical methods of treating the transport medium, aimed at increasing the
capacity volume of the transport units and preventing physiological and health damage
to the fish, constitute an integral part of the complex problem of fish transport. They
include the use of anaesthetics, water-hardening and oxygen-producing chemicals,
bacteriostatics, buffering and antifoam chemicals.

Figure 49 A fish transport tank wagon (Vollmann-Schipper, 1975) M -

technical space and attendant's booth, U - pump and air
compressor, T - Transport tanks 1 and 2, S - oxygen
cylinders, A -tank drain, F - water aeration (for details see Fig.
50), L - loading space, W - circulating water distribution
system, S + D - oxygen or compressed-air distribution system

(a) Water inlet pipe;

(b) Water; (c) Air
Figure 50 Water aeration in the tank wagon
(Vollmann-Schipper, 1975)
5.1 Use of Fish Tranquilizers
During transport, sedation of the fish is desirable, since oxygen consumption and
CO2 and NH3 production are all decreased. However, deep sedation is undesirable
because the fish may fall to the bottom, pile up and smother. If pumps are used, the fish
may be pulled into the screen, the air may move the deeply sedated fish about and
cause a loss of scales. It is best to sedate the fish in the holding facility for 30 min before
loading and then to continue exposure to a lower concentration of sedative during
transport. The use of anaesthetics should not be relied on for increased load carrying
capacity. Other methods are safer and dependable. The use of anaesthetics on food fish
that will be consumed soon after exposure is not legal. Consideration should always be
given to the legal status of a chemical and possible consequences to the consumer.
Anaesthesia usually applies only to transported brood fish. In practice, the fish
are first tranquilized with the normal dose and put into the transport tank, where original
concentration is diluted by 50 percent by adding the same amount of fresh water. The
brood fish will remain tranquillized well in that diluted solution (Woynarowich and
Horváth, 1980). It is advisable to find out the right dose for the fish in question through
experimentation. Sensitivity resistance and endurance vary from fish to fish. Even the
near related species may differ very much in this respect.
It is not recommended to use anaesthetics on small fish transported on small
distances, since in such conditions the space factor has a greater influence on the health
of the fish than the accumulation of metabolic products (Shevchenko, 1978).
As Woynarowich and Horváth (1980) assert, fish transport in cold water of 5–
10°C is the simplest and best method of anaesthesia; however, this cannot always be
done. This view is also supported by Strebkova (1971) who found no differences
between the anaesthetized fish and the untreated control fish transported at a
temperature of 11–13°C. Horváth, Tamás and Tölg (1984) recommend to anaesthetize
the fish for transport only in cases of temperatures above 15°C.
Among the broad spectrum of anaesthetics, tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222)
and quinaldine appear to be used most frequently.
MS-222 is a very mild tranquilizer and fish easily recover from its effects even
after a long stupor. Horváth, Tamás and Tölg (1984) recommend to apply MS-222 to
water at the rate of 20 mg.1-1 for carp and grass carp, 10 mg.1-1 for silver carp, and 35
mg.1-1 for bighead carp or sheatfish. At these concentrations the fish can still hold their
natural position but their respiration and motility are significantly decreased. When
applying this anaesthetic, the mass of transported fish in a unit volume can be increased
by 50–150 percent, but it is best to test it before application. About the same
concentrations of MS-222 are also recommended by Woynarowich and Horváth (1980):
the brood fish are first put in a full-strength solution, i.e., 5 g MS-222 in 100 litres of
water. After 15–20 min when the fish are fully tranquilized, the solution is diluted by
adding water to the concentrations commented on by Horváth, Tamás and Tölg (1984).
