A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration

Roadmap for Mauritius

Final report - Consultancy Study on Electric Cars
January, 2020
 An Electric Car Roadmap for the Rainbow Nation

Commissioned by:
The Ministry of Energy and Public Utilities, Mauritius

By:

EVConsult
EVConsult is a knowledge, consultancy and project management agency for electric mobility, and
facilitates governments and companies in the transition to zero emission mobility.

In cooperation with:

Ecosis Ltd
Ecosis Ltd is a firm of sustainability consultants and social impact strategists. Ecosis works as an enabler
of the catalytic force of organisations for the development and delivery of projects and solutions that are
good for the economy, environment and society.

Authors:

Roland Steinmetz and Sjoerd Moorman (EVConsult)

Tony Lee Luen Len and Yudhish Rohee (Ecosis Ltd)

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 2
Executive summary
Methodology of the study
The Ministry of Energy and Public Works (MEPU) has commissioned a study for a 10 year electric car
Integration Roadmap.

The methodology to develop this study has been the following:

1) Analysis of global EV developments, the barriers for EV adoption and international best practices of
EV policies
2) Determination from global experience of the 6 main pillars for EV adoption to remove the barriers for
EV uptake
3) Assessment of the Mauritius context of current EV policies, electricity grid and production, the
renewable energy roadmap, passenger vehicle use and pricing,
4) Development of three EV uptake scenario’s for 2030 and calculation of the impact on CO2 emission,
impact on electricity grid, impact on the trade balance and impact on Total Cost of Ownership
5) Based on the international best practices and Mauritius context, the selection of one scenario that
balances short term negative impacts and long term benefits. For the selected scenario, a 10 year main
strategies and 5 year detailed policy measures are described, which is also based on international best
practices, trends and the Mauritius context.

Global EV development
Globally the uptake of Electric Vehicles (EV) is being supported because it offers an attractive opportunity
for reduction of CO2, improvement of local air quality, reduction of dependency on (imported) fossil fuels
and creation of new economic opportunity. In 2018, the global electric fleet exceeded 5,1 million vehicles
and the number of electric cars sold almost doubled. The battery prices have dropped significantly and
almost all car manufacturers have a growing number of EV models lined up. The higher energy efficiency
and lower running cost compared to internal combustion engines indicate that EVs will take a growing
position in global car sales.

The charging of an EV is generally done where the car is parked, so chargers are installed at home and at
workplace (3-7 kW), with occasional top-ups at fast charging stations (>50 kW). The electric vehicle battery
has a minimum life span of 8 years according to most vehicle warranties. After use in the vehicle, the
battery can be used for another long period as stationary storage to support the energy transition. Another
option is to revitalise or recycle the battery.

The current barriers for EV adoption are purchase price, number of available models, driving range and
availability of charging stations. There is variance in the local drivers to support EV and there is great
variance in the local situation which makes it essential to customise EV programs per country. The lessons
which have been learned in other countries over the last years can be utilised to design a smart package
for Mauritius.

Apart from EV transition, green transportation involves the reduction of individual car ownership and
promotion of public transport. This public transport also offers effective opportunity to transition towards
electrification, although this does not form part of the scope of this study.

Six Pillars for EV Adoption

Lessons learnt from around the world have been analysed and ordered in 6 pillars for EV adoption.
Charging Infrastructure, available both at home and at work, and fast charging at for example retail
locations is critically important. Another is access to a range of suitable electric vehicles for the right
customer segment fitting to the customer requirements. Policy and regulatory incentives both for
individuals and companies to alleviate the initial barriers like cost, charging infrastructure and range.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 3
Raising EV awareness about charging, range, battery life, available models and total cost of ownership are
required for customer adoption. The accessibility and potential for knowledge sharing among a wide
variety of stakeholders. EV adoption creates new economic opportunities, like specialised EV lease and E-
taxi companies and fabrication & installation of charging infrastructure. Another economic opportunity is
the installation of solar EV charging which on a country scale can create more energy self-sufficiency.

Mauritius context and findings

Because of the size of the island, Mauritius fits well with the introduction of battery electric vehicles. The
combination in the long run with production of renewable energy through solar charging during the day is
theoretically the ideal situation. The current electricity mix on Mauritius consists of 20.9% of renewables,
and is characterised by a relatively high emission factor of 0.897 kg CO2/kWh (yearly average)i. In line with
the government ambition to increase the share of renewables in the electricity mix, the emissions per kWh
are expected to drop towards 0.800 kg CO2/kWh in 2030 (based on a 40% RES scenario of the Renewable
Energy Roadmap 2030).

The 2020 well-to-wheel CO2 emission per year of an average conventional vehicle is 3.8 ton and for a
battery electric vehicle charged on grid electricity is 5% higher at 4.0 ton. For 2030 the CO2 emissions are
reduced to 3.6 ton for a battery electric vehicle due to higher share of renewables. This emission can be
reduced to zero when purely and only charging on solar power. The assumptions for this calculation can
be found on page 35.

The electricity grid (2019) has a high seasonal peak of 467 MW during summer. The reliability and
affordability of the electricity grid is important and needs to be carefully considered when introducing EVs,
like any other additional load.

The Ministry of Energy and Public Utilities (MEPU) is responsible for policies and strategies in the energy
sectors (among others) and for the establishment of a responsive legal framework to govern the
development of the sector. MEPU is also commissioning this study. The Central Electricity Board (CEB) is
the sole main regulatory authority for electricity in Mauritius. Legislation to regulate the electricity sector
was introduced in 2008 with the proclamation of the Utility Regulatory Authority (URA) Act. This is
consolidated through the setting up of the URA.

The total number of vehicles on Mauritius is 562,202 of which 312,000 are cars which are subject of this
study (registered cars, dual purpose vehicle double cab pick-up and vans). The new car sales per year is
about 11,000 new cars and 9,000 reconditioned cars. At the moment there are a few hundred EVs and 2
public fast charging stations in the country. Additionally, several fast chargers are placed on private lots of
for example motor car dealers.

The total cost of ownership (TCO) in 2019 with current incentives for a standard vehicle with 25,000
km/year over 5 years is 1.5 million MUR for an average conventional car, 1.42 million MUR for an EV
charged with electricity from CEB grid, 1.47 million MUR for an EV with energy from self-generated solar
power (partly directly used for charging when the vehicle is present, otherwise offsetting the energy
needed for charging), and 1.48 million MUR for a Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles (PHEV) charged on the CEB grid.
This means that with the current financial incentives (0% excise duty, reduced registration duty and
reduced road tax) an EV is economically more attractive to a consumer than a conventional vehicle over 5
years use. The assumptions for this calculation can be found on page 39.

Looking ahead towards 2030, the comparison on TCO will be mainly affected by a strong drop in Battery
Electric Vehicles (BEV) purchase price (as a result of falling battery prices). It is estimated that the reduction
of the purchase price will be in the order of 30-40% from 2020 to 2030. It has been found that the tipping
point for economic feasibility of a BEV versus an Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) vehicle, for an average
passenger car, without incentives, may be the year 2030. Depending for the most part on the purchase
price developments of BEVs. This is an important consideration in review of the current EV policy and

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 4
incentive structure in the long term. It should be noted that for a BEV with a high mileage this tipping point
will be reached sooner, due to a larger difference in TCO because of lower OPEX costs.

Scenarios for EV Uptake

Three scenarios have been designed for Mauritius, based on internationally accepted IEA scenarios. The
scenarios are meant to be indicative for EV growth, considering the very different context of the countries
and different local effect of policy measures. The indicative scenarios are used to calculate the effects on
environment, the electricity grid, government spending and trade balance. Table 1 shows per scenario the
share (%) of new car sales being an EV and the total number of EVs in 2020, 2025 and 2030.

Table 1 Scenarios for EV uptake

2020 2025 2030
Scenario % new car #EV % new car #EV % new car #EV
sales sales sales
Low EV Growth 1% 700 5% 4,400 10% 15,600
(limited growth scenario)
Medium EV Growth 3% 1,200 9% 8,400 15% 26,000
(IEA policy scenario)
High EV growth 5% 1,800 18% 13,900 30% 47,700
(EV30@30 scenario)

Enabling environment, 10 year strategies and 5 year policy plan with measures

EV adoption scenario will affect the grid, CO2 emissions and trade balance. This has been calculated based
on analysis of governmental, financial, grid and greenhouse gas factors. An ambitious yet realistic action
plan for EV adoption following the MEDIUM scenario is expected best fitted to balance short term negative
impacts and long term benefits. This MEDIUM scenario encompasses measures to:
• Manage the impact of EV on the grid in a phased approach, allowing time to prepare the
electricity sector, and to be prepared for EV growth by ensuring for example safety;
• Facilitate the EV ecosystem through minimal effort on short term, to prevent large effort on
long term, by for example setting standards;
• Stimulate EV uptake to make a start to allow for long-term benefits of CO2 emissions when the
electricity grid mix is cleaner; because of lower EV prices on longer term self-sufficiency of EV
sales can be attained.

For the 10-year period six main strategies for EV integration in Mauritius are proposed. Using these main
strategies as a structure, a 5-year policy plan is introduced, including concrete policy measures, timing,
responsible organisation and impact on government budget. The following 6 main strategies are
recommended:
1. Facilitate a nationwide open fast charging network to allow freedom to drive anywhere on the
island
2. Focus on BEV and implement a National Battery plan to ensure long term sustainability through
second life applications and battery recycling.
3. Start small in a phased approach while monitoring growth to be able to adopt policies in a quickly
evolving market.
4. Build the EV Community for raising awareness & sharing of expertise among stakeholders within
triple helix.
5. Phased implementation of smart charging & vehicle-to-grid strategy taking best practices from
international leaders in private and public domain to ensure reliable and affordable grid.
6. Clean power for EVs stimulation program to support energy self-sufficiency, reduction of
emissions and economic opportunities.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 5
Strategy 1:
Facilitate a nationwide open fast charging network to allow freedom to drive anywhere on the
island.
The policy measures to achieve the nationwide open fast charging network are setting a national
charging standard, giving a financial incentive to deploy an initial fast charging network and opening the
charging market by allowing “charging services” to be non-regulated (only regarding the delivery of
energy, not the installation and connection of charging stations). Part of this cost could be covered in
cooperation with development partners. In the year 2025 the number of home chargers is 8,400, assuming
all EV drivers have a charger available at home. This can also provide most of the charging requirement.
At work locations the number of chargers is 2,100. There would need to be 30 fast chargers on the island
in 2025.

Strategy 2:
Focus on BEV and implement a National Battery plan to ensure long term sustainability through
second life applications and battery recycling.
Due to small geographical area and largest emission reduction potential, the focus should be on battery
electric vehicles (BEV) instead of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (BHEV). To ensure specific monitoring
of EV growth per category and objective evaluation of policies per category, the NTA registration of PHEV
from BEV should be separated. To ensure safety and quality of vehicles on the road, the checklist for
import, registration and fitness test for new and reconditioned EVs should be formalised. This also
facilitates fair competition, and availability of affordable reconditioned EVs.

As a first step towards a national battery plan, EV car importers should be required to guarantee battery
for minimum of 8 years or 150,000km for new vehicles, and take back the battery for 2nd life use or
recycling. Subsequently, to ensure long-term battery sustainability, a national battery plan to address EV
battery pack fates, support a second life battery market, and ensure battery recycling should be developed.
Furthermore, it is recommended to i) request the implementation of a battery tracking system for
traceability of batteries, and ii) reduce logistics complexity and encourage the battery aftermarket through
re-classification of batteries viable for second life applications as raw materials, and repurposed batteries
as new products.

Strategy 3:
Start small in a phased approach while monitoring growth to be able to adopt policies in a quickly
evolving market.
The growth of EV needs to start small and scale in a phased approach by target group of buyers, like
taxis (high mileage and positive TCO), corporate fleet (opportunity for climate mitigation / corporate social
responsibility) or individuals. This phased approach allows for continued learning and adjustment of policy
measures when carefully monitored. The EV growth can be achieved by keeping the current financial
incentives in place until 2022, and re-evaluated for the period 2023-2025. This can be supplemented with
privileges for electric taxis like designated e-taxi stops in cities and airport, a fast track permitting process
for full electric e-taxis and a green taxi loan to overcome upfront investment barrier.

Strategy 4:
Build the EV Community for raising awareness & sharing of expertise among stakeholders within
triple helix.
Raising awareness and building the EV community will positively impact the trust there is in the EV future,
since there is a lot of unknowns about this new technology on Mauritius. To raise awareness and
knowledge of EVs, a communications strategy for early adopters; e.g. taxis, corporate fleets and other first
movers should be set up. Further support should be provided to specialised E-taxi and EV lease companies
through a communication campaign and small business program. This can be organised by the private
sector together with the government.

A platform for training should be initiated on EVs maintenance and emergency services (such as fire
fighters, police and ambulance). In the case of maintenance training, this should include the ‘informal’

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 6
sector. This can be organised in cooperation with local dealers and international car OEMs. This will ensure
reliable maintenance for electric vehicles and road safety for electric vehicles.

Strategy 5:
Phased implementation of smart charging & vehicle-to-grid strategy taking best practices from
international leaders in private and public domain to ensure reliable and affordable grid.
EV charging can lead to additional peak load on the grid, based on a MEDIUM scenario, of 4.2% additional
peak load in 2030 without smart charging and 2.1% with smart charging. Stability of the grid is the first
priority of the Ministry, a gradual and cost-effective grid integration of EVs is thus a key strategic focus
area. The roughly estimated cost for grid reinforcement in 2025 is 101 million MUR. Smart charging has
the capacity to halve the impact on the grid and additional investments to 51 million MUR in 2025.
International collaboration will be key to enable knowledge sharing, and ensure that best practices from
international leaders in private and public domain are used to develop this strategy for Mauritius.

In the long term, there is potential to create a completely new energy ecosystem, linking the mobility and
energy transition, through smart charging and Vehicle-to-Grid (an EV can deliver energy from the battery
to the grid). Since this is an innovative approach, and requires a new smart energy system, this will need
to happen in phases over a longer period of time.

A first measure is to start with regulation to make smart chargers the minimum performance standard for
all public and private chargers (except fast chargers). Additionally, a Time of Use (ToU) tariff for EV
charging should be implemented to reduce EV demand during peak hours. An in-depth grid impact study
should be performed to attain detailed insight in the impact of future large scale EV charging on the grid.
This study and the trial learnings on Mauritius, should be used as a basis to develop a long-term grid
integration strategy.

Strategy 6:
Clean power for EVs stimulation program to support energy self-sufficiency, reduction of emissions
and economic opportunities.
An EV charging on the current (2019) grid mix has a yearly CO2-emission of 4.0 ton compared to 3.8 ton
for a conventional vehicle, due to the low amount of renewables. In 2025 this will be improved to 3.8 ton
for an EV, which is the tipping point where the well-to-wheel emissions of the BEV become lower than for
an ICE car. From this point, CO2 emission of an EV will keep improving (i.e. reducing). If charged on solar
power this CO2-reduction is much higher because there is zero well-to-wheel emission. The promotion of
combined use of EV and renewable energy generation should therefore be stimulated.

