Chapter 9: Virtual Memory

Operating System Concepts Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

 Chapter 9: Outline

Background
Demand Paging

Copy-on-Write
Page Replacement
Allocation of Frames

Thrashing
Memory-Mapped Files
Allocating Kernel Memory
Other Considerations
Operating-System Examples

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 Objectives

Define virtual memory and describe its benefits.

Illustrate how pages are loaded into memory using demand paging.

Apply the FIFO, optimal, and LRU page-replacement algorithms.

Describe the working set of a process, and explain how it is related to
program locality.
Describe how Windows 10 manage virtual memory.

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 Background

Observation
Code needs to be in memory to be executed, but entire program rarely
used. E.g., Error code, unusual routines, large data structures

Entire program code are not needed at same time

Motivation: consider ability to execute partially-loaded program

Program no longer constrained by limits of physical memory

Each program takes less memory while running

➤ more programs run at the same time
 Increase CPU utilization and throughput

 No increase in response time or turnaround time

Less I/O needed to load or swap programs into memory

➤ each user program runs faster

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 Virtual memory

Virtual memory – separation of user logical memory from physical

memory
 Only part of the program needs to be in memory for execution

 Logical address space can be much larger than physical address space

 Allows address spaces to be shared by several processes

 Allows for more efficient process creation

 More programs running concurrently

 Less I/O needed to load or swap processes

Virtual memory can be implemented via:

Demand paging

Demand segmentation

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 Virtual Address Space

Virtual address space

– logical view of how
process is stored in
memory
Usually start at
address 0,
contiguous
addresses until end
of space

Meanwhile, physical
memory organized in
page frames

MMU must map

logical to physical
addresses

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 Virtual Address Space (Cont.)

Usually design logical address space for stack to start

at Max logical address and grows “down” while heap
grows “up”
Maximizes address space use
Unused address space between the two is hole
 No physical memory needed until heap or stack grows
to a given new page
Enables sparse address spaces with holes left for
growth, dynamically linked libraries, etc.
System libraries shared via mapping into virtual
address space
Shared memory by mapping pages read-write into
virtual address space
Pages can be shared during fork(), speeding
process creation

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 Shared Library Using Virtual Memory

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 Demand Paging

Could bring entire

process into memory at
load time
Or bring a page into
memory only when it is
needed
Less I/O needed, no
unnecessary I/O

Less memory needed

Faster response

More users

Similar to paging system

with swapping
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 Basic Concepts

Lazy swapper – never swaps a page into memory unless page will be
needed (Swapper that deals with pages is a pager)
With swapping, pager guesses which pages will be used before
swapping out again
Instead, pager brings in only those pages into memory
How to determine that set of pages?
Need new MMU functionality to implement demand paging
If pages needed are already memory resident
No difference from non demand-paging
If page needed are not memory resident
Need to detect and load the page into memory from storage
 Without changing program behavior
 Without programmer needing to change code

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 Valid-Invalid Bit

Page is needed  reference to it

invalid reference?  abort

If valid, but not-in-memory?  bring to memory

With each page-table entry, a valid-invalid bit

is associated
v  in-memory (memory resident)
i  not-in-memory (Initially, valid-invalid bit is
set to i on all entries)

During MMU address translation, if valid-

invalid bit in page-table entry is i
 page fault

Example of a page-table snapshot is shown

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 Page Table When Some Pages Are Not in
Main Memory

⌧
⌧
⌧

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 Steps in Handling Page Fault

1. If there is a reference to a missed page, first reference to that page

will trap to operating system
 Page fault

2. Operating system looks at another table to decide:

Invalid reference?  abort
Or just not-in-memory?

3. Find free frame

4. Swap page into frame via scheduled disk operation

5. Reset page tables to indicate that page now is in memory

Set valid-invalid bit = v

6. Restart the instruction that caused the page fault

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 Steps in Handling a Page Fault (Cont.)