The applicability of concentrations up to 50 mg.1-1 to carp was verified by Rzanicanin
and Balcer (1973, 1974) who found that MS-222 was desorbed within a short time: at the
concentration of 50 mg.1-1, MS-222 concentration in fish muscle was as low as 2 [Link]-1
after 15 h and no traces of the chemical were detected in muscle after 39 h. The MS-222
preparation was also used by Powell (1970) who applied it at the concentration of 7 mg,
1-1 to transported striped bass, and the results were good. Dupree and Huner (1984)
recommend to use MS-222 at concentrations from 20 to 200 mg.1-1 (whithout indicating
the fish species), and claim that the preparation must be buffered between pH 7 and 8.
The majority of authors believe that MS-222 has excellent anaesthetic properties, but -
on the other hand - proves to be relatively expensive for everyday use.
Quinaldine (2–4 methylchinolin) is a toxic liquid and must, therefore, be handled
with care. The fish are usually treated with it when they are held in a large volume of
water, such as a large tank. Woynarowich and Horváth (1980) assert the effective
concentration of 25 mg.1-1, Dupree and Huner (1984) 15–30 mg.1-1, nothing that
quinaldine appears to be the most practical for warm-water fishes, although it may be
damaging to trout and some other species.
Apart from these two tranquilizers, other drugs are to be used. Phenoxyethanol is
another chemical that has recently come into use as a fish tranquilizer. It is milder and
less effective than MS-222, but it is far cheaper; 30–40 cm3 of phenoxy-ethanol are
mixed with 100 litres of water for the treatment (Woynarowich and Horváth, 1980). As to
other chemicals, Dupree and Huner (1984) describe the use of tertiary amyl-alcohol at
1.2 to 10.5 ml.1-1, methyl pentynol at 0.4 to 2.6 ml.1-1, and sodium bicarbonate at 0.5 g.1-
1
.
Fereira, Schoonbee and Smit (1984) recommend to transport Oreochromis
mossambicus treated with benzocaine-hydrochloride at a concentration of 25 mg.1-1. A
slow-reacting, long-lasting tranquilizing effect on trout is produced also by means of
sodium amytal, one of the many hypnotic barbiturates available. The effectiveness of the
drug is, to some extent, regulated by temperature. According to Leitritz and Lewis
(1976), it appears to decrease when temperature rises above 12°C, the most effective
range being from 8 to 12°C at a concentration of 7 mg.1-1. Successful use of sodium
amytal in combination with barbital preparations is also commented on by Strebkova
(1971). Carbonic acid may also be used for tanquilizing fish. Dupree and Huner (1984)
recommend the concentration of 0.1–0.4 mg.1-1, Mishra, Kumar and Mishra (1983)
transported fry (0.8 g) of Labeo rohita under the concentration of 0.5 ml.1-1 of carbonic
acid. The product called Combelen (Bayer) was found to be effective in the transport of
trout; this chemical is a neuroleptic which does not induce direct narcosis, but markedly
reduces the effects of stress on the fish during transport (Studnicka et al., 1982); for trout
at a weight of 250–300 g kept in 5°C water, a Combelen concentration of 0.2 ml.-1 was
found to be effective.
5.2 Application of Sodium Chloride and Calcium Chloride
Handling stress and delayed mortality of fish can be decreased by the addition of
sodium cloride (NaCl) and calcium chloride (CaCl2) to the transport water. The sodium
ion tends to “harden” the fish and reduce slime formation, and the calcium ion
suppresses osmoregulatory and metabolic disfunction. Calcium chloride may not be
needed in hard water already containing high concentrations of calcium. Dupree and
Huner (1984) recommended the addition of 0.1 to 0.3 percent salt and 50 mg.1-1 calcium
chloride. Some of the fishes that tolerate wide ranges of salt in the water, such as striped
bass, tilapias, carp, can benefit from as much as 0.5 percent salt. Addition of 0.2 percent
salt is recommended also by Johnson (1979). Different salt concentrations in
dependance on water temperature should be used according to Hatting (1975): for water
temperatures of 25–26°C he recommends the concentration of 0.7%, for medium
temperatures 0.5% and for low temperatures 0.3%. Powell (1970) even used a salt
concentration of 1% with a good result when transporting the fry of striped bass Roccus
saxatilis. On the other hand, Carmichael (1984), though admitting that salt affords some
measure of protection of the fish during transport, asserts that its function should not be
over-estimated. Amend et al., (1982) and Pecha, Berka and Kouril (1983) clearly state
that no favourable influence of salt addition was demonstrated during fish transport.