A fast track for combined solar-PV & EV installation in the SSDG program should be implemented, and
that way offsetting emissions from charging during night-time (CEB can be the registering office for green
certificates).
The positive business case for both EV and solar PV provides economic benefits in the long term.
Furthermore, this will lead to domestic economic opportunities for the private sector to develop solutions
for EVs and opportunities for job creation. New specific EV (start-up) companies will deliver products and
services in EV charging (potentially linked to renewable power), development of apps, e-lease, e-taxi,
maintenance, refurbishment of batteries.

To ensure future-proofing of buildings, the planning policy guidelines for building development should be
modified to include mandatory conduits for electrical installation (i.e. not actual cables and charge points)
for future EV charging at a minimum 25% of parking spaces. This can be implemented at little cost to
project developers.

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Economic impact
The resulting increase in EVs will have an impact on trade balance. On the one hand, import shall increase
because the vehicles and the charging infrastructure will be imported, and EVs have a higher purchase
price than ICE cars (in 2025 +0.16% of total imports Mauritius). On the other hand, avoided fuel
consumption will reduce the demand for fuel imports in the long run and have a positive impact on the
trade balance. In 2030 this represents an additional trade deficit of approx. 400 million MUR; 0.4% of the
current trade deficit

Budget implications
The total package of above mentioned EV incentives for the six strategies adds to a total of 408 million
MUR over 5 years, or 82 million per annum. This represents an approx. 0.11% of total annual government
spending (roughly 18 billion per quarter, or 72 billion annually.

Long term
For the long term (after 2025), due to the many rapid developments in this sector, there is much
uncertainty in calculating the impact of EV and to decide which policy measures to prioritise. Monitoring
and measuring the impact of the policy measures are crucial, since the technology and prices develop
quickly. The policies and policy measures must be reviewed on a regular basis based on the data collected
and the change in the EV ecosystem.

Table 2 summarises the roadmap for Mauritius over the period 2020-2030 in numbers.

Table 2.1 EV roadmap Mauritius in numbers

ROADMAP – IN NUMBERS
2020 2025 2030
Number of EVs
PHEV 850 5,500 15,000
BEV 390 2,900 11,000
TOTAL 1,200 8,400 26,000
Number of chargers
Fast chargers (public and semi-public) 5 30 80
Public chargers 40 270 800
Semi-public chargers 250 1,700 5,000
Private chargers (home & work) 1,400 9,400 29,000
TOTAL 1,700 12,000 35,000

2020 2025 2030

Impact on trade balance
Additional annual imports (reference year 2017) 0.07% 0.16% 0.15%
Impact on grid cost
Estimated costs of grid reinforcements - without smart charging [million
- 101 365
MUR]
* numbers are rounded

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 8
In below table the total yearly impact of EV introduction on CO2 emissions is indicated compared to
BAU, which totals a reduction of 14,244 ton of CO2.

Table 3.2 EV roadmap Mauritius in numbers – impact on CO2 emissions

CO2 emissions 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030
Impact on emissions
compared to BAU [T]
with reduction (-) and
increase (+) +22 +26 -30 -26 -205 +81 -419 -951 -1,648 -2,771 -3,695 -4,628

In below table the impact on trade balance through the introduction of EVs is indicated per year, which
totals at 4,348 million MUR

Table 4.3 EV roadmap Mauritius in numbers – impact on trade balance

Trade balance 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030
Additional annual imports
(ref. year 2017) - million MUR - 190 258 318 370 412 442 486 507 502 467 396

The following are the chief assumptions used throughout the study:

• The study is focused on cars, not other forms of mobility or public transport.
• Forecasted car stock is based on extrapolated growth of 5% (from historic numbers).
• EV uptake scenarios are based on internationally accepted policy scenarios of 10-30% of new car
sales in 2030, from IEA and EV30@30.
• EV emissions are well-to-wheel and based on grid electricity mix (for share of renewables of 25%
in 2020, 35% in 2025, 40% in 2030 from Renewable Energy Roadmap, 2019), and grid emissions
predictions provided by the CEB.
• Economic analysis (incl. TCO) are based on local parameters and international benchmarks,
including for example 44 MUR/L petrol cost, average mileage of 25,000 km/year, 5.8 MUR/kWh
grid electricity cost at home, and 0% import duties for EV.
• A BEV purchase price reduction of 30-40% from 2020 to 2030 is assumed.
• Grid impact of EVs (additional peak load) is based on a simultaneous charging factor of 20% for an
average power of 7 kW per charger.
• Potential of EV charging peak reduction through smart charging of 50% is based on international
research and experience from large scale demonstrators.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 9
Content

Executive summary .................................................................................................................. 3

Abbreviations .........................................................................................................................11
Introduction ...........................................................................................................................12
Chapter 1 – Status and global developments EV market..............................................................13
Chapter 2 – Local context .........................................................................................................20
Chapter 3 – Barriers for EV adoption..........................................................................................25
Chapter 4 – A Vision for a Sustainable Island Nation .................................................................. 29
Chapter 5 – EV uptake scenarios ...............................................................................................31
Chapter 6 – Enabling environment and Action plan.....................................................................51
References ............................................................................................................................ 64

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 10
Abbreviations
BEV Battery Electric Vehicle
CBA Cost Benefit Analysis
CIF Cost, Insurance & Freight
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
CPO Charge Point Operator
DSO Distribution System Operator
EV Electric Vehicle (both BEV and PHEV)
GHG Greenhouse gas
GOM Government of Mauritius
ICE Internal Combustion Engine
kW Kilowatt
kWh Kilowatt-hour
MSDG Medium Scale Distributed Generation
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
PHEV Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
PV Photovoltaic (solar panel)
RES Renewable Energy Source(s)
SCC Social Cost of Carbon
SSDG Small Scale Distributed Generation
T&D Transmission and Distribution
ToU Time-of-Use (i.e. tariff)
V2G Vehicle-to-grid

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 11
Introduction
The transport sector is amongst the main energy-consuming sectors in Mauritius contributing to about
77.8% of the final energy consumed in 2017ii adding up to 26% of the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
in Mauritius in 2016iii. Mauritius is therefore driven to transition towards alternative greener means of
transportation, contributing to the commitments made by the government of Mauritius at the COP21
Summit in Paris in 2015. To that effect, the government of Mauritius decided to support electric vehicles
in 2016 by abolishing excise duties for vehicles below 180 kW engine power. In addition, duty on hybrid
motor cars has been brought down to 30 percentage points or less for cylinder capacity of 2000 or less.

Objective
To stimulate the transition towards electric mobility the Ministry of Energy and Public Utilities (MEPU) is
commissioning a study for a 10 year roadmap which prepares the market conditions for a sustainable
integration of electric cars at a pace that strikes the right balance between cost and benefits. With the
overall objective being making a contextual assessment of the existing policy framework and
infrastructure for electric cars in Mauritius, identifying barriers relating to financial, technological and legal
aspects and to develop a roadmap for the progressive deployment of electric cars in Mauritius.

The roadmap report addresses the current situation of mainly fossil fuel-based electricity production and
planned integration of renewables over time. It also considers the vital importance of a reliable and cost-
effective electricity grid on the island and possible impact of EVs on the electricity grid. The report enables
MEPU and Government of Mauritius to make an informed policy decision about the gradual transition to
electric cars.

Scope and methodology

The scope of this study is limited to Battery electric vehicles (BEV) and Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
(PHEV). Furthermore, the focus of this research is on cars. This entails that scooters, busses for public
transport, contract transport and heavy transport, of which some also offer great opportunity to switch to
EV, are not included in this report.

The developments in and the status of the Global EV market, policy lessons and technology form an
important basis for the possibilities in Mauritius. Furthermore, this is complemented by a thorough review
of the context of the local EV market, charging infrastructure, political and regulatory framework and
electricity network. After which the barriers for a progressive deployment of electric cars will be
determined. Recommendations to address these barriers will be made on the basis of global best practices
and outcomes of local insights. Three scenarios will be indicated for possible future EV adoption. Based on
these, one progressive yet realistic goal for the acceleration of the transition towards electric cars will be
defined. Based on this goal a roadmap with policy measures is created.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 12
Chapter 1 – Status and global developments EV market
Electric driving provides an opportunity for countries to cut in greenhouse gas emissions, create a cleaner
environment, reduce dependency on oil and stimulate local and foreign investment. The adoption of this
relatively new and clean technology is therefore adopted in public policy agendas around the world. Figure
1 shows the most important global developments.

Rapid urbanisation & motorisation globally

Global With road transport accounting for 74% of
challenges transport emissions
Air quality in urban areas is declining

Significant improvements in air quality can be

obtained with EVs
EV as
EV charged with renewable energy is most
solution efficient and environmental friendly compared
to other fuel types

In 2018, the global electric car fleet exceeded 5.1

million, up 2 million from the previous year and almost
EV uptake doubling the number of new electric car sales.
globally Forecast of 140 million electric cars by 2030 globally
PHEV are significant part of EV sales, but share is
expected to decrease signifantly

Batterypack price development

10 00
Bloom be rg ( 20 18 )
9 00

8 00 Multiple forecasts (Bloomberg, ICCT)

CE De lft ( 20 12)

Battery price
70 0

6 00 indicate a drastic drop in battery pack price:

ICCT (2 0 17)
€/kWh

Na ture ( 20 15 )

around or below €100 / kWh in 2025

50 0

development 4 00

30 0
S.Bu be ck e t al.
( 20 16)

EVConsu lt -ca r
2 00

10 0
(Appendix A)
EVConsu lt & TU/e -
Tru ck pa ck
0
Exponentiee l
2 010 2 015 2 02 0 2 02 5 2 030 ( EVConsult & TU /e -
Tru ck pa ck)

Growth in All major vehicle manufacturers have invested

in electric vehicles and will be offering vehicles
models & to the market in the coming years
charging Increasingly higher charging powers are
power possible

Many cities investing in public infrastructure

Charging Fast charging network growing quickly: at
corridors and urban centres / prime locations
technology
With uptake of EVs, business case for charging
becomes positive

Hydrogen cars have long range and quick refuelling.

Though fuel cell car uptake globally has been very low
Hydrogen and is expected remain low, compared to BEVs. This is
mainly due to overall lower system efficiency, the
vehicles relatively high costs of the vehicles, infrastructure,
and production and distribution of (green) hydrogen

Figure 1 Global developments. Sources: iv,v

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 13
The developments listed before lead to:
• Lower operation cost for EV; maintenance down to 30-50% and fuelling 25-45%vi
• Purchase price parity around mid 2020 – depending on sector & geographical
contextvii
• Driveways, not gas stations, are the fuelling stations of the future: you charge
where you park
• Fast charging is evolving rapidly; at rates of >150 kW it comes close to traditional
refuelling
• Smart charging and vehicle-to-grid will make EV an asset for the grid, instead of a
threat
• Even charged on grid mix with 20% RES EV results in lower CO2 incl. production
and disposal (see Figure 6)
• Batteries will last 10-20 years; either in the vehicle; or as second-life battery
storage

As can be seen above, when EV uptake becomes significant, charging will start to make an impact on the
electricity grid. Although facilitating charging infrastructure is important, maintaining a reliable grid and
electricity supply is the main objective according to MEPU. Planning for roll-out of charging infrastructure
and its power supply is therefore important to maintain maximum control. The impact differs on the scale
and type of infrastructure deployed, on which the following section will elaborate. Therefore, the status
with regard to charging infrastructure and the electricity grid is further explained below.

Electric vehicles
There are different types of electric cars:
• Battery electric vehicles (BEV) are fully electric vehicles, meaning that the electric motor is only
powered by electricity from a battery that needs to be charged by plugging it in to a charger.
• Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) have two complementary drive systems: an internal combustion
with a fuel tank and an electric motor with a battery. HEVs cannot be recharged from the
electricity grid and use the internal combustion engine as their main source of energy
(therefore, this type of vehicle is out of scope in the report).
• Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) have, like HEVs, both an internal combustion engine
supported by an electric motor with a battery. This battery can be charged with electricity from
the grid when the vehicle is parked. Since PHEV can use both petrol and electricity, these vehicles
have a higher driving range compared to BEV.
• Fuel-cell electric vehicles (FCEV) use hydrogen as a fuel in combination with fuel-cells to generate
electricity that powers the electric motor. As hydrogen weighs less than batteries, the fuel-cell
technology could be promising for large vehicles like busses and trucks (this type of vehicle is out
of scope in the report).

Charging infrastructure
Charging can be distinguished in multiple ways: per location, current or power, socket type and charging
standards. An overview is provided below.

1. Location type
There are four main types of charging based on the type of location (Figure 2): home charging, office
charging, destination charging (e.g. at a shop or restaurant) and corridor fast charging, often used for
charging during longer distances.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 14
 Figure 2Types of charging

2. Current
A distinction can be made between normal and fast charging, each with its own infrastructure needs and
use of different currents: alternating current [AC] or direct current [DC] (Figure 3). Both methods have been
globally standardised.

Figure 3 Difference between AC and DC chargingviii

3. Power
The time for a full recharge depends on the available capacity determined by factors such as the grid
connection, the type of EV, charging station, socket, and charging cable. The times indicated are for a full
0%-100% charge of a Tesla 60 kWh EVix. In real life a full charge is a rare event.
Direct-current
Alternating-current (AC) charger (DC) fast charger

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 50 120 150 350

1.4 kW 3.7 kW 7.2 kW kW kW kW kW

2400 minutes 1000 minutes 500 minutes 75 30 25 10

minutes

Figure 4 Indication of Charging Time for a 60-kWh Battery at Different Charging Powers

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 15
4. Sockets & standards
Different standardized types of sockets and plug types exist for EV charging. An overview is provided
below in Table 3 and Figure 5.

Table 5 Overview of charging sockets and standards currently employed worldwide

GLOBAL CHARGING Brief description Communication Suitable for
SOCKETS & STANDARDS between vehicle smart grid
and charger applications

AC regular charging:
‘Normal’ household socket Regular power outlet for electronic appliances no no

Industrial plug (IEC 60309) Designed for industrial use and weather proof no no
plug for 230 V.
Japanese and American standard for normal
Type 1 ‘Yazaki’ socket charging. Can charge up to 7.4 kW (32A, 1 yes yes
phase).
European standard for normal and semi-fast
Type 2 ‘Mennekes’ socket charging produced in Germany. Can charge up to yes yes
44 kW (63A, 3phase).
GB/T 20234 Chinese standard for normal charging. yes ?