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 Aspects of Demand Paging

Extreme case – start process with no pages in memory

OS sets instruction pointer to first instruction of process, non-memory-
resident  page fault
And for every other process pages on first access  pure demand
paging
Actually, a given instruction could access multiple pages  multiple
page faults
E.g., Consider fetch and decode of instruction which adds 2 numbers
from memory and stores result back to memory
Pain decreased because of locality of reference
Hardware support needed for demand paging
Page table with valid-invalid bit
Secondary memory (swap device with swap space)
Instruction restart

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 Free-Frame List

When a page fault occurs, the operating system must bring the
desired page from secondary storage into main memory
Most operating systems maintain a free-frame list – a pool of free
frames for satisfying such requests

Operating system typically allocate free frames using a technique

known as zero-fill-on-demand – the content of the frames zeroed-out
before being allocated
When a system starts up, all available memory is placed on the free-
frame list

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 Stages in Demand Paging – Worse Case

1. Trap to the operating system

2. Save the registers and process state

3. Determine that the interrupt was a page fault

4. Check that the page reference was legal and determine the location
of the page on the disk
5. Issue a read from the disk to a free frame:
1. Wait in a queue for this device until the read request is serviced

2. Wait for the device seek and/or latency time (disk)

3. Begin the transfer of the page to a free frame

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 Stages in Demand Paging (Cont.)

6. While waiting, allocate the CPU to some other user processes

7. Receive an interrupt from the disk I/O subsystem (I/O completed)

8. Save the registers and process state for the other user processes
9. Determine that the interrupt was from the disk
10. Correct the page table and other tables to show page is now in
memory

11. Wait for the CPU to be allocated to this process again

12. Restore the user registers, process state, and new page table, and
then resume the interrupted instruction

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 Performance of Demand Paging

Three major activities

Service the interrupt – careful coding means just several hundred
instructions needed

Read the page – lots of time

Restart the process – again just a small amount of time

Page fault rate p, 0  p  1

if p = 0, no page faults
if p = 1, every reference is a fault
Effective Access Time (EAT)
EAT = (1 – p) x memory access + p x (page fault overhead
+ swap page out + swap page in )

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 Copy-on-Write

Copy-on-Write (COW) allows both parent and child processes to

initially share the same pages in memory
If either process modifies a shared page, only then is the page copied
COW allows more efficient process creation as only modified pages
are copied
In general, free pages are allocated from a pool of zero-fill-on-
demand pages
Pool should always have free frames for fast demand page execution
 Don’t want to have to free a frame as well as other processing on page fault
Why zero-out a page before allocating it?
vfork() variation on fork() system call has parent and child
suspend using copy-on-write address space of parent
Designed to have child call exec()
Very efficient
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 Before Process 1 Modifies Page C

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 After Process 1 Modified Page C

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 What Happens if There is no Free Frame?

Used up by process pages

Also in demand from the kernel, I/O buffers, etc.

How much to allocate to each?

Page replacement – find some page in memory, but not really in use,
page it out
Algorithm – terminate? swap out? replace the page?

Performance – want an algorithm which will result in minimum number of

page faults

Same page may be brought into memory several times

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 Page Replacement

Prevent over-allocation of memory by modifying page-fault service

routine to include page replacement
Use modify (dirty) bit to reduce overhead of page transfers – only
modified pages are written to disk

Page replacement completes separation between logical memory

and physical memory – large virtual memory can be provided on a
smaller physical memory

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 Need For Page Replacement

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 Basic Page Replacement

1. Find the location of the desired page on disk

2. Find a free frame:
If there is a free frame, use it

If there is no free frame, use a page replacement algorithm to select a

victim frame
 Write victim frame to disk if dirty

3. Bring the desired page into the (newly) free frame; update the page
and frame tables
4. Continue the process by restarting the instruction that caused the
trap
Note: now potentially 2 page transfers for page fault  increasing EAT