5.3 Chemicals as Oxygen Sources
There are contradictory views concerning the use of chemicals as oxygen
sources during fish transport. Huilgol and Patil (1975) tested the use of hydrogen
peroxide on transported carp fry and found that one drop (1 ml = 20 drops) of hydrogen
peroxide (6 percent concentration), applied to 1 litre of water, increased the oxygen
content by 1.5 mg.1-1 when the temperature was 24°C. CO2 content and water pH were
not influenced by the addition of hydrogen peroxide. Dissolved oxygen was measured by
the Winkler method. Astapovich (1974) and Hartman (1976) tested peroxodisulphates
for the same purposes; they also obtained a positive result of the enrichment of water
with oxygen when measuring its content by the Winkler method. A revision of these
results was performed in a detailed study by Máchová (1984) who demonstrated that
peroxodisulphates K2S2O8, Na2S2O8, (NH4)2S2O8, in fact, release no oxygen into water
and their use in fish transport is entirely useless. The Winkler's method of measurement
in the presence of oxidants gives unreliable results; measurements should rather be
performed with an oximeter.
5.4 Bacteriostatic Chemicals
Antibacterials are also used to check the development of bacteria in transport
units. Among the wide spectrum of bacteriostatic drugs, the following are used most
frequently: nitrofurazone (furacin) at 10 mg.1-1, acriflavin at 1 to 2 mg.1-1, oxytetracycline
(terramycin) at 20 mg.1-1 Combiotic at 15 mg.1-1 (Dupree and Huner, 1984) and
neomycin sulphate at 20 mg.1-1 (Amend et al., 1982). Antibacterials may strengthen the
resistance of fish, but they are probably of little value as bacterial checks in transport
tanks. Rare exception would be in the case where a superficial infection of an
antibacterial-susceptible bacterium was in progress.
5.5 Buffers
Among other chemical additives, buffers such as “tris-buffer” (tris-hydroxylmethyl-
amino methane) are helpful in controlling pH at a favourable value of 7 to 8. The
accumulation of carbon dioxide in bag transport allows for a decrease in pH, because
carbon dioxide is an acid. Since 2.2 to 4.4 g.1-1 (Johnson, 1979; Amend et al., 1982) or
1.1 to 2.2 g.1-1 (Dupree and Hunter, 1984) of tris-buffer are required to control pH in
bags with only moderate loads, the use of tris-buffer in tank transport usually is
impractical because of cost.
5.6 Ammonia Control
To control ammonia concentration in the transport bags when the transport is
expected to be long, it is recommended to use clinoptilolite, a zeolite mineral. Amend et
al., (1982) tested with success the dose of 14 g of clinoptilolite per litre, Bower and
Turner (1982) tested the doses of 10–40 g.1-1; the concentration of non-ionized
ammonia nitrogen never exceeded 0.017 mg.1-1 in bags containing even the lowest dose
of clinoptilolite, whereas concentrations as high as 0.074 mg.1-1 were recorded in the
control bags left without clinoptilolite.
5.7 Antifoam Chemicals
The formation of foam and scum, especially when drugs are used in transporting
fish or on water which is heavily laden with organic material (secretions and excretions,
such as mucus and excrements) often becomes quite bothersome. The foam interferes
with oxygen exposure at the water surface and also makes it difficult to observe the fish
being carried. Water with NaCl foams less than water without NaCl, but NaCl may
interfere slightly with the effectiveness of anti-foam chemicals. In some cases, a 10%
solution of Dow Corning Antifoam AF Emulsion is used at the rate of 0.05 ml.1-1 of water
(Leitritz and Lewis, 1976; Dupree and Huner, 1984). The advantages of using anti-foam
chemicals are not so great, but their use does keep the water more clear so that the fish
can be observed better.