DC fast charging:
CHAdeMO socket Japanese standard for fast charging (DC). yes yes
German/ American standard for fast charging
CCS socket (AC/DC). Only one connection in the vehicle is yes yes
used for both slow and fast charging.
Standard of Tesla only, although the protocols
Tesla socket yes ?
released as open standards.
The Chinese standard is GB/T 20234 with a CAN
GBT socket/ Type 2
bus communication protocol similar (but yes ?
(AC 43 kW)
different) to CHAdeMO.

Figure 5 Overview of different fast charging standards

CHAdeMO and the Chinese GB/T are cooperating since 2018 to harmonize the 2 standards into a single
next-generation ultra-fast charging standard with backward compatibility to older CHAdeMO and GB/T
carsx. This will make them the standard in Asia and keeping up competition with the more European
oriented CCS Combo.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 16
CO2 emission
The picture below shows a comparison of passenger cars with overall CO2 emission from EV’s when taking
production, use and disposal into account. It shows that an EV charged on European Union average grid
mix (20% RES) has lower Life Cycle emission than Diesel and Petrol, but when charged on 100% coal
electricity the Life Cycle emission is higherxi.

Figure 6 Range of life-cycle CO2 emissions for different vehicle and fuel types xi

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Smart charging and V2G
Smart charging is the intelligently managed (or controlled) charging of EVs. It defines all functionalities in
charging stations that help the vehicle owner to make the most of every charging process. Smart charging
and flexible solutions are getting more important since the growth of EVs worldwide and since the pressure
on the electricity grid increases, so it helps to lower the influence on the power grid while charging for
EVsxii. Three types of smart charging technologies can be distinguished:
1) Static load balancing;
2) Dynamic load balancing; and
3) Bidirectional charging (Vehicle2Grid).

These 3 types are explained in more detail in Appendix A. The objective of smart charging is to reduce the
peak in the grid and make maximum use of renewable electricity generation, preferably at the same
location. Figure 7 shows ideal situation (right side), where orange indicates the shifted peak for charging.

Figure 7 Potential impact of Smart Charging & V2G in smoothing out energy consumption patternsxiii

Jumpsmartmaui (Hawaii) deployed 80 V2H chargers which demonstrated discharge in response to grid signals
over the 6-9pm peak period, thereby helping manage distribution system loads and frequency events (2012-
2016). Bornholm (Denmark) is one of the first places in the world where V2G is part of daily life for social care
workers (total of 50 chargers in Denmark) and frequency services are delivered to the national TSO.

For these Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) implementations the readiness has been evaluated as follows:
• Technology Readiness Level (TRL): 9 out of 9 (product is commercially available)
• Market Readiness Level (MRL): medium to high (regulatory barriers remain)

Recycling & second-life of EV batteries

EVs and the ICE vehicles are both not designed in such a way that easy reuse of parts and recycling of
materials is possiblexiv. There are however signs that recycling batteries and the use of 2nd life batteries are
rising. Recycling electric motors and battery components entails extracting materials like lithium,
aluminium, nickel, copper and cobaltxv. Some sources mention that the lithium battery is fully recyclablexvi.
Currently, efficient recycling is however lacking, which inherently means a loss of materialsxvii. Recycling
pathways are under development and significant savings in terms of energy and resources are
demonstratedxviii,xix,xx. Material production is responsible for approximately half of the greenhouse gas
emissions from battery production, so recycled materials typically have a lower carbon footprintxxi.
Recycling could therefore translate to a 7%-17% reduction in battery production emissions and through
recovery of materials, may limit the supply problems of scarce materials.

Manufacturers estimate that batteries last at least 160.000 km and 8 yearsxxii. In reality, this depends on
driving and charging characteristics. On the high end of the spectrum, Tesla indicates a vehicle and battery

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 18
longevity of 1 million milesxxiii. In practice, no EV has yet driven this far. Though one example with many
miles ‘on the clock’ are the Tesla Taxis at Schiphol airport in Amsterdam. Formally the diesel taxis would
be written off after 3 years and 300,000 km. But the electric taxis are already way past that point. It is
predicted that after 1,000,000 km the Tesla batteries will be at 70-80% of their original capacityxxiv.
Research shows it could even be possible to drive 30 years with your electric car (based on 15,000 km per
year and with an active cooling system). Which is double of an average ICE car. And the vehicle would still
have an 70-80% remaining capacityxxv. Often the comparison is made with phone batteries that can quickly
deteriorate. However, this is not a fair comparison since the use is very different for phones, i.e. deeper
daily cycles, other battery chemistry and no active cooling system).

After using the car, batteries can be used for other applications like power storage at homesxxvi,xxvii. The
figure below gives an overview of current tests where EV batteries are used for new roles.

Figure 8 Possible application for 2nd life EV batteriesxxviii

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 19
Chapter 2 – Local context
This chapter gives an overview of the local context. Therefore, section 2.1 describes the key statistics.
Section 2.2 provides insight in local developments in Mauritius. Section 2.3 describes the energy strategy
and section 2.4 analysis other regulatory developments. Key stakeholders are listed in section 2.5 and
section 2.6 describes the current EV activities and incentives.

2.1 Key statistics Mauritius

Table 4 describes the key statistics for the island of Mauritius.

Table 6 Key statistics Mauritius

Area 2007 km2 xxix

Population 1.3 millionxxx

1,603 thousand tonnes of oil equivalent (ktoe) (2017)xxxi

Total primary energy requirement
grown at an annual rate of 5% over the last decade

79% (2,496 GWh or 215 ktoe) from non-renewable sources,

21% (661 GWh or 57 ktoe) from renewable sourcesxxxii

57% Independent Power Producers, 43% Central Electricity

Electricity generation and power Boardxxxiii

In 2016, 3,042 GWh (262 ktoe) = 3.8% increase

in 2017 3,157 GWh (272 ktoe)xxxiv

In 2019 peak demand was 467 MW (in summer) xxxv

Energy consumption from land transport
37%xxxvi
CO2 emissions from energy consumption, 2568 ktoe
of which from land transport 25.3%xxxvii

562,202 as of March 2019 (of which 312,000 cars)xxxviii

Total number of registered vehicles
compared to 351,406 vehicles in 2008 (up by +63%)

11,000 new cars sold per year;

Car sales
9,000 reconditioned cars importedxxxix

Cost of petrol MUR 44 (€1.09) per litre (€0.87 for diesel)xl

Cost of electricity (for average consumer) MUR 5.8 (€0.14) per kilowatt hourxli

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 20
2.2 Local developments
Road transport is currently the only form of energy for motor vehicles is another area of
inland transport in Mauritius, and is constantly opportunity that needs to be incentivized. This
growing. Congestion has become a major includes facilitating the use of biofuel and
challenge for the country, and increased use also liquefied natural gas in public transport and
contributes to road deterioration. Much of the supporting the use of hybrid and electric
road network was constructed in the pre- vehicles. This can be stimulated by requiring the
independence period and was not designed to next generation of public transport vehicles to
support the current traffic load. Today, 15-20 km use cleaner fuels. A further reduction of duty and
journeys by car typically take over one hour registration fees would act as incentives for
during peak periods. Furthermore, a greater private car users to switch to cleaner fuel and
number of (heavy) vehicles are using the road more efficient vehicles. The report concluded
network as a result of increased economic and that interventions, such as the promotion of the
consumer activities. With the combined effect of use of mass transport systems, the introduction
rising traffic, overloading of vehicles and the of low-carbon vehicles on the market, use of
constant changes in climatic conditions, the road biofuels, congestion charges and land use
structure in some areas is deteriorating fast, planning policies are needed for sustainable
despite routine and periodic maintenancexlii. mobility on the islandxxvi. In recent
developments, a metro line linking the main
Today, 15-20 km journeys by car typically urban areas, is under implementation.
take over one hour during peak periods.
Mauritius like other modern societies are
conscious of the impact of climate change and
The Green Economy Assessment was completed
are looking to increase their own independence
in 2015. It has been recommended in the report
and energy security by considering studies on to
that the efficiency of vehicles should be
uptake of EVs in Mauritius. For a small country
improved whereby it has been mentioned that
like Mauritius, EV technology is well suited as the
the local development and adoption of cleaner
driving ranges are shortxliii.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 21
2.3 Energy strategy

The total primary energy requirement of In his June 2018 budget speech, the Prime
Mauritius is depicted in Figure 9xliv. Renewables Minister announced several measures pertaining
consist of locally available sources namely to the power sector, including the
bagasse (sugarcane waste) for 89%, and the rest commissioning of six solar farms, a waste-to-
hydro, wind, landfill gas, photovoltaic and energy project that will generate at least 20 MW
fuelwoodxlv. of electricity, increased battery storage from 4 to
18 MW, a new scheme for small scale distribution
The Government of Mauritius is focused on generation (SSDG), and the installation of 25,000
diversifying the country’s energy supply, smart meters.
improving energy efficiency, addressing
environmental and climate changes and
modernizing the energy infrastructure in order to Energy storage
meet the challenges ahead. Besides security of Although the Long Term Energy Strategy
supply and affordability they are further talks about the 35%, a report by Carnegie
confronted with another challenge namely that Clean Energy noted that without large
of making a rapid shift to a low carbon, efficient quantities of storage, solar photovoltaic
and environmentally benign system of energy (solar PV) and onshore wind technologies are
supply. limited in their ability to achieve the 60%
renewable target mainly due to mismatch of
It aims to do this through wind farms, solar generation to load profile.
energy, biomass and waste-to-energy projects. Modelling indicates adding solar PV and
Historically, the fossil fuel mix for electricity onshore wind to the existing generation mix
generation has been changing over time with a will only achieve a target of approximately
shift from oil to coal. The government have 45% renewable energy. By diversifying the
implemented a grid-code (SSDG and MSDG) and mix of renewable energy technologies, it is
incentive schemes for small power producers. possible to achieve a 60% target as early as
Net metering is in place to incentivise small scale 2030-35. The Power system modernisation
solar generation. using battery systems is key to achieving grid
stability with a high penetration of
The government aimed to target all sectors in renewables in Mauritius.
the country for improving the efficiency of
energy use, including new morcellement (i.e.
parcelled plots), new cities, commercial and
industrial developments, public open space and
transportation systems. The Government of Coal
13%
Mauritius since 2009 has envisaged the adoption 28% Gasoline
5%
of electric vehicles. The Ministry of Renewable Diesel oil

Energy and Public Utilities (2009) mentioned 1,603 ktoe Dual purpose kerosine
18%
many incentives in relation to alternatives to fuel Fuel oil
12%
LPG
transportxlvi. 10%
14% Local renewables

Figure 9 Total primary energy requirement 2018

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 22
2.4 Other Regulatory developments
• Legislation to regulate the electricity sector was introduced in 2008 with the proclamation of the
Utility Regulatory Authority (URA) Act. This is consolidated through the setting up of the URA;
• An Integrated Electricity Plan 2013-2022 has been prepared by the Central Electricity Board (CEB)
to address the energy challenges of Mauritius;
• A grid code is under preparation, and smart grid roadmap has been developed;
• Mauritius Renewable Energy Roadmap to 2030 has been published;
• Renewable Energy Master Plan for 2015-2025 has been developed.

CEB is the sole main regulatory authority for electricity in Mauritius. A “cost of service” study for the
electricity grid, giving insights in future investment and tariff structures is in the making. The government
seeks international competitive bidding for most of its power projects and favours joint ventures between
the local private sector and international firms. The CEB Act was amended in 2016 for CEB to set up, with
the approval of the Minister, of private companies for the implementation of projects relating to renewable
energy, use of its network for projects of national interest and implementation of other projects. In 2017
the CEB Act was amended to allow CEB (Green Energy) Co Ltd, a wholly-owned subsidiary of the CEB, to
participate in power projects without having recourse to public procurement. The aim of CEB (Green
Energy) Co Ltd is to promote the development of renewable energy, particularly solar energy. The
Government of Mauritius (GOM) has also been undertaking legal and institutional reforms in the energy
sector. In 2016, the government created the Mauritius Renewable Energy Agency (MARENA) to oversee
the development of renewable energy in Mauritius. MARENA is in process of becoming fully functional. In
2016, the GOM established a Utility Regulatory Authority (URA) to regulate electricity, water, and
wastewater. The URA is in the process of being set up as of July 2018. The Energy Efficiency Management
Office (EEMO) operates as a department of the Ministry of Energy and Public Utilities. Its objects of the
EEMO are to promote the efficient use of energy; and promote national awareness for the efficient use of
energy as a means to reduce carbon emissions and protect the environment. An Energy Efficiency Act
provides for product labelling and importation of energy efficient equipment, and the Building Control Act
of 2011 aims to improve energy efficiency in building designxlvii .

2.5 Key stakeholders

Table 5 shows the key stakeholders related to EV in Mauritius.
Table 7 Key stakeholders related to EV
GOVERNMENT PRIVATE SECTOR
• MEPU - Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities • Business Mauritius, Club des Entrepreneurs de la
• EEMO - Energy Efficiency Management Office Transition Energétique
• MARENA - Mauritius Renewable Energy Agency - Independent business representation association
• MoESD - Ministry of Social Security, National Solidarity, • MVDA - Motor Vehicles Dealers Association (Car
and Environment and Sustainable Development dealer, car importer, specialised EV dealer)
• URA - Utility Regulatory Authority • CPOs - CEB Green, Total, Leal Energies, IBL, Manser
• MoESD-SWMD - Solid Waste Management Division Saxon (the aforementioned companies either have, or
• MPI - Ministry of Public Infrastructure and Land Transport plan to have, a CPO role)
• Ministry of Finance and Economic Development
• Ministry of Industry, Commerce and Consumer Protection
• NTA - National Transport Authority ACADEMIA / NON-GOVERNMENT
• CEB - Central Electricity Board • UOM – University of Mauritius
(body corporate established under the CEB Act) • COI - Commission de l’Ocean Indien

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2.6 Current EV activities & incentives
Figure 10 gives an overview of the current status on Mauritius regarding electric vehicles.

CHARGING NETWORK
INCENTIVES EV FLEET
2 public fast charging
In 2016, the government Currently there are
stations are installed in
removed the (substantial) roughly 100 EVs and 300
Mauritius (others are
import duties on BEVs PHEVs on the island
installed on private lots)

INCENTIVES VEHICLES
PUBLIC TRANSPORT
Registration duties and Hybrid vehicles represent
First electric busses are
road tax have been 5% of the total
piloted since June 2019
reduced for BEVs conventional car fleet

Figure 10 Current status EV on Mauritius

The 2009-2025 long term energy strategy according to the Ministry of Renewable Energy & Public Utilities
Mauritius also highlights the following on vehicle policy:

Table 8 – Excerpt from 2009-2025 long term energy strategy (2009) xlviii

HIGHLIGHTS ON VEHICLE POLICY

• Introducing the modern, speedy, comfortable, and environmentally-friendly buses

• Promote the use of more efficient and lower emission vehicles and fuels;
• Promote the use of hybrid and electric vehicles through fiscal incentives and concessions and
introduce fiscal policies to encourage transport fuel efficiency technologies;
• Design programmes to help industries identify and act upon energy efficiency investment
opportunities;
• Encourage energy projects on PPP basis.
TRANSPORT INCENTIVES
• Introduce targeted social and environmental support;
• Consider economic incentives for consumers who choose public transport over private transport;
• Consider market incentives to promote the choice of sustainable energy products and services;
• Introduce fiscal incentives for energy suppliers to promote the choice of renewable and carbon-
neutral options over fossil fuels;
• Introduce grants for targeted energy-efficiency or renewable energy initiatives through the MID Fund
(now closed, red.) based on well-established criteria;
• Mobilise donor community to play an active role in facilitating environmental and social
improvements through technical assistance and transfer of know-how.