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 Page Replacement

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 Page and Frame Replacement Algorithms

Frame-allocation algorithm determines

How many frames to give each process
Which frames to replace
Page-replacement algorithm
Want lowest page-fault rate on both first access and re-access
Evaluate algorithm by running it on a particular string of memory
references (reference string) and computing the number of page
faults on that string
String is just page numbers, not full addresses
Repeated access to the same page does not cause a page fault
Results depend on number of frames available
In all our examples, the reference string of referenced page numbers
is: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1

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 Graph of Page Faults Versus The Number
of Frames

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 First-In-First-Out (FIFO) Algorithm

Reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1

3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process)

15 page faults

Can vary by reference string: consider 1,2,3,4,1,2,5,1,2,3,4,5

Adding more frames can cause more page faults!
 Belady’s Anomaly
How to track ages of pages?
Just use a FIFO queue

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 FIFO Illustrating Belady’s Anomaly

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 Optimal (OPT) Algorithm

Replace page that will not be used for longest period of time
9 is optimal for the example

How do you know this?

Can’t read the future

Used for measuring how well your algorithm performs

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 Least Recently Used (LRU) Algorithm

Use past knowledge rather than future

Replace page that has not been used in the most amount of time

Associate time of last use with each page

12 faults – better than FIFO but worse than OPT

Generally good algorithm and frequently used
But how to implement?

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 LRU Algorithm (Cont.)

Counter implementation
Every page entry has a counter; every time page is referenced through
this entry, copy the clock into the counter
When a page needs to be changed, check counters to find smallest value
 Search through table needed
Stack implementation
Keep a stack of page numbers in a double link form:
Page referenced:
 move it to the top
 requires 6 pointers to be changed (for the example of reference string)
But each update more expensive
No search for replacement
LRU and OPT are cases of stack algorithms that don’t have
Belady’s Anomaly
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 LRU Approximation Algorithms

LRU needs special hardware and still slow

Reference bit
With each page associate a bit, initially = 0
When page is referenced, bit set to 1
Replace any page with reference bit = 0 (if one exists)
 We do not know the order, however
Second-chance algorithm
Generally FIFO, plus hardware-provided reference bit
Clock replacement
If page to be replaced has
 Reference bit = 0 => replace it
 Reference bit = 1 then:
– set reference bit 0, leave page in memory
– replace next page, subject to same rules
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 Second-Chance (clock) Page-Replacement
Algorithm

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 Second-Chance (clock) Page-Replacement
Algorithm

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 Second-Chance (clock) Page-Replacement
Algorithm

F F F

F F F

F F F

F F F

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 Enhanced Second-Chance Algorithm

Improve algorithm by using reference bit and modify bit (if available)
in concert
Take ordered pair (reference, modify):
(0, 0) neither recently used nor modified => best page to replace

(0, 1) not recently used but modified => not quite as good, must write out
before replacement

(1, 0) recently used but clean => probably will be used again soon

(1, 1) recently used and modified => probably will be used again soon
and need to write out before replacement

When page replacement called for, use the clock scheme but use the
four classes replace page in lowest non-empty class
Might need to search circular queue several times

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 Counting Algorithms

Keep a counter of the number of references that have been made to

each page
Not common

Least Frequently Used (LFU) Algorithm: replaces page with smallest

count
Most Frequently Used (MFU) Algorithm: based on the argument that
the page with the smallest count was probably just brought in and has
yet to be used

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 Allocation of Frames

Each process needs minimum number of frames

Example: IBM 370 – 6 pages to handle SS MOVE instruction:
instruction is 6 bytes, might span 2 pages

2 pages to handle from

2 pages to handle to

Maximum, of course, is total frames in the system

Two major allocation schemes
fixed allocation

priority allocation

And any variations …

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 Fixed Allocation

Equal allocation – For example, if there are 100 frames (after

allocating frames for the OS) and 5 processes, give each process 20
frames
Keep some as free frame buffer pool