6. CONCLUSION
Fish transport is a vast area comprising the problems of purely technical design
on the one hand, and the chemistry of water, biological reactions of fish and the like, on
the other. The above survey could only briefly mention and evaluate the relevant
literature on these problems. In view of its purpose, the paper was designed not only as
an analytico-synthetic survey of pertinent literature but, at the same time, as a practical
manual to be used for seeking at least partial answers to practical questions concerning
fish transport.
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 EIFAC TECHNICAL PAPERS ISSUED
DOCUMENTS TECHNIQUES DE LA CECPI PUBLIES
EIFAC/T1 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on
finely divided solids and inland fisheries (1964)
Critères de qualité des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce
européens. Rapport sur les solides finement divisés et les pêches
intérieures (1964)
EIFAC/T2 Fish diseases. Technical Notes submitted to EIFAC Third Session
by Messrs. J. Heyl, H. Mann, C.J. Rasmussen and A. van der
Struik (1965)
Maladies des poissons. Notes présentées à la troisième session
de la CECPI par J. Heyl, H. Mann, C.J. Rasmussen et A. van der
Struik (1965)
EIFAC/T3 Feeding in trout and salmon culture. Papers submitted to a
Symposium, EIFAC Fourth Session (1967)
Alimentation dans l'élevage de la truite et du saumon.
Communications présentées à un symposium, quatrième session
de la CECPI (1967)
EIFAC/T4 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on
extreme pH values and inland fisheries (1968)
Critères de qualité des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce
européens. Rapport sur les valeurs extrêmes du pH et les pêches
intérieures (1968)
EIFAC/T5 Organization of inland fisheries administration in Europe, by Jean-
Louis Gaudet (1968)
CECPI/T5 Organisation de l'administration des pêches intérieures en
Europe, par Jean-Louis Gaudet (1968)
EIFAC/T5(Rev.1) Organization of inland fisheries administration in Europe. Revised
edition (1974)
Organisation de l'administration des pêches en Europe (édition
révisée) (1974)
EIFAC/T6 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on
water temperature and inland fisheries based mainly on Slavonic
literature (1968)
Critères de qualité des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce
européens. Rapport sur la température de l'eau et les pêches
intérieures basé essentiellement sur la documentation slave
(1968)
EIFAC/T7 Economic evaluation of inland sport fishing, by Ingemar Norling
(1968)
Evaluation économique de la pêche sportive dans les eaux
continentales, par Ingemar Norling (1968)
EIFAC/T8 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. List of literature
on the effect of water temperature on fish (1969)
 Critères de qualité des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce
européens. Références bibliographiques sur les effets de la
température de l'eau sur le poisson (1969)
EIFAC/T9 New developments in carp and trout nutrition. Papers submitted to
a Symposium, EIFAC Fifth Session (1969)
Récents développements dans la nutrition de la carpe et de la
truite. Communications présentées à un symposium, cinquième
session de la CECPI (1969)
EIFAC/T10 Comparative study of laws and regulations governing the
international traffic in live fish and fish eggs, by F.B. Zenny, FAO
Legislation Branch (1969)
Etude comparée des mesures législatives et administratives
régissant les échanges internationaux de poissons vivants et
d'oeufs de poisson, par F.B. Zenny, Service de législation de la
FAO (1969)
EIFAC/T11 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on
ammonia and inland fisheries (1970)
CECPI/T11 Critères de qualité des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce
européens. Rapport sur l'ammoniac et les pêches intérieures
(1971)
EIFAC/T12 Salmon and trout feeds and feeding (1971)
CECPI/T12 Aliments du saumon et de la truite et leur distribution (1973)
EIFAC/T13 Some considerations on the theory of age determination of fish
from their scales - Finding proofs of reliability, by R. Sych (1971)