Detailed information on local regulation, developments and substantiation can be found in Appendix B.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 24
Chapter 3 – Barriers for EV adoption
6 pillars for acceleration of EV adoption In this chapter, an overview is given of the
Based on 10 years of experience with EV identified barriers to EV adoption on Mauritius
acceleration projects worldwide, EVConsult has based on the 6 pillars. This has been done by
found that when a city, a region or a country firstly listing the barriers encountered with EV
wants to accelerate the switch from adoption worldwide based on international
conventional to electric mobility, there are 6 experience. Secondly, these have been reviewed
essential items. These are: against the local context of Mauritius, if and in
1. Charging Infrastructure what way they are applicable. Thirdly, additional
2. Suitable Vehicles specific barriers for the case of Mauritius have
3. Incentives been added. The review of barriers and addition
4. Raising Awareness
of locally specific barriers has been done through
5. Knowledge Sharing
6. Economic Opportunities 20 stakeholder interviews during the first field
trip visit.

Figure 11 Six pillars for acceleration of EV adoption

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 25
 1. CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE

Charging infrastructure is critically important: without effective charging opportunities EVs are not usable.

• Range anxiety: lack of charging infrastructure hampers EV uptake directly. This is for example true in
the south of Italy. Also on an island where distances are small. Without the development of a solid
charging network throughout the economic core regions of Mauritius, EV-adoption will be limited by
range anxiety, where prospective buyers of EVs are deterred by long-range use cases.
• Lack of vehicles means the business case for charging infrastructure is uncertain, and growth of the
network might be slow. In a relatively new market with yet low adoption rate of electric vehicles, it
can be difficult to establish a profitable business case for the development and operation of charging
infrastructure.
• Lack of interoperability is a key barrier for EV adoption. This can be between the vehicle and the
charger, but also between various mobility service (tank) cards, and interoperability between control
systems regarding EV grid integration.
• Limited renewable energy in grid mix reduces the support for EVs.
• Grid planning challenges:
o Grid affordability issues due to required investments to cope with capacity and congestion
issues at Distribution level and at Transmission level
o Grid reliability issues related to blackouts and brownouts
o Grid stability and power quality issues related to i.a. frequency, voltage and harmonics
LOCAL BARRIERS
• There are no rules, framework and standards for the charging of EV in Mauritius. Though under the
Electricity act of 1939 for the generation, transmission, distribution and generation of electricity: the
CEB is the only entity legally allowed to sell electricity (only entity with a license). This implies that
CEB seems to be the only one that can sell electricity for charging and bill per kWh.
• EV grid integration can be challenging on an isolated and therefore less robust island grid. As
Mauritius continues to expand its renewable energy base with intermittent generation assets, the
integration of EVs on the grid may prove challenging.
• There is not an approved standard for normal and fast charging infrastructure.

2. SUITABLE VEHICLES

Having access to a range suitable electric vehicles for the right customer segment is very important for the
adoption of EVs.

• Upfront cost of vehicle: initial investment of EV is higher than ICE-car for consumer, but also for
smaller firms. Total cost of ownership (TCO) might also be higher, but depends on specific situation.
• The amount of electric car models is quickly increasing, but the spectrum of models still does not
come near to that of conventional ICE vehicles. Limited customer choice hampers EV uptake.
• The range of most EV’s is not comparable to ICE vehicles, leading to uncertainty for the consumer
whether all trips can be accommodated.

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 LOCAL BARRIERS
• Lack of a recycling plan for batteries might reduce social and political support for EV; especially
considering it is an island.
• Import to (relatively small) island makes vehicles more expensive than in larger markets.
• Limited to market for right-hand-drive vehicles. This leads to lower availability.
Also the 2nd hand market for reconditioned electric cars – that might come from Japan or the UK – is
still very small. It is hard to find vehicles (that also meet the 3.5 auction grade).
• The island car fleet is for large part comprised of (compact) SUVs and pick-ups. For the former, several
available electric models have hit the market, although this market is still nascent, but certainly for
the pick-ups the EV models are not yet present.
• The NTA has no trained specialists to check imported or new EVs for fitness test.

3. INCENTIVES

Policy and regulatory incentives both for individuals looking to drive electric vehicles but also companies
looking to invest in electric cars or infrastructure should alleviate the initial barriers like cost and range.

• Lack of financial and non-financial incentives leads to slow adoption of EV.

• Lack of coherency and consistency in EV policy might lead to decreased growth of EV adoption.
Examples include uncertainty around fiscal incentives, zero-emission zones, etc. that may stifle
investment in alternative electric cars.
LOCAL BARRIERS
• Taxi drivers and government officials already benefit from reduced import duties and registration
duty, thus there is limited to zero net incentive for EV.

4. RAISING AWARENESS

Awareness about the health and environmental hazards of fossil fuelled transport and awareness of the
alternatives are needed for swift uptake of electric cars.

• Lack of awareness – in all layers of society (government, business, public) – of the capabilities and
benefits of EV versus ICE vehicles leads to slow adoption of EV. This includes misconceptions on the
performance, range, costs and battery life of EVs.
LOCAL BARRIERS
• Findings from the studyxlix completed by a local consultant in Mauritius in 2017 indicate a lack of
awareness on characteristics of efficient vehicles, their savings, environmental benefits and lack of
knowledge on Government tax incentives.

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 5. KNOWLEDGE DEVELOPMENT & SHARING

The accessibility and potential for knowledge sharing is important as with all innovations.

• Lack of knowledge sharing between stakeholders (government, automotive, energy etc) can delay
the development of EVs, since this is a new technology where little experience with implementation
exists.
• Cooperation between public and private institutes through public-private-partnerships / academia is
often minimal.
LOCAL BARRIERS
• Since Mauritius is an island state, being physically separated from the main-land and thus countries
with more development EV markets and infrastructure, leading to a lack of EV knowledge.
• There is no formal entity like industry or consumer organisation for sharing reliable EV knowledge.

6. ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES

EV adoption creates new economic opportunities, like trade and sales opportunities for new electric cars,
specialised EV lease and E-taxi companies, development of apps, fabrication & installation of charging
infrastructure, maintenance of EVs, and refurbishment of batteries. Furthermore, EV supports long-term
energy self-sufficiency.

• Lack of economic opportunities around EV for the local economy leads to less support for EV
adoption.
LOCAL BARRIERS
• Limited (eligibility of) green loans for innovative and green activities around electric mobility. For
example SUNREF (AFD green loan) provides 5% cash back to customers for e.g. PV purchase, but
does not include any EV benefits.

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Chapter 4 – A Vision for a Sustainable Island Nation

MAURITIUS - GOING GREEN

Mauritius, being a tropical and compact island blessed with fantastic resources, is
a good fit for electric vehicles powered from renewable sources.

In the long term, this contributes to the self-sufficiency and independency of the
island nation, but there are challenges involved with integration of large shares of
renewables and electric vehicles.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 29
Linking the energy and mobility transition:

There are challenges involved with should be linked to, and in phase with
integration of EVs and large shares of the transition towards renewable
intermittent renewables such as wind energy. Thus creating a complete new
and solar (e.g. the ‘Duck Curve’ energy ecosystem.
observed in California).
This implies that Mauritius should
Electric vehicles can provide excellent encourage the long term
flexibility and help integration of implementation of:
renewables, through smart charging • Solar EV charging
and vehicle-to-grid. Therefore, the • Smart charging & V2G
transition towards electric mobility • Smart grid & Flex-markets

>

“EVs will not crash our power grids as some misleadingly report. On the
contrary, ‘batteries on wheels’ can spare costly grid upgrades and allow
more renewables to come online faster.

All that’s needed is to charge them at the right time of the day, for
example during daytime in sunny countries.”
Julia Poliscanova, clean vehicles and e-mobility manager at T&El

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 30
Chapter 5 – EV uptake scenarios
The adoption of EVs on Mauritius will happen against the backdrop of the global developments discussed
in Chapter 1. These major factors and developments set the stage, though national policies will determine
how quickly it will happen on Mauritius. Therefore 3 scenarios have been made for EV adoption on
Mauritius towards 2030, with different levels of ambition (LOW, MEDIUM and HIGH).

5.1 Methods and assumptions

Within the scope of this analysis, the category cars include
the types: registered cars, dual purpose vehicle double cab 312,310
pick-up and vans. As a basis, a general forecast of vehicle Current car stock
growth was made for the development of the car market in
Mauritius. This forecast as depicted in Figure 12 shows a
yearly car stock growth of 5%, based on continued 0.13% EVs
(extrapolated) historic growth. A continued growth has Current share of BEV & PHEV in car stock
been the expectation of the NTA, and other stakeholders.
The yearly replacement of scrapped cars (1%), the total
yearly imports (6%) and are assumed to remain constant.
1300 MT CO2
With this forecast as a basis, the three scenarios were built Current emissions per year from cars
in accordance with the following three blocks; EV uptake,
emission abatements and charger needs.

Car stock

Historical Forecasted
600.000
500.000
400.000
300.000
200.000
100.000
0
09
08

14
15
10

20 8
12

17
13

16
11

27
23

26

29
21
19

24
25
20

28
22

30
1
20
20

20

20
20

20

20

20
20
20
20

20
20

20

20
20
20

20

20

20

20
20

Figure 12 Forecasted growth car stock

EV uptake

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Scenarios are made based on the share (%) of EVs of newly purchased vehicles following the IEA scenarioli.
Scenarios are made for illustrative purposes to assess their impact on EV stock, number of chargers, the
electricity sector and the environmental impact. The Medium and High scenarios are constructed based on
IEA EV scenarios and use 2020, 2025 and 2030 as the numeric targets of EV shares, intermediate years are
interpolated.
• High EV Uptake scenario: This scenario is based on the EV30@30 scenario of IEA which has as target
that 30% of all vehicles sold in 2030 are electric. The EV30@30 Campaign was launched at the 8th Clean
Energy Ministerial meeting in 2017 with the goal of accelerating the deployment of EVs and sets a
collective aspirational goal for all Electric Vehicle Initiative (EVI)lii members of a 30% market share for
electric vehicles in the total of all vehicles (except two-wheelers) by 2030. 16 countries have endorsed
to the moment the campaign including various European countries, Canada, Chile, China, India, Japan,
Mexico, New Zealand and the USA. It is a very ambitious but feasible scenario which has been endorsed
dominantly by high income countries, but some with a lower GDP per capita;
• Medium EV Uptake scenario: This scenario is based on the IEA "EV policy scenario"liii which has as target
for 2030 15% instead of 30% EV share;
• Low EV Uptake scenario: this scenario is assumed to be slightly more than half of the IEA EV policy
scenario (10%) since the share of EV car sales is currently already higher in Mauritius than the global
average.

Table 7 shows the average uptake in the years 2020, 2025 and 2030.

Table 9 Percentage of EV in new car sales in uptake scenarios

Scenario 2020 2025 2030
Low EV Growth (limited growth scenario) 1% 5% 10%
Medium EV Growth (IEA policy scenario) 3% 9% 15%
High EV growth (EV30@30 scenario) 5% 18% 30%

In the scenarios EV uptake has been split into BEV and PHEV uptake. The growth of the PHEV share in
vehicles sales is expected to be higher in the first years due to lower upfront costs as will be discussed in
the with the section detailing the consumer perspective (TCO) on EVs. It is however expected to decline
from 2025 based on the market development in both the PHEV and BEV market as discussed in Chapter 1.

Emission abatements are calculated for each scenario compared the vehicle stock growth with the current
share of PHEVs (0.10%) and BEVs (0.03%) in Mauritius. Emissions from the electricity mix are expected to
decrease towards 2030 due to more renewables in the mix. Emission factors, vehicle efficiencies, average
number of kilometres and shares of ICE fuels can be found in Appendix C.

Charger needs are based on the estimated charging profiles of EVs, adjusted to the context of Mauritius.
Due to the high number of households with private parking space, the share of public charging will be
relatively low. The assumptions for the factor of BEVs/fast charger can be found in Appendix C.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 32
The following graphs shows the EV uptake scenario results.
LOW MEDIUM HIGH

Share in sales
30%
Share of EVs
25%
in car sales
(BEV and PHEV) 20%
15%
10%
5%

%BEV Car & Van sales 0%

26

29

26

29
21

21
24
25

24
25
20

28

20

28
22

22
27

27
23

23
30

30
23

26

29
21

24
25
20

28
22

30
27
%PHEV in Car sales

20

20

20

20
20

20

20

20

20

20
20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20
20

20

20

20

20

20
20
20
20

20

20

20

20
20
EV Uptake 100.000
Growth in number of
80.000
EV
(BEV and PHEV) 60.000

40.000

20.000

27
23

26

29
21

24
25
20

28
22

30

27
23

26

29
21

24
25
20

28
22

30
23

26

29
21

24
25
20

28
22

30
27

BEV PHEV

20
20

20

20
20
20

20

20

20

20
20

20
20

20

20
20

20

20

20

20
20

20

20

20

20

20
20
20

20

20

20

20
20

Chargers needed 100000

Number of chargers 90000
80000
needed to fulfill
70000
demand 60000
50000
40000
Fast chargers (public
30000
and semi-public)
A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 33
Public chargers 20000
10000
Semi-public chargers 0
Private chargers

20

27
28
22
23

30

23

30
21

21
25
26

29

25
26

29
24

24
20

27
28
22

24
20

27
28
22
23

30
21

25
26

29

20
20

20

20

20

20

20

20
20

20

20

20

20
20

20

20

20

20
20

20

20

20
20
20

20

20
20

20

20
20

20
20

20
EV uptake scenarios
As can be seen form the scenarios on the former page, the share of BEV in sales will continue to grow in all
three scenarios. Contrasting, the growth of the PHEV share in vehicles sales is expected to decline from
2025 based on the market development in both the PHEV and BEV market as discussed in Chapter 1.

The total share of EVs (both PHEV and BEV) in car sales is depicted is shown in Figure 13. In the LOW
scenario EV sales will grow to 10% in 2030. The share of EVs in sales will grow towards 15% in the MEDIUM
and 30% in the HIGH scenario.