Proportional allocation – Allocate according to the size of process

Dynamic as degree of multiprogramming, process sizes change
m = 64
si = size of process pi s1 = 10
S =  si s2 = 127
m = total number of frames 10
si a1 = ´ 62 » 4
ai = allocation for pi =  m 137
S 127
a2 = ´ 62 » 57
137
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 Global vs. Local Allocation

Global replacement – process selects a replacement frame from the

set of all frames; one process can take a frame from another
But then process execution time can vary greatly

But greater throughput, so more common

Local replacement – each process selects from only its own set of
allocated frames
More consistent per-process performance

But possibly underutilized memory

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 Reclaiming Pages

A strategy to implement global page-replacement policy

Motivation: All memory requests are satisfied from the free-frame
list, rather than waiting for the list to drop to zero before we begin
selecting pages for replacement

Page replacement is triggered when the list falls below a certain

threshold
This strategy attempts to ensure there is always sufficient free
memory to satisfy new requests

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 Thrashing

If a process does not have “enough” frames, the page-fault rate is

very high
Page fault to get frame

Replace existing frame

But, quickly need replaced frame back

More processes have page faults

This leads to:

 Low CPU utilization

 Operating system thinking that it needs to increase the degree of

multiprogramming

 Another process added to the system

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 Thrashing (Cont.)

Thrashing. A process is busy swapping pages in and out

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 Demand Paging and Thrashing

Why does demand paging work?

Locality model
Process migrates from one locality to another

Localities may overlap

Why does thrashing occur?

 size of locality > total memory size

Limit effects by using local or priority page replacement

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 Locality In A Memory-Reference Pattern

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 Working-Set Model

  working-set window  a fixed number of page references

E.g., 10,000 instructions

WSSi (working set of Process Pi) = total number of pages referenced

in the most recent  (varies in time)

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 Working-Set Model (Cont.)

Working-set window () and locality

if  too small will not encompass entire locality

if  too large will encompass several localities

if  =   will encompass entire program

D =  WSSi  total demand frames

Approximation of locality

m  total number of available frames

if D > m  Thrashing
One policy: if D > m, then suspend or swap out one of the processes

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 Chuoãi tham khaûo trang; “→” : trang ñöôïc tham khaûo

=2
Fig from Feitelson
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 =6

Fig from Feitelson

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 Keeping Track of the Working Set

Approximate with interval timer + a reference bit

Example:  = 10,000
Timer interrupts after every 5000 time units

Keep in memory 2 bits for each page

Whenever a timer interrupts, copy and sets the values of all reference
bits to 0

If one of the bits in memory = 1  page in working set

Why this is not completely accurate?

Improvement = 10 bits and interrupt every 1000 time units

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 Page-Fault Frequency

More direct approach than WSS

Establish “acceptable” page-fault frequency (PFF) rate and use local

replacement policy
If actual rate too low, process loses frame

If actual rate too high, process gains frame

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 Working Sets and Page Fault Rates

Direct relationship between working set of a process and its page-

fault rate
Working set changes over time

Peaks and valleys over time

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 Allocating Kernel Memory

Treated differently from user memory

Often allocated from a free-memory pool
Kernel requests memory for structures of varying sizes

Some kernel memory needs to be contiguous

 E.g., for device I/O

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 Buddy System (power-of-2 Allocator)

Allocates memory from fixed-size segment consisting of physically-

contiguous pages
Memory allocated using power-of-2 allocator
Satisfies requests in units sized as power of 2
Request rounded up to next highest power of 2
When smaller allocation needed than is available, current chunk split into
two buddies of next-lower power of 2
 Continue until appropriate sized chunk available
For example, assume 256KB chunk available, kernel requests 21KB
Split into AL and AR of 128KB each
 One further divided into BL and BR of 64KB
– One further into CL and CR of 32KB each – one used to satisfy request