EIFAC/T14 EIFAC consultation on eel fishing gear and techniques (1971)
Consultation de la CECPI sur les engins et techniques de pêche à
l'anguille (1971)
EIFAC/T15 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on
monohydric phenols and inland fisheries (1972)
CECPI/T15 Critères de qualité des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce
européens: rapport sur les phénols monohydratés et les pêches
intérieures (1973)
EIFAC/T16 Symposium on the nature and extent of water pollution problems
affecting inland fisheries in Europe. Synthesis of national reports
(1972)
CECPI/T16 Symposium sur la nature et l'étendue des problèmes de pollution
des eaux affectant les pêches continentales en Europe. Synthèse
des rapports nationaux (1972)
EIFAC/T17 Symposium on the major communicable fish diseases in Europe
and their control. Report (1972)
CECPI/T17 Rapport du symposium sur les principles maladies transmissibles
des poissons en Europe et la lutte contre celles-ci (1973)
EIFAC/T17 Suppl. 1 The major communicable fish diseases of Europe and North
America. A review of national and international measures for their
control, by P.E. Thompson, W.A. Dill and G. Moore (1973)
CECPI/T17 Suppl. 1 Les principales maladies transmissibles des poissons en Europe
et en Amérique du Nord: examen de mesures nationales et
internationales sur la lutte contre ces maladies, par P.E.
Thompson, W.A. Dill et G. Moore (1973)
EIFAC/T17 Suppl. 2 Symposium on the major communicable fish diseases in Europe
and their control. Panel reviews and relevant papers (1973)
CECPI/T17 Suppl. 2 Symposium sur les principales maladies transmissibles des
poissions en Europe et la lutte contre celles-ci: exposés des
groupes et communications apparentées (1973)
EIFAC/T18 The role of administrative action as a tool in water pollution
control, by G.K. Moore (1973)
CECPI/T18 Le rôle instrumental de l'administration dans la lutte contre la
pollution des eaux, par G.K. Moore (1973)
EIFAC/T19 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on
dissolved oxygen and inland fisheries (1973)
CECPI/T19 Critères de qualité des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce
européens. Rapport sur l'oxygène dissous et les pêches
intérieures (1973)
EIFAC/T20 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on
chlorine and freshwater fish (1973)
CECPI/T20 Critères de qualité des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce
européens. Rapport sur le chlore et les poissons d'eau douce
(1973)
EIFAC/T21 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on zinc
and freshwater fish (1973)
CECPI/T21 Critères de qualité des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce
européens. Rapport sur le zinc et les poissons d'eau douce
(1973)
EIFAC/T22 Ecological diagnosis in salmonid streams - Method and Example,
by R. Cuinat et al. (1973)
CECPI/T22 Diagnose écologique en cours d'eau à salmonidés. Méthode et
example, par R. Cuinat et al. (1975)
EIFAC/T23 Report on the Symposium on methodology for the survey,
monitoring and appraisal of fishery resources in lakes and large
rivers (1974)
Rapport du Symposium sur les méthodes de prospection, de
surveillance et d'évaluation des ressources ichtyologiques dans
les lacs et grands cours d'eau (1974)
EIFAC/T23 Suppl.1 Symposium on the methodology for the survey, monitoring and
appraisal of fishery resources in lakes and large rivers - Panel
reviews and relevant papers. Vol. I and II (1975)
CECPI/T23 Suppl. 1 Symposium sur les méthodes de prospection, de surveillance et
d'évaluation des ressources ichtyologiques dans les lacs et
grands cours d'eau - Exposés des groupes et communications
apparentées, Vol. I et II (1975)
EIFAC/T24 Report on fish toxicity testing procedures (1975)
CECPI/T24 Rapport sur les tests de toxicité sur les poissons (1976)
EIFAC/T24 (Rev. 1) Revised report on fish toxicity testing procedures (1982)
CECPI/T24 (Rév.1) Rapport révisé sur les tests de toxicité sur les poissons (1983)
EIFAC/T25 Workshop on controlled reproduction of cultivated fishes - Report
and relevant papers (1975)
CECPI/T25 Réunion sur la production contrôlée des poissons d'élevage.