These EV sales result in an exponentially growing number of EVs in Mauritius and share of EVs in the total
car stock as shown in Figure 14. In the LOW scenario the total share of EVs in car stock will grow to 3% in
2030. The share of EVs will grow towards 5% in the MEDIUM and 8% in the HIGH scenario.

Share of EVs in car sales Total share EVs in car stock

35% 35%
30% 30%
25% 25%
20% 20%
Low
15% 15%
Medium
10% 10%
High
5% 5%
0% 0%
2027
2023

2025
2021

2026

2029
2024
2020

2028
2022

2030

2021

2026

2029
2024
2020

2028
2022
2023

2025

2027

2030
Figure 13 Forecasted growth share of EVs in car sales Figure 14 Total share EVs in car stock Mauritius

Charger needs
The number of EV chargers needed should grow jointly with the EV vehicle stock. The largest share of
chargers will be private chargers situated at home or at the workplace, which will also be financed by
private sector and individuals. Moreover, semi-public charge points are also expected to form a significant
share of the charge points needed. These are chargers on private terrain such as workplace parkings or
hotels, but available to the public (often closed at night). It is expected that all EVs will have a home charger
available, on top of which there are semi-public and public chargers available for fast and destination
charging. Only a small share of the charging need is expected to be supplied by public chargers and fast
chargers, since these are used infrequently from a user perspective, but offer the comfort to EV drivers
that any destination in the island can be reached. Thus preventing one of the important barriers for EV
adoption, namely range anxiety.

Emission abatements
EVs provide significant air quality improvements, as was outlined in Chapter 1. Even though the electricity
for EVs is generated with fossil fuels, it will be concentrated at power plants, leading to improvements in
(urban) air quality. Additionally, depending on the grid mix, EVs provide greenhouse gas (primarily CO2)
emission reductions.

In this analysis and the rest of this study, a BEV is assumed as any other load, and thus its emissions are
represented by the average grid mix.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 34
The current 2019 electricity mix on Mauritius consists of 20.9% of renewables, and is characterised by a
relatively high emission factor of 0.897kg CO2/kWh (yearly average)liv in 2019. In line with the ambition to
increase the share of renewables in the electricity mix, the emissions/kWh are expected to drop towards
0.800 kg CO2/kWh in 2030 (based on calculations from the CEBlv for the 40% RES scenario from the 2019
Renewable Energy Roadmap, where the Build Margin for the year 2018 is assumed constant up to 2030).
The relative emissions of EVs compared to ICE vehicles will therefore decrease over time. These numerical
assumptions are depicted in Table 8.

Table 10 F0recasted share of (non-)renewable electricity and grid emission factor

Year Share of Share of Grid emission
renewable non-renewable factor
electricity electricity [kgCO2/kWh]

2020 25% 75% 0.882

= 9% reduction in grid emissions based on
2025 35% 65% 0.847
the Renewable Energy Roadmap 2030
(i.e. the 40% renewables scenario)
2030 40% 60% 0.800

This is a summarised overview, the rest of the numerical assumptions are included in Appendix C.

The following box shows the average annual greenhouse gas emissions for different cases:
1. ICE
2. BEV grid mix 2020 – 2025 - 2030
3. PHEV grid mix 2020 – 2025 - 2030

These emissions are based on a well-to-wheel analysis, and thus include the emissions of the generation
of the electricity used to charge the EV.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 35
 Annual GHG emissions per car

The annual GHG emissions of a conventional (ICE) average personal car on Mauritius are compared to those
of a full electric car (BEV) and plug-in hybrid (PHEV) car. The first bar represents the average ICE as
baseline, the rest of the bars the average BEV and PHEV using the electricity from the grid in the years
2020, 2025, 2030.

4.200
annual GHG emissions per car [tonne CO2]

4.000

3.800

ICE
3.600
BEV
PHEV

3.400

3.200

3.000
2020 2025 2030

Figure 15 Annual GHG emissions per car

Figure 15 shows that the emissions of a BEV in 2020 are higher than an ICE car. This is due to the high grid
emission factor of current grid mix. It shows that 2025 is a tipping point where the well-to-wheel emissions
of the BEV are lower than for an ICE car – for the case of an average passenger car. When the share of
renewables in the electricity system rises from 2025 to 2030, further emission reductions in the annual
GHG emissions per car will be attained.

These emissions per car have been linked to the EV uptake scenarios, resulting in an overview of emissions
abatements towards 2030 for each of the three scenarios. This is compared to a reference scenario when
there are no EVs introduced on Mauritius and the total car stock continues to grow. It is shown in Figure
16. In the HIGH scenario, this leads to ca. 0.4% emission reduction compared to the reference in which the
share of EVs does not grow. It should be noted that almost half of the EVs in this scenario are PHEVs, only
driving on average 30% of the kilometres on electric power. The potential emission reductions up to 2030
are 8, 14 and 26 megatonne CO2 in the LOW, MEDIUM and HIGH scenario respectively.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 36
 Emissions from total car stock
2400000

2200000
tonne CO2/year

2000000
Reference

1800000 LOW
MEDIUM
1600000
HIGH
1400000

1200000
2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030

Figure 16 Emissions from total car stock

[the lines for the 3 scenarios and reference scenario overlap due to the small differences]

In case all EVs are powered purely by clean renewable electricity (i.e. the grid factor for electricity used to
the charge the vehicles equals 0.0 kg CO2/kWh), the emission abatements are much more significant. This
is depicted in the following figure.

Emissions from total car stock

- alternative scenario -
2400000

2200000
tonne CO2/year

2000000
Reference

1800000 LOW
MEDIUM
1600000
HIGH

1400000

1200000
2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030

Figure 17 Emissions from total car stock - alternative scenario: in case all EVs are charged purely with renewable electricity

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 37
5.2 Consumer perspective
To reflect on the cost and benefits from a consumer perspective, a total cost of ownership (TCO)
calculation is made for Mauritius. TCO is a common method to make a fair comparison between
technological alternatives. It compares the cost of an electric (BEV) and conventional (ICE) average
personal car.

The TCO is calculated for four different cases in Mauritius:

1. ICE
2. BEV – grid power
3. BEV – solar power
4. PHEV – grid power

TCO assumptions
The TCO is calculated under the following assumptions:
• The TCO is based on a new average car in Mauritius (B segment) and new electric alternative;
• This is performed for a 5 year period (based on a 5 year renewal rate for corporate vehicles);
• All calculations are made under current financial incentives;
• The CAPEX is based on the purchasing cost of the vehicle,
plus VAT, excise duties & registration duty,
minus its residual value,
plus the cost of a smart 7 kW ‘wallbox’ home/work charger and installation;
• The OPEX consist of the fuel cost over the lifetime and operational cost (maintenance, insurance);
• Solar PV is assumed as additional cost, i.e. the investment costs of additional solar PV panels (or
an additional system) to cover the EV energy demand (on top of building demand) are included;
• PV system price is based on on-grid solar home systems (without battery) in Africa, without
subsidies.
• The solar system is sized based on average PV power potential for Mauritius to a 3 kWp (11 panels)
system to cover the annual EV energy demand;
• Generated solar power is designed to cover / offset annual electricity demand of the EV, and will
partly be used to directly charge the EV, the rest will be fed into the grid (offsetting)

The numerical assumptions used in the TCO calculation can be found in Table 9, and correspond to the
values used in the EV uptake scenarios.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 38
Table 11 Assumptions
Parameter Amount Unit Source
Kilometres driven per year 25,000 Kilometres Mauritian average
Petrol price 44 MUR/L Mauritian average petrol pricelvi
Petrol consumption 0.056 L/km Average passenger car fuel economy –
18:1 km/L for the case of Mauritius. GFEI (2014)lvii
Automobile.choisir.comlviii
Electricity price 5.8 MUR/kWh Average selling price of electricity to
residential customers for the period
January 2016 to June 2017. CEB (2019)lix
Electricity consumption 0.18 kWh/km Global average B-segment car adjusted
6:1 km/kWh to Mauritius
Residual value ICE (after 5 years) 35 %/purchase price ING (2017)lx
Residual value BEV (after 5 years) 45 %/purchase price ING (2017)lxi
Residual value PHEV (after 5 years) 40 %/purchase price EVConsult estimate
Insurance cost 2 %/price/year ING (2017)lxii
Purchase price B segment ICE car (CIF) 2020 600,000 MUR Mycar.mulxiii & Bloomberg (2017)lxiv
1.2 L petrol engine vehicle, automatic

Purchase price B segment BEV (CIF) 2020 1,400,000 MUR Mycar.mulxv & Bloomberg (2017)lxvi
80 kW electric motor, automatic

Purchase price B segment PHEV (CIF) 2020 900,000 MUR Bloomberg (2017)lxvii
1.2 L petrol engine & hybrid electric motor vehicle, automatic

Resale price reconditioned (5 year old) B 210,000 MUR Based on residual value and purchase
segment ICE car price
Resale price reconditioned (5 year old) B 630,000 MUR Based on residual value and purchase
segment BEV price
Resale price reconditioned (5 year old) B 360,000 MUR Based on residual value and purchase
segment PHEV price
Cost of charger (incl. installation) 56,000 MUR EVConsult estimate
Registration cost ICE 32,500 MUR Ministry of Finance & Economic
Development (2019)lxviii
Registration cost BEV (50% of ICE) 16,250 MUR Ministry of Finance & Economic
Development (2019)lxix
Registration cost PHEV (50% of ICE) 16,250 MUR Ministry of Finance & Economic
Development (2019)lxx
Road taxes ICE 17,500 MUR/lifetime National transport authority (2019)lxxi
Road taxes BEV (50% of ICE) 8,750 MUR/lifetime National transport authority (2019)lxxii
Road taxes PHEV (50% of ICE) 8,750 MUR/lifetime National transport authority (2019)lxxiii
Import Excise duties ICE (1001 - 1600 c.c.) 50% Ministry of Finance & Economic
Development (2019)
Import Excise duties BEV (up to 180 kW) 0% - Ministry of Finance & Economic
Development (2019)
Import Excise duties PHEV (1001 - 1600 c.c.) 25% Ministry of Finance & Economic
Development (2019)
Maintenance costs ICE 1600 MUR/km Global average
Maintenance cost BEV 45% Costs ICE EVConsult estimate
Maintenance costs PHEV 75% Costs ICE EVConsult estimate
PV electricity output 4.2 kWh/kWp Photovoltaic power potential – average
for Mauritius. Global Solar Atlaslxxiv
PV system price 1.6 USD/kWp On-grid solar home system price
(without battery) in Africa – estimate for
2019. IRENAlxxv

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 39
TCO results
The TCO calculated for four different cases is shown in the box below. It shows that the TCO of a BEV
powered by the grid is currently 5% lower than the TCO of the ICE car, even though CAPEX costs are higher
(and upfront cost are more than twice as high). For the case of BEV charged with solar power, the TCO is
2% lower than the TCO of the ICE car, due to the investment in additional solar panels. PHEV has much
lower CAPEX costs, while the operational costs are higher than for a BEV due to higher maintenance and
fuel costs (70% of kilometres are driven on fuel), leading to the smallest savings of the EV cases: 1% lower
TCO than the ICE car.

This means that with the current financial incentives (0% excise duty, reduced registration duty and
reduced road tax) an EV is economically more attractive than a conventional vehicle over 5 years use.
It should be stated that this will vary per specific case.

Total Cost of Ownership (average mileage 25,000 km)

The total cost of ownership compares the cost of an electric (EV) and conventional (ICE) average personal
car on Mauritius over a 5-year period – for a mileage of 25,000 km per year.

The first bar represents an ICE car, second bar a BEV using the electricity from the grid, the third bar using
own generated electricity from solar PV panels, and the fourth bar a PHEV charging from the grid.

Rs.1.800.000

Rs.1.600.000

Rs.1.400.000
Total cost of ownership (MUR)

Rs.1.200.000

Rs.1.000.000

Rs.800.000

Rs.600.000

Rs.400.000

Rs.200.000

Rs.0
ICE BEV (1) BEV (2) PHEV
Total OPEX Rs. 608.500,00 Rs. 367.000,00 Rs. 236.500,00 Rs. 515.150,00
Total CAPEX Rs. 890.500,00 Rs. 1.052.250, Rs. 1.234.250, Rs. 972.250,00
Figure 18 Total Cost of Ownership comparison - average mileage

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 40
TCO for high mileage cars
The TCO in Figure 18 is calculated for an average car, and average mileage. For cars with a high mileage,
the TCO will strongly be in favour of the BEV at 19% lower TCO for grid power and 14% lower for solar
power, compared to the ICE car. The solar panels system for this high mileage case has been scaled to a 6
kWp (21 panels) system to account for the larger annual energy demand for charging. This means that for
example corporate cars with high mileage will often see a lower TCO for BEV, and thus are likely to switch
to BEV, under current financial incentive structure. Contrastingly, PHEV has smaller saving: 6% lower TCO
than the ICE car.

This is shown in the following box, which compares the TCO for an average car, for a high mileage of 50,000
km per year.

Total Cost of Ownership (high mileage 50,000 km)

The total cost of ownership compares the cost of an electric (EV) and conventional (ICE) average personal
car on Mauritius over a 5-year period – for a high mileage of 50,000 km per year.

The first bar represents an ICE car, second bar a BEV using the electricity from the grid, the third bar using
own generated electricity from solar PV panels, and the fourth bar a PHEV charging from the grid.

Rs.2.500.000

Rs.2.000.000
Total cost of ownership (MUR)

Rs.1.500.000

Rs.1.000.000

Rs.500.000

Rs.0
ICE BEV (1) BEV (2) PHEV
Total OPEX Rs. 1.133.500, Rs. 585.250,00 Rs. 324.250,00 Rs. 931.550,00
Total CAPEX Rs. 890.500,00 Rs. 1.052.250, Rs. 1.416.250, Rs. 972.250,00
Figure 19 Total Cost of Ownership comparison - high mileage

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 41
TCO tipping point
Looking ahead towards 2030, the comparison on TCO will be mainly affected by a strong drop in BEV
purchase price (as a result of falling battery prices). It is estimated that the reduction of the purchase price
will be in the order of 30-40% from 2020 to 2030lxxvi. This will reflect in a significantly lower TCO for a BEV.
If the financial incentives (0% excise duty, reduced registration duty and reduced road tax) for BEVs were
to be removed, this has a large effect. This is shown below.

In 2030, for an average passenger car – under current financial incentives – charged on the grid:
• a BEV purchase price reduction of 30% results in a 28% lower TCO for a BEV than an ICE car
• a BEV purchase price reduction of 40% results in a 35% lower TCO for a BEV than an ICE car

In 2030, for an average passenger car – without current financial incentives – charged on the grid:
• a BEV purchase price reduction of 30% results in a 7% higher TCO for a BEV than an ICE car
• a BEV purchase price reduction of 40% results in a 6% lower TCO for a BEV than an ICE car

This indicates that the tipping point for economic feasibility of a BEV versus an ICE vehicle, for an average
passenger car, without incentives, may be the year 2030. Depending for the most part on the purchase
price developments of BEVs. This is an important consideration in review of the current EV policy and
incentive structure in the long term.