Advantage: quickly coalesce unused chunks into larger chunk

Disadvantage: fragmentation
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 Buddy System Allocator

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 Slab Allocator

Alternate strategy
Slab is one or more physically contiguous pages
Cache consists of one or more slabs
Single cache for each unique kernel data structure
Each cache filled with objects – instantiations of the data structure
When cache created, filled with objects marked as free
When structures stored, objects marked as used
If slab is full of used objects, next object allocated from empty slab
If no empty slabs, new slab allocated
Benefits include no fragmentation, fast memory request satisfaction

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 Slab Allocation

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 Slab Allocator in Linux

For example, process descriptor is of type struct task_struct

Approx. 1.7KB of memory
New task => allocate new struct from cache
Will use existing free struct task_struct
Slab can be in three possible states
1. Full – all used
2. Empty – all free
3. Partial – mix of free and used
Upon request, slab allocator
1. Uses free struct in partial slab
2. If none, takes one from empty slab
3. If no empty slab, create new empty

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 Slab Allocator in Linux (Cont.)

Slab started in Solaris, now wide-spread for both kernel mode and
user memory in various OSes
Linux 2.2 had SLAB, now has both SLOB and SLUB allocators
SLOB (Simple List of Blocks) for systems with limited memory
 maintains 3 list objects for small, medium, large objects

SLUB is performance-optimized SLAB removes per-CPU queues,

metadata stored in page structure

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 Other Considerations

Pre-paging
Page size

TLB reach
Inverted page table
Program structure

I/O interlock and page locking

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 Pre-paging

To reduce the large number of page faults that occurs at process

startup
Pre-page all or some of the pages a process will need, before they
are referenced

But if pre-paged pages are unused, I/O and memory was wasted
Assume s pages are pre-paged and α of the pages is used
Is cost of s * α save pages faults > or < than the cost of pre-paging
s * (1- α) unnecessary pages?

α near zero  pre-paging loses

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 Page Size

Sometimes OS designers have a choice of page size

Especially if running on custom-built CPU
Page size selection must take into consideration:
Fragmentation
Page table size
Resolution
I/O overhead
Number of page faults
Locality
TLB size and effectiveness
Always power of 2, usually in the range 212 (4,096 bytes) to 222
(4,194,304 bytes)
On average, growing over time

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 TLB Reach

TLB Reach - The amount of memory accessible from the TLB

TLB Reach = (TLB Size) X (Page Size)

Ideally, the working set of each process is stored in the TLB

Otherwise there is a high degree of page faults

Increase the Page Size

This may lead to an increase in fragmentation as not all applications
require a large page size

Provide Multiple Page Sizes

This allows applications that require larger page sizes the opportunity to
use them without an increase in fragmentation

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 Example of a Program Structure

Program structure
int[128,128] data;

Each row is stored in one page

Program 1
for (j = 0; j <128; j++)
for (i = 0; i < 128; i++)
data[i,j] = 0;
128 x 128 = 16,384 page faults
Program 2
for (i = 0; i < 128; i++)
for (j = 0; j < 128; j++)
data[i,j] = 0;
128 page faults

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 I/O Interlock

I/O Interlock – Pages must sometimes be locked into memory

Consider I/O – Pages that are used for copying a file from a device
must be locked from being selected for eviction by a page
replacement algorithm

Pinning of pages to lock into memory

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 Operating System Examples

Windows

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 Windows

Uses demand paging with clustering. Clustering brings in pages

surrounding the faulting page
Processes are assigned working set minimum and working set
maximum
Working set minimum is the minimum number of pages the process is
guaranteed to have in memory

A process may be assigned as many pages up to its working set

maximum

When the amount of free memory in the system falls below a

threshold, automatic working set trimming is performed to restore the
amount of free memory
Working set trimming removes pages from processes that have pages in
excess of their working set minimum