Rapport et communications apparentées (1975)
EIFAC/T26 Economic evaluation of sport and commercial fisheries. Report
and technical papers (1977)
CECPI/T26 Deuxième consultation européenne sur l'évaluation économique
de la pêche sportive et commerciale. Rapport et communications
apparentées (1977)
EIFAC/T27 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on
copper and freshwater fish (1976)
CECPI/T27 Critères de qualité des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce
européens. Rapport sur le cuivre et les poissons d'eau douce
(1976)
EIFAC/T28 Joint ICES/EIFAC Symposium on eel research and management
(Anguilla spp.). Report (1976)
CECPI/T28 Symposium conjoint CIEM/CECPI sur la recherche et
l'exploitation des anguilles (Anguilla spp.). Rapport (1976)
EIFAC/T29 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on the
effect of zinc and copper pollution on the salmonid fisheries in a
river and lake system in central Norway (1977)
CECPI/T29 Critères de qualité des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce
européens. Rapport sur l'effet de la pollution par le zinc et le
cuivre sur les pêcheries de salmonidés dans un système fluvio-
lacustre du centre de la Norvège (1977)
EIFAC/T30 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on
cadmium and freshwater fish (1977)
CECPI/T30 Critères de qualité des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce
européens. Rapport sur le cadmium et les poissons d'eau douce
(1977)
EIFAC/T31 Report of the Symposium on Finfish Nutrition and Feed
Technology (1978)
CECPI/T31 Rapport du symposium sur la nutrition des poissons et la
technologie de leurs aliments artificiels (1978)
EIFAC/T32 The value and limitations of various approaches to the monitoring
of water quality for freshwater fish (1978)
CECPI/T32 La valeur et les limites des diverses méthodes de surveillance
biologique de la qualité des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce
(1978)
EIFAC/T33 Guidelines for sampling fish in freshwater (1980)
EIFAC/T34 EIFAC fishing gear intercalibration experiments (1979)
CECPI/T34 Essais CECPI d'interétalonnage des engins de pêche (1979)
EIFAC/T35 Report of the EIFAC workshop on mass rearing of fry and
fingerlings of freshwater fishes (1979)
CECPI/T35 Rapport du stage CECPI sur la production massive du frai et des
alevins en eau douce (1979)
EIFAC/T35 Suppl. 1 EIFAC Workshop on mass rearing of fry and fingerlings of
freshwater fishes Papers (1979)
EIFAC/T36 Report of the EIFAC/IUNS and ICES working group on
standardization of methodology in fish nutrition research (1980)
CECPI/T36 Rapport du groupe de travail de la CECPI, de I'UISN et du CIEM
sur la normalisation de la méthodologie dans la recherche sur la
nutrition des poissons (1980)
EIFAC/T37 Report on combined effects on freshwater fish and other aquatic
life of mixtures of toxicants in water (1980)
CECPI/T37 Rapport sur les effets produits par la combinaison de toxiques
dans l'eau sur les poissons d'eau douce et sur d'autres formes de
vie aquatique (1981)
EIFAC/T38 Report of the technical consultation on the allocation of fishery
resources (1981)
CECPI/T38 Rapport de la Consultation technique sur la répartition des
ressources ichtyologiques (1981)
EIFAC/T39 Utilization of heated effluents and recirculation systems for
intensive aquaculture (1981)
CECPI/T39 Rapport du Symposium sur les récents développements de
l'utilisation des eaux réchauffées et des eaux recyclées en
aquaculture intensive (1981)
EIFAC/T40 Problems of fish culture economics with special reference to carp
culture in eastern Europe, by M. Leopold (1981)
EIFAC/T41 Report of the EIFAC Workshop on fish-farm effluents, by John S.