It should be noted that for a BEV with a high mileage this tipping point will be reached sooner, due to a
larger difference in TCO because of lower OPEX costs for a BEV compared to an ICE car.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 42
5.3 Economic analysis impact of EV on trade balance and imports
This section provides insights from an economic analysis to assess the impact of the program in terms of
fuel imports, impact on the trade balance, and economic societal benefits of reduced CO2 emissions. The
results of the economic analysis for the three different EV uptake scenarios are presented below.

Impact on trade balance

The resulting increase in EVs will have a mixed impact on imports. On the one hand, import shall increase
because the vehicles and the charging infrastructure will be imported, and EVs have a higher purchase
price than ICE cars. On the other hand, avoided fuel consumption will reduce the demand for fuel imports
in the long run and have a positive impact on the trade balance. To assess the net impact from electric cars
on trade balance over the study period, an incremental analysis was used.

The assumptions are equal to the values used in the EV uptake scenarios and the TCO calculation, and can
be found in Appendix C. This analysis assumes that every EV is imported, including reconditioned cars. The
average price difference between EVs and ICE for new cars is assumed to be approx. twice as much as that
for reconditioned cars, based on the purchase prices and respective residual values after 5 years.
Furthermore, it is assumed that due to higher efficiencies in large scale electricity generation, and lower
bulk price for the fuels, compared to those for ICE cars, the overall fuel import can be reduced by 50%. This
takes into account the losses in the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity. The figure
below illustrates the main results for the three uptake scenarios on the trade balance of Mauritius.

Net impact on trade balance

-
2023

2025
2021

2026

2029
2024
2020

2028
2022

2027

2030

-200.000.000

-400.000.000 Low
MUR

-600.000.000 Medium

-800.000.000 High

-1.000.000.000

-1.200.000.000

Figure 20 Net impact on trade balance for the 3 scenarios

In the MEDIUM EV uptake scenario, the additional annual imports in 2030, approx. 400 million MUR, will
be about 0.15% percent of total imports (270 billion MUR CIF in reference year 2017)lxxvii. For the LOW
uptake scenario, this number will be about 0.09% percent of total imports, while in the HIGH uptake
scenario the additional imports in 2025 will be about 0.31% percent of total imports. Due to these increased
imports, all scenarios will lead to a net import increase, thus a trade deficit increase. In the medium-term,
these additional imports are higher than the values mentioned for 2030. In the long-term, the general trend
in each scenario is that the trade deficit impact ultimately reduces, starting from 2027-2028. These results
illustrate that:
• All scenarios will lead to a net import increase, thus a trade deficit increase;
• The price difference between EVs and ICE vehicles has the biggest impact on the trade balance;
• The avoided fuel import will be approximately offset by the additional import of charging
infrastructure.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 43
In the following graphs, a more detailed picture is provided of the net impact on imports. This is subdivided
into fuel imports, EV imports and charging infrastructure imports.

LOW scenario
3.500.000.000

2.500.000.000

1.500.000.000 Fuel imports

MUR

EV imports
500.000.000 Charging infrastructure imports

-500.000.000 26

29
21

24
25
20

28
22

27
23

30
20

20
20

20

20
20

20

20

20

20
20
-1.500.000.000

MEDIUM scenario
Figure 21 Net impact on imports (low scenario)
3.500.000.000
3.000.000.000
2.500.000.000
HIGH scenario
2.000.000.000
1.500.000.000 Fuel imports
HIGH scenario
MUR

1.000.000.000 EV imports
500.000.000 Charging infrastructure imports
0
-500.000.000
26

29
21

24
25
20

28
22

27
23

30
20

20
20

20

20
20

20

20

20

20
20

-1.000.000.000
-1.500.000.000

Figure 22 Net impact on imports (medium scenario)

HIGH scenario

3.500.000.000
3.000.000.000
2.500.000.000
2.000.000.000
1.500.000.000 Avoided Fuel imports
MUR

1.000.000.000 EV imports
500.000.000 Charging infrastructure imports
0
-500.000.000
24
20

28
22

27
23

26

29
21

25

30
20
20

20

20
20

20

20
20

20
20

20

-1.000.000.000
-1.500.000.000

Figure 23 Net impact on imports (high scenario)

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 44
Economic societal benefits of reduced CO2 emissions
Reducing CO2 emissions brings external benefits to a country, as well as global benefits. Although the
exact value of reduced CO2 emissions (or costs from increased emissions) from a society’s perspective is
widely debated, the social value of avoided CO2 emissions in the different scenarios is estimated using the
value of 0.035 US$/kg for the social cost of carbon (SCC), as derived from the UNEP Green Economy report
for Mauritiuslxxviii.

Economic societal benefits CO2 reduction

18.000.000
16.000.000
14.000.000
12.000.000
10.000.000 Low
MUR

8.000.000 Medium
6.000.000
4.000.000 High
2.000.000
0
-2.000.000
24
20

28
22

27
23

26

29
21

25

30
20
20

20

20
20

20

20
20

20
20

20

Figure 24 Economic societal benefits CO2 reduction

The benefits are initially marginal due to the high emission factor of current electricity generation, and
small number of EVs. When the share of renewables in the electricity system rises from 2025 towards 2030,
the economic benefits of GHG reduction through EVs will be attained. The HIGH scenario shows a steep
rise in economic benefit due to the high number of EVs driving on cleaner electricity. Though put in
perspective, these benefits are about a factor 50 smaller than the impact on import and the trade balance.

Policy implications
All scenarios lead to a net import increase, thus a trade deficit increase. This remains the case in 2030,
regardless of significant EV price reductions. Moreover, the economic societal benefits of CO2 emission
reduction are orders of magnitude smaller, and thus do not weigh up to this deficit. In the long-term, the
trade deficit impact ultimately will reduces, as a result of falling BEV prices.

5.4 Grid impact

The reliability and affordability of the grid is important and the grid integration of electric cars is crucial to
foster sustainable EV implementation. This section gives a brief overview of the estimated additional
electricity demand from EV charging, and the impact on the grid by analysing the impact on the daily grid
load profile. It should be noted this is a high-level estimation, detailed study is required to make an
accurate estimation of grid impact cost.

Building on the scenario outcomes in the previous sections, the additional electricity demand and peak
load on the grid due to EV charging on Mauritius is calculated. This analysis is a high-level approximation,
but provides insight into the order of magnitude of impact on the grid by analysing the impact on the daily
grid load profile. It is performed both for each scenario in 2025 and 2030, for a case without smart charging,
and with smart charging.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 45
Assumptions:

• The basis for this daily load profile is the summer peak demand provided by the CEBlxxix with a
maximum peak load of 467 MW, as was stated in Chapter 2 Local context;
• The maximum peak load on a summer day in 2030 of 606 MW is taken from the RE Roadmaplxxx;
• The average maximum power for home, public and work chargers is assumed to be 7 kW.
(a conservative assumption, since a large share of current EV models can only charge at 3.7 kW);
• Not all EVs will be plugged in and charging at the same time; for a large fleet (>100) of EVs this
simultaneity factor based on actual driving patterns for charging at 7 kW is around 20%lxxxi, lxxxii.
Figure 25 shows the simultaneity factor, and how for a larger fleet of cars in a region or country
the number of EVs that are plugged in and actively charging at the same time decreases. This
factor mainly depends on the charging power capacity and number of cars. For this analysis, a
simultaneity factor of 20% is assumed taking a charging average power of 7 kW per charger, and
a fleet of more than 100 EVs.

Figure 25 Simultaneity factor of a large number of EVs charging depending on charger power capacity.lxxxiii

• EVs do not request maximum charging power all the time; on average the charging power during
the active period of the charging session (without any smart charging) is around 90%;
• Smart charging can smooth the EV demand profile and reduce EV load during peak hours by
approx. 50% (this is a conservative assumed minimum)lxxxiv;
• The impact of fast charging on this EV load profile is very small, since the number of fast chargers
is orders of magnitude smaller than that of private chargers;
• Contrastingly, there will be peak EV demand during certain days which are much higher than the
annual average peak. This is accounted for by taking a variance peak factor of 1.5 lxxxv;
• Total EV electricity demand is based on an annual mileage of 25,000 km (making the average car’s
daily driving distance on Mauritius 68 km) and the energy consumption of an average EV of 0.18
kWh/km. This equals 12 kWh of energy to be charged daily, and implies that charging takes ±3
hours with a 3.7 kW home charger, or ±1.5 hour with a 7 kW home charger.
• EV load without smart charging:
the EV load without smart charging corresponds to, and is based partly on, one of the largest real-
life EV charging trials. This trial is conducted in Great Britain includes almost 700 domestic EV
chargers, and aimed to evaluate the impact of unmanaged charging, and the potential of smart
charging to reduce this impact. The EV weekday plug-in profile shown in Figure 26.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 46
 Figure 26 Charging diversity throughout the day. The number of EVs actively home charging in the Electric Nation
Smart Charging Trial, showing the variance throughout multiple days in the year. This is for a case of unmanaged
charging (i.e. without smart charging).

The EV load without smart charging is based on the division of charging infrastructure per type,
which for Mauritius are estimated by the values depicted in Table 10. It shows the ratio between
the number of EVs and type of charging. For example, in the case of home charging: 100%
indicates that for every EV there is 1 home charger.

Table 12 Ratio between number of EVs and type of charging

Charging type Ratio between number of EVs and type of charging
Home 100%
Work 25%
Destination 10%
Fast 0.3%
* numbers do not add up to 100% since there are in total more chargers than there are EVs as stated previously.

Based on the ratio above, and the aforementioned assumptions, a charging curve (or daily EV load
profile) is constructed that is mainly characterised by an evening peak as a result from home
charging, and a morning peak as a result from work charging. This is without smart charging.
• EV load with smart charging:
smart or controlled charging can be achieved through different forms of control that influence
the time and power of charging. This reduction of peak power can be realised through many
mechanisms, e.g. through demand response via aggregators, direct control by the grid
operator, or customer Time Of Use (ToU) price incentives. These have different
implementation opportunities and challenges, but all mechanisms have proven potential. In
this case a ToU tariff is assumed (e.g. double rate during peak hours) and a smart charging
curve is constructed. This curve is mainly characterised by a significantly reduced evening
peak through smart home charging (majority of demand is pushed to the night), and smart
charging to let daytime charging coincide with the peak in solar PV generation.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 47
Daily load profile with EVs
Figure 27 provides shows the electricity demand and grid peak load due to EV charging on Mauritius for
the 3 scenarios typical summer day (period of 24 hours) in 2030.

LOW scenario in 2030

1000
900
800
700 Grid+EV without smart
600 charging
500
Grid+EV with smart charging
400
300
Grid load
200
100
0
00:30
02:00
03:30
05:00
06:30
08:00
09:30
11:00
12:30
14:00
15:30
17:00
18:30
20:00
21:30
23:00

MEDIUM scenario in 2030 HIGH scenario in 2030

1000 1000
900 900
800 800
700 700
600 600
500 500
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
00:30
02:00
03:30
05:00
06:30
08:00
09:30
11:00
12:30
14:00
15:30
17:00
18:30
20:00
21:30
23:00

00:30
02:00
03:30
05:00
06:30
08:00
09:30
11:00
12:30
14:00
15:30
17:00
18:30
20:00
21:30
23:00
Figure 27 Electricity demand and grid peak load due to EV charging on Mauritius for the 3 scenarios

These load profiles have been used to determine the additional peak demand in Figure 29.

EV load profile
The following figure provides a more detailed insight into the number of EVs charging throughout a typical
day (period of 24 hours) in the MEDIUM scenario in 2030. It shows the number of EVs actively charging,
both for the case without smart charging, and with smart charging. It also shows how the charging curve
through smart charging can be shifted to 1) the off-peak period from 23:00 to 05:00, and 2) midday to
coincide with solar power generation. It shows an evening peak as a result from home charging, a morning
peak as a result from work charging, and a midday peak as a result of smart solar charging.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 48
 30000
total number
25000 of EVs

20000

15000 with smart charging

without smart charging
10000

5000

0
00:30
02:00
03:30
05:00
06:30
08:00
09:30
11:00
12:30
14:00
15:30
17:00
18:30
20:00
21:30
23:00
Figure 28 The amount of EVs (BEV and PHEV) actively charging throughout a typical day (period of 24 hours) in the MEDIUM
scenario in 2030.

Additional peak demand per scenario

The results per scenario are summarised in the following graph which depict the extra peak load due to EV
charging in each case.

10%

8%
% of total peak

6%
with smart charging
4%
without smart charging
2%

0%
2025 2030 2025 2030 2025 2030

LOW MEDIUM HIGH

Figure 29 Additional electricity peak load on the grid due to EV charging in the 3 scenarios

It yields that in for example the MEDIUM scenario, the additional EV peak load when there is no smart
charging implemented is 1.2% in 2025, and 4.2% in 2030, Alternatively, with smart charging the additional
EV peak load is reduced to 0.6% in 2025 and 2.1% in 2030.

Costs of grid integration

The cost of upgrading the grid is a complex calculation with many variances (other loads and sources,
location, season, depreciation etc.) which is not within the scope of this study. Herewith an indicative
calculation is done to give a first indication of the grid investment cost. Information from the grid operator
CEBlxxxvi has indicated that any extra demand during peak hours requires grid reinforcements, leading to
extra cost for electricity transmission and distribution (T&D). The approx. value of the CEB’s T&D assets at
the end of 2011 was around 6.9 billion MURlxxxvii. Indicating that the current value may be estimated over 7
billion MUR, and based on the assumed maximum peak power in 2030, the total value in 2030 will be in the
order of 9 billion MUR by 2030. This represents an approx. investment of 6,700 MUR per capita (ref. year
2019).

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To provide an indication of the increase in cost for electricity supply due to additional peak load from EVs,
a first order approximation is made. It estimates the costs of grid reinforcements for the integration of EVs,
based on a linear relationship to the approx. value of the CEB’s T&D assets in 2030. This does not include
cost of additional generation capacity, and for example the optimisation of underutilised CEB assets. The
outcomes of this analysis are depicted in the Table 11.