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 Performance of Demand Paging

Stages in Demand Paging (worse case)

1. Trap to the operating system
2. Save the user registers and process state
3. Determine that the interrupt was a page fault
4. Check that the page reference was legal and determine the location of the page on the disk
5. Issue a read from the disk to a free frame:
1. Wait in a queue for this device until the read request is serviced
2. Wait for the device seek and/or latency time
3. Begin the transfer of the page to a free frame

6. While waiting, allocate the CPU to some other user

7. Receive an interrupt from the disk I/O subsystem (I/O completed)
8. Save the registers and process state for the other user
9. Determine that the interrupt was from the disk
10. Correct the page table and other tables to show page is now in memory
11. Wait for the CPU to be allocated to this process again
12. Restore the user registers, process state, and new page table, and then
resume the interrupted instruction
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 Need For Page Replacement

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 Priority Allocation

Apply a proportional allocation scheme using priorities rather than

size

If process Pi generates a page fault,

select for replacement one of its frames

select for replacement a frame from a process with lower priority number

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 Memory Compression

Consider the following free-frame-list consisting of 6 frames

Assume that this number of free frames falls below a certain threshold
that triggers page replacement. The replacement algorithm (say, an LRU
approximation algorithm) selects four frames - 15, 3, 35, and 26 - to place
on the free-frame list. It first places these frames on a modified-frame list.
Typically, the modified-frame list would next be written to swap space,
making the frames available to the free-frame list. An alternative strategy
is to compress a number of frames, say three, and store their
compressed versions in a single page frame.

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 Memory Compression (Cont.)

An alternative to paging is memory compression

Rather than paging out modified frames to swap space, we compress
several frames into a single frame, enabling the system to reduce
memory usage without resorting to swapping pages

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 Summary

Virtual memory abstracts physical memory into an extremely large

uniform array of storage.
The benefits of virtual memory include the following: (1) a program
can be larger than physical memory, (2) a program does not need to
be entirely in memory, (3) processes can share memory, and (4)
processes can be created more efficiently.
Demand paging is a technique whereby pages are loaded only when
they are demanded during program execution. Pages that are never
demanded are thus never loaded into memory.
A page fault occurs when a page that is currently not in memory is
accessed. The page must be brought from the backing store into an
available page frame in memory.

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 Summary (Cont.)

Copy-on-write allows a child process to share the same address

space as its parent. If either the child or the parent process writes
(modifies) a page, a copy of the page is made.
When available memory runs low, a page-replacement algorithm
selects an existing page in memory to replace with a new page.
Page-replacement algorithms include FIFO, optimal, and LRU. Pure
LRU algorithms are impractical to implement, and most systems
instead use LRU-approximation algorithms.

Global page-replacement algorithms select a page from any process

in the system for replacement, while local page-replacement
algorithms select a page from the faulting process.
Thrashing occurs when a system spends more time paging than
executing.

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 Summary (Cont.)

A locality represents a set of pages that are actively used together.

As a process executes, it moves from locality to locality. A working
set is based on locality and is defined as the set of pages currently in
use by a process.
Memory compression is a memory-management technique that com-
presses a number of pages into a single page. Compressed memory
is an alternative to paging and is used on mobile systems that do not
support paging.

Kernel memory is allocated differently than user-mode processes; it is

allocated in contiguous chunks of varying sizes. Two common
techniques for allocating kernel memory are (1) the buddy system
and (2) slab allocation.

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 Summary (Cont.)

TLB reach refers to the amount of memory accessible from the TLB
and is equal to the number of entries in the TLB multiplied by the
page size. One technique for increasing TLB reach is to increase the
size of pages.
Linux, Windows, and Solaris manage virtual memory similarly,
using demand paging and copy-on-write, among other features. Each
system also uses a variation of LRU approximation known as the
clock algorithm.

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 End of Chapter 10

Operating System Concepts Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018