Alabaster (1982)
EIFAC/T42 Report of the Symposium on stock enhancement in the
management of freshwater fisheries (1982)
CECPI/T42 Rapport du Symposium sur l'amélioration des stocks dans le
cadre de l'aménagement des pêcheries d'eau douce (1983)
EIFAC/T42 (Suppl.) Documents presented at the Symposium on stock enhancement
in the management of freshwater fisheries, Volume 1: Stocking,
Volume 2: Introductions and Transplantations (1984)
CECPI/T42 (Suppl.) Documents presentés au Symposium sur l'amélioration des
stocks dans de cadre de l'aménagement des pêcheries d'eau
douce, Volume 1: Repeuplement, Volume 2: Introductions et
transplantations (1984)
EIFAC/T43 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on
chromium and freshwater fish (1983)
CECPI/T43 Critères de qualité des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce
 européens. Rapport sur le chrome et les poissons d'eau douce
(1983)
EIFAC/T44 Report of the EIFAC working party on stock enhancement (1984)
CECPI/T44 Rapport du groupe de travail de la CECPI sur l'amélioration des
stocks (1984)
EIFAC/T45 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on
nickel and freshwater fish (1984)
CECPI/T45 Critères de qualité des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce
européens. Rapport sur le nickel et les poissons d'eau douce
(1984)
EIFAC/T46 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on
nitrite and freshwater fish (1984)
CECPI/T46 Critères de qualité des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce
européens. Rapport sur les nitrites et les poissons d'eau douce
(1984)
EIFAC/T47 Report of the Symposium on habitat modification and freshwater
fisheries (1984)
CECPI/T47 Rapport du Symposium sur les modifications de l'habitat et leurs
effets sur la pêche continentale (1984)
EIFAC/T48 The transport of live fish - A review, by R. Berka (1986)
CECPI/T48 Le transport des poissons vivants - Etude de synthèse, par R.
Berka (1986)
 EUROPEAN INLAND FISHERIES ADVISORY COMMISSION (EIFAC)
EIFAC documents are issued in three series:
EIFAC Reports
Report of each Session in English and French
EIFAC Technical Papers
Selected scientific and technical papers, including some of those contributed as working
documents to Sessions of the Commission or its Sub-Commissions. Published in
English and French, or one of these languages.
EIFAC Occasional Papers
Papers of general interest to the Commission. Published in the language submitted,
either in English or French; sometimes in both languages.
Copies of these documents, when still available, can be obtained from:
Secretariat
European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission
Fisheries Department
FAO
Via delle Terme di Caracalla
00100 Rome, Italy

COMMISSION EUROPÉENNE CONSULTATIVE POUR LES PÊCHES

DANS LES EAUX INTÉRIEURES (CECPI)
Les documents de la CECPI sont publiés dans trois séries:
Rapports de la CECPI
Rapport de chaque session, publié en français et en anglais.
Documents techniques de la CECPI
Documents scientifiques et techniques sélectionnés comprenant certains documents de
travail présentés aux sessions de la Commission ou de ses sous-Commissions. Publiés
en français et en anglais, ou dans l'une de ces deux langues.
Documents occasionnels de la CECPI
Documents d'intérèt général pour la Commission. Publiés dans la langue d'origine, soit
en français, soit en anglais, parfois dans ces deux langues.
Des exemplaires de ces documents peuvent être obtenus, lorsqu'ils sont encore
disponibles, en s'adressant au:
Secrétariat
Commission européenne consultative pour les pêches dans les eaux intérieures
FAO
Via delle Terme di Caracalla
00100 Rome, Italie