Table 13 EV demand gird integration

EV DEMAND GRID LOW MEDIUM HIGH
INTEGRATION
2025 2030 2025 2030 2025 2030
Charging peak [MW] - without
smart charging 4.1 14.7 7.1 25.5 13.1 51.0
% of total peak 2030 - without
smart charging 1% 2.4% 1.2% 4.2% 2% 8%
Estimated costs of grid
reinforcements
(million MUR) - without smart
charging 58 211 101 365 188 732

Charging peak [MW] - with smart

charging 2.0 7.4 3.5 12.7 6.6 25.5
% of total peak 2030 - with smart
charging 0% 1% 0.6% 2.1% 1% 4%
Estimated costs of grid
reinforcements
(million MUR) - with smart
charging 29 106 51 183 94 366

The results show that the costs for integration of EV peak demand may reach 732 million MUR in 2030 in
the HIGH scenario without smart charging. In the MEDIUM scenario, this will be 101 million MUR and 365
million MUR in the years 2025 and 2030, respectively, for the case without smart charging. In the LOW
scenario, this will be 58 million MUR and 211 million MUR in the years 2025 and 2030, respectively.
Additionally, this shows that implementation of smart charging could halve the grid integration costs, and
would lead to a potential 50 million MUR savings in the MEDIUM scenario in 2025, growing to 182 million
MUR in 2030. Putting this number in perspective, this indicates an approx. savings of 141 MUR per capita
(ref. year 2019). It should be noted this is a high-level estimation, detailed study is required to make an
accurate estimation of grid impact cost.

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Chapter 6 – Enabling environment and Action plan
This chapter describes the Enabling Environment and Action Plan for Mauritius for the integration of
electric cars over the 10 year period from 2020 to 2030. It starts with a division in three timeframes, then
describes the EV roadmap (based on the EV scenarios of chapter 5), and provides a high-level overview of
this scenario in numbers. Subsequently, 6 main strategies for EV integration in Mauritius are proposed,
based on global best practices, local context and barriers for EV uptake. Using these main strategies as a
structure, a 5-year policy plan is introduced, including policy measures and impact on government budget.
Lastly, a long-term approach is described.

6.1 Timeframes
Roadmaps are concerned mostly with coordinating social complexity, and are meant to provide concrete
recommendations and starting points for policy makers. The scenarios are theorised possibilities meant to
explore and perceive the dynamic complexity and uncertainty of the futurelxxxviii.

For this study, we divide this 10 year period into three development timeframes:

I. Short term (0-2 year)

II. Medium term (3-5 years)
III. Long term (5-10 years)

For the first 5 years (short and medium term), detailed policy recommendations and impact on government
budget are provided in the form of a 5-year policy plan. For the next 5 years (long term), a long-term
adaptive policy approach is suggested based on monitoring to cope with the many fast developments and
uncertainties in this sector.

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6.2 EV Enabling environment and Action plan
EV adoption will affect the grid, CO2 emissions and trade balance. This has been concluded based on
analysis of governmental, financial, grid and greenhouse gas factors. The following insights from Chapter
5 substantiate this:

Consumer:
The TCO for EVs is fairly attractive on Mauritius. The TCO calculation for the consumer has shown that for
current incentives and price levels, the TCO for an average BEV personal car charged with grid power is 5%
lower than that of an average ICE personal car over a 5 year period. This includes the cost of the charger
and installation. This means that with the current financial incentives (0% excise duty, reduced registration
duty and reduced road tax) an EV is economically more attractive than a conventional vehicle over 5 years
use. For high mileage cars it is found to be 19% lower. Moreover, the tipping point for economic feasibility
of a BEV versus an ICE vehicle, for an average passenger car – without incentives – may be the year 2030.

Grid impact:
EVs can have a significant impact on the grid, and electricity supply cost. The grid impact analysis has
shown estimated additional grid peak load ranges from 2.4%, 4.2% and 8% in 2030 in the LOW, MEDIUM
and HIGH scenario respectively. In the extreme case this would lead to reinforcements costing up to 732
million MUR in 2030. With implementation of smart charging, the additional EV peak load can be reduced
to 4% in 2030 in the MEDIUM scenario. This represents a potential saving of 182 million MUR.

CO2 emissions:
The analysis of the impact on CO2 emissions of EVs, has shown that for the year 2020, there is a net
increase in emissions, due to the high emission factor of current electricity generation. The year 2025 is a
tipping point where the well-to-wheel emissions of the BEV are lower than for an ICE car. In the case when
the EV is charged directly with renewable electricity, or when the electricity is offset with renewable
production, the CO2 reduction is directly obtained. The increase in emissions when charging on the grid in
the first years is relatively small compared to the reductions on the long term as the share of renewables
in the electricity system rises towards 2025 and 2030. The potential emission reductions up to 2030 are 8,
14 and 26 megatonne CO2 in the LOW, MEDIUM and HIGH scenario respectively.

Trade balance:
The economic analysis has shown the net impact of EV growth in the MEDIUM scenario on the trade
balance and import. The net additional imports in 2030 are 0.09%, 0.15% and 0.31% of total imports (ref
2017) in the LOW, MEDIUM and HIGH scenario respectively. In the MEDIUM scenario, this represents an
additional trade deficit of approx. 400 million MUR; 0.4% of the current trade deficit. This includes
avoided fuel imports which thus has a positive impact on the trade balance. EV adoption thus indicates a
negative, but limited impact on the domestic economy. The opportunities for foreign funding of part of
this investment needs to be considered.

A balanced policy plan is required with measures on short and medium term to:
1. Manage the impact of EV on the grid, and to be prepared for EV growth by ensuring for example
road safety;
2. Facilitate the EV ecosystem through minimal effort on short term, to prevent large effort on
long term, by for example setting standards;
3. Stimulate EV to ensure long-term benefits of CO2 emissions and self-sufficiency can be attained.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 52
Therefore, an ambitious yet realistic action plan for EV adoption following the MEDIUM scenario is
expected best fitted to balance short term negative impacts and long term benefits.

6.3 Roadmap towards 2030 – in numbers

Table 12 summarises the roadmap for Mauritius over the period 2020-2030 in numbers
(based on the MEDIUM scenario). It shows the growing number of EVs and charging infrastructure,
together with the impact on grid costs, trade balance and CO2 emission benefits.

Table 14 EV roadmap Mauritius in numbers

ROADMAP – IN NUMBERS
2020 2025 2030
Number of EVs
PHEV 850 5,500 15,000
BEV 390 2,900 11,000
TOTAL 1,200 8,400 26,000
Number of chargers
Fast chargers (public and semi-public) 5 30 80
Public chargers 40 270 800
Semi-public chargers 250 1,700 5,000
Private chargers (home & work) 1,400 9,400 29,000
TOTAL 1,700 12,000 35,000

2020 2025 2030

Impact on CO2 emissions
Impact on emissions compared to BAU [MT]
+0.049 -0.550 -14.2
with reduction (-) and increase (+)
Impact on trade balance
Additional annual imports (reference year 2017) 0.07% 0.16% 0.15%
Impact on grid cost
Estimated costs of grid reinforcements
- 101 365
- without smart charging [million MUR]
* numbers are rounded

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 53
6.4 Five year policy plan
For the roadmap, as was shown in Table 12, the ambition is to achieve 2900 BEVs and 5500 PHEV in 2025.
In order to achieve this goal, six main EV strategies for EV integration in Mauritius are identified, and a
specific set of policy measures towards 2026 is created to achieve this goal.

The six main strategies are based on the global developments and best practices, local context and
barriers. These are linked to the 6 pillars for EV adoption. This is depicted in Table 13.

The specific set of policy measures includes the measures, effects, costs, timing and the main responsible
party. These measures are specifically designed to overcome barriers and create incentives to achieve the
set goals. The measures are divided per and linked to each of six main strategies. An overview of these six
main strategies, and policy measures is presented on the next pages, with finally a policy table
summarising the policy measures and their cost.

Table 15 Six main EV strategies for EV integration

6 pillars for acceleration 6 main strategies for EV integration in Mauritius
of EV adoption
1. Charging Infrastructure Facilitate a nationwide open fast charging network to allow freedom to
drive anywhere on the island.
2. Suitable Vehicles Focus on BEV and implement a National battery plan to ensure long
term sustainability through second life applications and battery recycling.
3. Incentives Start small in a phased approach and scale EV incentives by target
groups: taxi, corporate & government while monitoring growth.
4. Raising Awareness Build the EV Community for raising awareness & sharing of expertise
among stakeholders within triple helix.
5. Knowledge Sharing Phased implementation of smart charging & vehicle-to-grid strategy
taking global best practices from international leaders in private and public
domain to ensure a reliable and affordable grid.
6. Clean power & Economic Clean power for EVs stimulation program to support energy self-
Opportunities sufficiency, reduction of emissions and economic opportunities.

1. Facilitate a nationwide open fast charging network

International experience shows that home and office charging will be dominant charging behaviour, yet a
nationwide open fast charging network is required for frequent long distance drivers, occasional (en-route)
recharging, and to give EV drivers confidence that they can recharge quickly. Otherwise EV uptake will
stagnate. This initial network is aimed at “Connecting the North, South, East and West of the island”, and
can be mainly placed around hotels, shopping centres and key locations such as the airport or urban
centres.

Policy measures to support this strategy

Two preconditions are essential to ensure an open charging network in Mauritius. To provide a clear legal
framework for EV charging, open the market for charging infrastructure, and facilitate third party
investment in charging infrastructure, “charging services” should be formalised as non-regulated service
to EV drivers. This pertains to the delivery of the energy and does not relate to the regulation around the
installation and connection of charging infrastructure. Installation of medium and high power chargers (³
11 kW) is recommended to be conditional to the approval of the CEB. The key reason is the insular
A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 54
characteristic of the grid. Furthermore, to increase effectiveness and interoperability of the charging
network, national charging standards for regular and fast charging, in agreement with the industry, should
be formalised.

Financial incentives for this network are required to overcome first years of lower utilisation at some
locations. The nationwide fast charging network needs to be at least 99% reliable, interoperable and based
on international and open standards (e.g. adhere standard 61851-1-2017 to prevent issues with power
quality). International standards for EV charging are already well-established and same could be adopted
within the Mauritian context. These items should be a precondition for the subsidy. This subsidy is a
financial incentive on capex costs (for hardware and installation). Financing options could be available
through international donors (e.g. AFD, GIZ, AFDB, UNDP). Based on the chosen scenario, there will need
to be a total of 30 charge points by 2025 to support the EV fleet. The network will then need to grow step-
by-step over time with the uptake of vehicles. Furthermore, it is recommended to adapt local electrical
installation norms to incorporate safe EV charging installation requirements.

1. Policy measures:
1.1 Formalise “charging services” as non-regulated service to EV drivers to provide clear legal framework on EV
charging (only regarding the delivery of energy). For installation and connection of charging stations of ³ 11 kW,
permission should be requested to the CEB.
1.2 Formalise national charging standards for regular and fast charging, in agreement with the industry based on
International standards, and adapt local electrical installation norms to incorporate safe EV charging installation
requirements.
1.3 Facilitate financial to deploy initial minimum fast charging network of 30 charge points (interoperable, open
standards and 99% reliable) through international donors (e.g. AFD, GIZ, AFDB, UNDP).

2. Focus on BEV and implement a national battery plan

BEV cars provide the largest long term economic benefits and CO2 emission reductions. Considering that
distances are relatively small in Mauritius, and the range of new full electric vehicles are substantial, these
should be able to accommodate most driving trips. PHEVs already have an attractive TCO and thus do not
require any extra financial stimulation. Hydrogen cars are in the very early stage of development, with high
cost for vehicles and their infrastructure. Therefore, these are not the focus for zero emission car policy in
many countries, and should not be the focus for Mauritius.

Additionally, a national battery plan should be implemented to support the development of the second life
battery market, and ensure battery recycling is fair for the involved stakeholders and for the environment.
This should address six topicslxxxix:

1. Policy must address all battery pack fates and the associated value chains
2. Battery tracking and identification must be mandatory by future regulations
3. Recycling of EV batteries should remain strict and in line with best available technology
4. Flexibility around new battery chemistries must be allowed
5. Future batteries should be designed to be easy to recycle and repurpose
6. Stimulate market demand by clarifying market size and role of 2nd life in grid applications
7. Reduce logistics complexity and encourage the battery aftermarket through re-classification of
batteries viable for 2nd life applications as raw materials, and repurposed batteries as new products

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Policy measures to support this strategy
To ensure specific monitoring of EV growth per category and objective evaluation of policies per category,
the NTA registration of PHEV from BEV should be separated. To ensure safety and quality of vehicles on
the road, the checklist for import, registration and fitness test for new and reconditioned EVs should be
formalised. This also facilitates fair competition, and availability of affordable reconditioned EVs.

As a first step towards a national battery plan, EV car importers should be required to guarantee battery
for minimum of 8 years or 150,000 km for new vehicles, and take back the battery for 2nd life use or
recycling. Subsequently, to ensure long-term battery sustainability, a national battery plan to address EV
battery pack fates, support a second life battery market, and ensure battery recycling should be developed.
This should be linked to the ongoing assessment for the regional management of batteries in the Indian
ocean region under L'Union des Chambres de Commerce et d'Industrie de l'Océan Indien. Furthermore, it
is recommended to request the implementation of a battery tracking system for traceability of batteries,
and enabling the identification of owners of discarded batteries. To avoid restrictions imposed on waste
transport and ensure workshops’ swift access to used batteries, batteries viable for second life applications
should be classed as raw materials and not waste when delivered to repurposing workshops. To ensure
consistency, repurposed batteries should be classified as new products. This will imply that the “raw
materials” turned into second life battery packs by repurposing workshops are classified as new products
when placed on the second life market and sold to the new users. This nomenclature change ensures that
the new OEM, namely the battery repurposer, will be responsible for the end of second life recycling and
not the vehicle OEM.

2. Policy measures:
2.1 Separate NTA registration of PHEV from BEV.
2.2 Formalise the checklist for import, registration and fitness test for new and reconditioned EVs.
2.3 Require EV car importers to guarantee battery for minimum of 8 years or 150.000km for new vehicles and take
back battery for 2nd life use or recycling.
2.4 Develop a national battery plan to address EV battery pack fates, support a second life battery market, and ensure
battery recycling.
2.5 Request the implementation of a battery tracking system for traceability of batteries, and enabling the
identification of owners of discarded batteries.
2.6 Classify batteries viable for second life applications as raw materials and not waste, and classify repurposed
batteries as new products.

3. Start small in a phased approach and scale EV by target group while monitoring growth

The transition to EV is an evolution more than a revolution, so it takes time. A phased approach in policy is
therefore required. Financial incentives will attract a first target group of EV buyers who can be
ambassadors for the transition. These financial incentives need continuation to ensure stable initial
growth, but require realistic scrutiny after several years when EVs become more affordable. The following
two target groups will contribute to EV growth, and should be targeted initially. These groups will also be
the primary users of the growing national charging network.
• Taxis have high mileage and have therefore an attractive TCO. Moreover, taxis drive frequently
and can be a good medium for marketing and communication of EV, being an often first
impression for many tourists, they can be used to showcase the eco-tourism image of the island.
• Corporate fleets combine long driving distances with the potential for a green fleet to be a positive
signboard for a company to show its devotion to mitigating their climate impact. This category
also provides a large potential for CO2 emission reduction. Examples are for instance Telecom,
IBL, DHL, MCB bank, and more.

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Policy measures to support this strategy
The current financial EV incentives enable an attractive TCO for a large part of car owners. In order to
provide a stable regulatory context and support first-movers to invest in EVs, the current financial EV
incentives should be continued until 2022 for all target groups. In the long term, the strong drop in BEV
purchase price (as a result of falling battery prices), will reflect in a 28-35% lower TCO for an average BEV
in 2030 compared to an ICE car, under current incentives. For cars with a high mileage, the TCO will be
even lower. Thus, it is recommended to re-evaluate the financial incentives for period 2023-2025 to ensure
a balanced EV stimulation package by either reducing or removing the incentives.

To further support taxis as first-movers, a fast track for permits for BEV taxis (compared to ICE-taxis), and
special designated “e-taxi stops” on privileged locations in cities and airport should be implemented.
'Green' loans for BEV e-taxis provide an additional incentive by removing the upfront investment barrier.
After proven to work for taxis, these 'green' loans should be extended to corporate fleets for purchase of
BEVs. These will potentially follow up the removed or reduced financial EV incentives.

3. Policy measures:
3.1 Keep current financial EV incentives until 2022 for all target groups.
3.2 Re-evaluate financial EV incentives for period 2023-2025.
3.3 Implement a fast track for permits for BEV taxis (compared to ICE-taxis), and special designated “e-taxi stops” on
privileged locations in cities and airport.
3.4 Provide 'green' loans for e-taxi (BEV) purchases.
3.5 Extend 'green' loans for BEV purchase to corporate fleets.

4. Build the EV Community

Raising awareness and building knowledge of EVs will positively impact the trust there is in the EV future.
These indirect measures are hard to quantifiably link to EV adoption, however, without these measures,
other direct incentives will not have the same effect. These measures are therefore as important for the
development of EV as the more direct financial incentives. This is to be organised by the private sector
together with the government.

Policy measures to support this strategy

To raise awareness and knowledge of EVs, a communications strategy for early adopters; e.g. taxis,
corporate fleets and other first movers should be set up. Further support should be provided to specialised
E-taxi and EV lease companies through a communication campaign and small business program.

A platform for training on EVs maintenance and emergency services (such as fire fighters, police,
ambulance, etc. In the case of maintenance training, this should include the ‘informal sector. This can be
organised in cooperation with local dealers & international car OEMs. This will ensure reliable maintenance
for electric vehicles and road safety for electric vehicles and in general. After 2022, this platform can be
expanded for training on installation and maintenance of solar EV charging systems.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 57
 4. Policy measures:
4.1 Set up a communications strategy for early adopters; e.g. taxis, corporate fleets and other first movers.
4.2 Support specialised E-taxi and EV lease companies with communication campaign and small business program.
4.3 Set up a platform for training on EVs for:
i) emergency services (fire fighters, police, ambulance, etc.)
ii) maintenance (including the ‘informal sector).
4.4 Expand platform for training on maintenance of electric vehicles with installation and maintenance of solar EV
charging systems.

5. Phased smart charging & vehicle-to-grid strategy

EV integration into the grid will face difficulties, since it was found that EV charging creates additional peak
load, leading to steeply increasing costs towards 2030. A gradual and cost-effective grid integration of EVs
is thus a key strategic focus area, since stability of the grid is the first priority of the Ministry. Smart
charging has the potential to largely reduce the impact on the grid, and additional investments.
International collaboration will be key to enable knowledge sharing, and ensure that best practices from
international leaders in private and public domain are used to develop this strategy for Mauritius.

In the long term, there is potential to create a completely new energy ecosystem, linking the mobility and
energy transition, through smart charging & V2G. Since this is an innovative approach, and requires
significant changes to the energy system, this will need to happen in stages over a longer period of time.

Policy measures to support this strategy

A first measure is to start with development and implementation of legislation to make smart chargers the
minimum performance standard for all public and private chargers (except fast chargers). Depending on
approval, this may be implemented from 2022. This is an important precondition for the implementation
of smart charging schemes to limit grid impact since smart chargers can be remotely controlled.
Additionally, a Time of Use tariff for EV charging should be implemented to reduce EV demand during
peak hours through a double rate tariff.

To foster knowledge of local stakeholders on grid integration and smart charging, and to better cater this
to the local context in Mauritius, smart charging & V2G trials should be initiated. These should be partially
funded by government. These first demonstration and test projects will enable learnings on technology,
finance and regulations.

In order to attain detailed insight in the impact of future large scale EV charging on the grid, an impact
study should be performed. This should be used as a basis to develop a long-term grid integration strategy,
to be substantiated with a review of technological and regulatory possibilities of different smart charging
models.

5. Policy measures:
5.1 Make smart chargers the minimum performance standard through legislation.
5.2 Implement a Time of Use tariff (double rate) for EV charging during peak hours.
5.3 Provide partial funding for smart charging & V2G trials & demonstration projects.
5.4 Large scale EV integration grid impact study and long-term strategy development.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 58
 6. Clean power for EVs and economic opportunities

Coupling the mobility transition to the energy transition by ensuring that EVs are charged with clean
renewable power, provides benefits in terms of carbon emissions and increased energy self-sufficiency.
Therefore, promotion of combined use of EV and renewable energy generation should be stimulated.
This can be realised by stimulating solar charging in the form of solar carports at office parkings, or by
incentivising EV owners to install solar PV systems and that way offsetting emissions from charging during
night-time (CEB can be the registering office). The positive business case for both EV and solar PV provides
economic benefits in the long term. Furthermore, this will lead to domestic economic opportunities for the
private sector to develop solutions for EVs and opportunities for job creation. New specific EV (start-up)
companies will deliver products and services in EV charging (potentially linked to renewable power),
development of apps, e-lease, e-taxi, maintenance, refurbishment of batteries.

Policy measures to support this strategy

To support the use of clean power for EV, and stimulate the use of solar-PV generation for EV charging, a
fast track for combined solar-PV & EV installation in the SSDG program should be implemented. This
measure will solidify the coupling of the mobility transition with the energy transition.

To ensure future-proofing of buildings, the planning policy guidelines for building development should be
modified to include mandatory conduits for electrical installation (i.e. preparation works, not actual charge
points) for future EV charging at a minimum 25% of parking spaces. This can be implemented at little cost
to project developers.

6. Policy measures:
6.1 Implement fast track for combined solar-PV & EV installation in SSDG program.
6.2 Modify the planning policy guidelines for building development to include mandatory conduits for electrical
installation for future EV charging at >25% of parking spaces.

Overview of measures
In the table on the following pages, a complete overview of the policy measures as part of the 5-year policy
plan is depicted.

These are divided by the 6 main EV strategies for EV integration in Mauritius. This includes the estimated
costs, the responsible party, and the timing for each measure. The assumptions to calculate the estimated
costs are further detailed in Appendix D. The choice for the indicated responsible party is based on their
respective roles and responsibilities.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 59
5 YEAR POLICY PLAN – OVERVIEW OF MEASURES
Measure Effect Estimated costs Responsible Timing
1. Facilitate a nationwide open fast charging network
1.1 Formalise “charging services” as non-regulated service to EV drivers to Clear legal framework on EV charging, to open the MUR - MEPU, URA 2021-2022
provide clear legal framework on EV charging. market for charging infrastructure, and facilitate third
parties investment in charging infrastructure.
1.2 Formalise national charging standards for regular and fast charging in Increased effectiveness and interoperability of the MUR - MEPU 2021-2022
agreement with the industry based on International standards, and adapt local charging network. (MVDA, BM)
electrical installation norms to safe incorporate EV charging installation
requirements.
1.3 Financial incentive to deploy initial minimum fast charging network of 30 Realisation of a minimum fast charging network to MUR - MEPU, MPI 2021-2026
charge points (interoperable, open standards and 99% reliable). support EV adoption.
2. Focus on BEV and implement a national battery plan
2.1 Separate NTA registration of PHEV from BEV. Specific monitoring EV growth per category and MUR - NTA 2021-2022
evaluation of policies per category.
2.2 Formalise the checklist for import, registration and fitness test for new and Ensured safety and quality of vehicles on the road. MUR - NTA 2021-2022
reconditioned EVs. Ensured availability of affordable reconditioned EVs (MVDA)
2.3 Require EV car importers to guarantee battery for minimum of 8 years or Ensured long-term battery sustainability. MUR - NTA 2021-2022
150.000km for new vehicles and take back battery for 2nd life use or recycling.
2.4 Develop a national battery plan to address EV battery pack fates, Ensured long-term battery sustainability. MUR 8 million MEPU, MoESD 2022-2026
support a second life battery market, and ensure battery recycling.
2.5 Request the implementation of a battery tracking system for traceability of Ensured long-term battery sustainability. MUR MEPU, MoESD 2022-2026
batteries, enabling the identification of owners of discarded batteries.
2.6 Classify batteries viable for second life applications as raw materials and not Ensured long-term battery sustainability. MUR - MEPU, MoESD 2022-2026
waste, and classify repurposed batteries as new products.
3. Start small in phased approach and scale EV incentives by target
groups while monitoring growth
3.1 Keep current financial EV incentives until 2022 for all target groups. Stable regulatory context to support first-movers to MUR 110 million MoF, NTA 2021-2022
invest in EVs.
3.2 Re-evaluate financial EV incentives for period 2023-2025. Balanced EV stimulation package. MUR - MoF, NTA 2021-2022
3.3 Implement a fast track for permits for BEV taxis (compared to ICE-taxis), Support first-movers to invest in EVs. MUR - NTA 2021-2022
and special designated “e-taxi stops” on privileged locations in cities and airport.
3.4 Provide 'green' loans for e-taxi (BEV) purchases. Support first-movers to invest in EVs by removing MUR 48 million DFI 2021-2022
upfront investment barrier
3.5 Extend 'green' loans for BEV purchase to corporate fleets. Support first-movers to invest in EVs. MUR 180 million MoF, DFI 2022-2026

* dates extended by 1 year from original report due to Covid-19 pandemic.

- table continues on the next page –
5 YEAR POLICY PLAN – OVERVIEW OF MEASURES
Measure Effect Estimated costs Responsible Timing
4. Build the EV Community
4.1 Set up a communications strategy for early adopters; e.g. taxis, corporate Raised awareness and knowledge of EVs. MUR 5 million MEPU, BM 2021-2022
fleets and other first movers.
4.2 Support specialised E-taxi and EV lease companies with communication Increased entrepreneurship in the field of electric MUR 5 million MEPU, BM 2021-2022
campaign and small business program. mobility.
4.3 Set up a platform for training on EVs for: Ensured road safety for electric vehicles. MUR 4 million MPI, NTA 2021-2022
i) emergency services (fire fighters, police, ambulance, etc.) Reliable maintenance for electric vehicles.
ii) maintenance (including the ‘informal sector)
4.4 Expand platform for training on maintenance of electric vehicles with Ensured road safety for electric vehicles. Reliable MUR 2 million MPI, NTA 2023-2026
installation and maintenance of solar EV charging systems. maintenance for electric vehicles and solar charging.

5. Staged smart charging & vehicle-to-grid strategy

5.1 Make smart chargers the minimum performance standard through legislation. Enabled implementation of future smart charging MUR - 2021-2022
schemes to limit grid impact
5.2 Implement a Time of Use tariff (double rate) for EV charging during peak Prevention of additional peak load on electricity grid. MUR - MEPU, CEB 2021-2022
hours.
5.3 Provide partial funding for smart charging & V2G trials & demonstration Increased international knowledge sharing & insights MUR 40 million MEPU 2023-2026
projects. for long term grid integration strategy
5.4 Large scale EV integration grid impact study and long-term strategy Insight in impact of future large scale EV charging, and MUR 6 million MEPU, CEB 2023-2026
development. development of long-term grid integration strategy

6. Clean power for EVs

6.1 Implement fast track for combined solar-PV & EV installation in SSDG Increased use of solar-PV for EV charging, delivering MUR - MEPU, CEB 2021-2022
program. both clean transport and energy
6.2 Modify the planning policy guidelines for building development to include Ensured future-proofing of buildings at little cost to MUR - M. of Local 2023-2026
mandatory conduits for electrical installation for future EV charging at >25% of project developer. Government
parking spaces.

TOTAL COST OF POLICY MEASURES MUR 408 million

* dates extended by 1 year from original report due to Covid-19 pandemic.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 61
Impact on government spending
The impact on government spending is represented by the total estimated cost of the measures in the 5
year policy plan. This is estimated to be a total of 408 million MUR over the 5-year period (2021-2026); or
80 million MUR on average per year. This represents an approx. 0.11% of total annual government
spending (roughly 18 billion per quarter, or 72 billion annuallyxc.

The broader implications of the EV program for government spending will largely depend on the actual EV
uptake, and for example the utilisation rate of for example the green loans. Close monitoring and re-
evaluation are therefore necessary.

6.5 Long term

For the long term (after 2026), due to the many fast developments in this sector, there is much uncertainty
in calculating the impact of EV and to decide which policy measures to prioritise. Monitoring and
measuring the impact of the policy measures are crucial, since the technology and prices develop quickly.
But also to adjust where needed through adaptive policy. Therefore, it is important to monitor, evaluate
and review the policy and measurements on a regular basis. Equally, it is important to clearly identify the
entity responsible for collecting the data, monitoring and evaluating. This entity should develop a plan,
which includes activities to strengthen the monitoring of the measures, and activities to
communicate/share the results of monitoring and evaluation exercises to inform policymakers.

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 62
 A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius

A 10 Year Electric Vehicle Integration Roadmap for Mauritius – Ministry of Energy & Public Utilities, Mauritius 63
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lxxxi
Verzijlbergh, 2013. The Power of Electric Vehicles.
lxxxii
Western Power Distribution, 2019. Smart charged, The Results of the Electric Nation Smart Charging trial.
http://www.electricnation.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Smart-Charged-Presentations.pdf

lxxxiii
Verzijlbergh, 2013. The Power of Electric Vehicles.
lxxxiv
McKinsey, 2019. Ticket to ride: what will happen to roadside pit stops when cars go electric?
https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/sustainability/our-insights/sustainability-blog/ticket-to-ride-what-will-
happen-to-roadside-pit-stops-when-cars-go-electric
lxxxv
Western Power Distribution, 2019. Smart charged, The Results of the Electric Nation Smart Charging trial.
http://www.electricnation.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Smart-Charged-Presentations.pdf
lxxxvi
CEB (e-mail correspondence between CEB and MEPU, Friday, 9 August 2019, 09:15).
lxxxvii
CEB, 2013. Integrated Electricity Plan 2013–2022.

lxxxviii
Sharpe et al. 2016. Three horizons: a pathways practice for transformation.

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lxxxix
Transport & Environment, 2019. Batteries on wheels: the role of battery electric cars in the EU power system and
beyond. https://www.transportenvironment.org/publications/batteries-wheels-role-battery-electric-cars-eu-power-
system-and-beyond

xc
Trading economics, 2019. https://tradingeconomics.com/mauritius/government-spending

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