Navigation 1-Topic 2 Chart Projection

Learning outcomes:
At the end of the Lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Identify the different parts of the Great circle and its measurements
2. Solve for the difference of Latitude and difference of Longitude 2.
3. Explain basic Geodesic concepts in relation to chart projection and construction and
the establishment of chart datum.
4. Compare and contrast the different types of chart projections in relation to their
practical uses and features
5. Explain the difference in coordinates between datum referred to as “Datum shift”
6. Evaluate the effect to the safety to navigation of using a chart given its horizontal and
vertical datum.
Great Circles, Small Circles parts and measurements
LO 2.1 Identify the different parts of the Great circle and its measurements
The Earth is an irregular oblate spheroid (a sphere flattened at the poles). Measurements of its
dimensions and the amount of its flattening are subjects of geodesy. However, for most navigational
purposes, assuming a spherical Earth introduces insignificant error. The Earth’s axis of rotation is
the line connecting the north and south geographic poles.

A great circle is the line of intersection of a sphere and a plane through its center. This is the
largest circle that can be drawn on a sphere. The shortest line on the surface of a
sphere between two points on the surface is part of a great circle. On the spheroidal Earth the
shortest line is called a geodesic. A great circle is a near enough approximation to a geodesic for
most problems of navigation. A small circle is the line of intersection of a sphere and a plane which
does not pass through the center. See Figure 104a. The term meridian is usually applied to the
upper branch of the half-circle from pole to pole which passes through a given point. The opposite
half is called the lower branch.
Great Circle Distance- Is the shortest distance between two positions on the surface of the earth.
Rhumbline- A rhumb line appears as a straight line on a Mercator projection map. The name is derived from
Old French or Spanish respectively: "rumb" or "rumbo", a line on the chart which intersects all meridians at the
same angle.

Rhumbline
Figure 104a. Great and small circles.

Source: Bowditch, American Practical Navigator 2019 Chapter 2

V2https://youtu.be/kOaWimnAN-U
Chart Projections and Accuracy
LO 2.2 Solve for the difference of Latitude and difference of Longitude

Coordinates of latitude and longitude can define any

position on Earth. Latitude (L, lat.) is the angular distance
from the equator, measured northward or southward along
a meridian from 0° at the equator to 90° at the poles. It is
designated north (N) or south (S) to indicate the direction of
measurement.
The difference of latitude (l, DLat.) between two
places is the angular length of arc of any meridian between
their parallels. It is the numerical difference of the latitudes
if the places are on the same side of the equator; it is the sum
of the latitudes if the places are on opposite sides of the
equator. It may be designated north (N) or south (S) when
appropriate. The middle or mid-latitude (Lm) between
two places on the same side of the equator is half the sum
of their latitudes. Mid-latitude is labeled N or S to indicate
whether it is north or south of the equator.
The expression may refer to the mid-latitude of two
places on opposite sides of the equator. In this case, it is
equal to half the difference between the two latitudes and
takes the name of the place farthest from the equator.

Latitude 1 (Lat. 1)- is the Latitude left by the vessel or the latitude of origin.
Latitude 2 (Lat. 2)- Is the latitude arrived at by the vessel or known as latitude In.

Rules in finding Difference of Latitude or (DLAT).

1. When latitude 1 and Latitude 2 Have the same names, find the difference. DLAT will be named
according to Ship’s Direction.
Examples:
Lat. 1 = 15° 46’ 10” N
Lat. 2 = 28° 35’ 06” N
DLAT = 12° 48’ 56” N

Lat. 1= 40° 25’ 48” N

Lat. 2= 20° 55’ 30” N
DLAT = 19° 30’ 18” S

2. When Latitude 1 and Latitude 2 Have different names, ADD both latitudes, and DLAT will be
named according to the latitude of arrival.

Examples:

Lat. 1 = 05° 45’ 56” N

Lat. 2 = 10° 35’ 04” S
DLAT = 16° 11’ 00” S

Lat. 1 = 18° 15’ 37” S

Lat. 2 = 04° 28’ 40” N
DLAT = 22° 44’ 17” N

Longitude (l, long.) is the angular distance between the prime meridian and the meridian of a
point on the Earth, measured eastward or westward from the prime meridian through 180°. It is
designated east (E) or west (W) to indicate the direction of measurement.

The difference of longitude (DLo) between two places is the shorter arc of the parallel or the
smaller angle at the pole between the meridians of the two places. If both places are on the same
side (east or west) of Greenwich, DLo is the numerical difference of the longitudes of the two
places; if on opposite sides, DLo is the numerical sum unless this exceeds 180°, when it is 360°
minus the sum.

Rules in Finding difference of Longitude, DLO:

1. When Longitude 1 and Longitude 2 have the same names, find the difference. DLO will be named
according to the ship’s direction.
Examples:
Long. 1 = 120° 25’ 38” E
Long. 1 = 131° 16’ 19” E
DLO = 10° 15’ 41” E

Long. 1 = 095° 21’ 49” E

Long. 2 = 076° 35’ 50” E
DLO = 18° 45’ 59” W
2. When Longitude 1 and Longitude 2 have Different names, ADD the two Longitudes. DLO will be
named according to the Ship’s arrival Longitude.
Example:
Long. 1 = 010° 17’ 55” W
Long. 1 = 15° 28’ 05” E
DLO = 26° 46’ 00” E

3. If initial DLO exceeds 180°, SUBTRACT from 360° and the name of DLO will be reversed.

Example:
Long. 1 = 145° 46’ 28” E
Long. 2 = 080° 35’ 44” W
DLO = 226° 22’ 12” W
- 360° 00’ 00”
DLO = 133° 37’ 48” E

Geoid, and Ellipsoid and Chart Projections

LO 2.3 Explain basic Geodesic concepts in relation to chart projection and construction
and the establishment of chart datum.
The earth is not perfect round flattened at the poles. To define this unequal shape we use an
ellipsoid. Each ellipsoid has the following dimensions.
-Semi-major axis (equatorial) the semi major axis is always larger than the semi- minor axis.
-Semi-minor axis (polar)

The geoid is a particular equipotential surface that would coincide with the mean ocean surface of
the Earth if the oceans and atmosphere were in equilibrium, at rest relative to the rotating Earth, and
extended through the continents (such as with very narrow canals).

An ellipsoid is uniquely defined by specifying two parameters. Geodesists, by convention, use the
semi-major axis and either eccentricity or flattening. The size is represented by the radius at
the equator, the semi-major axis. The shape of the ellipsoid is given by the flattening, which indicates
how closely an ellipsoid approaches a spherical shape. The flattening (f) is the ratio of the
difference between the semi-major (a) and semi-minor (b) axes of the ellipsoid and the semi-major
axis.

Ellipsoids and the Geoid as Reference Surfaces

Since the surface of the geoid is irregular and the surface of an ellipsoid is regular, no ellipsoid can
provide more than an approximation of part of the geoidal surface. Historically, ellipsoids that best fit
the geoid regionally were employed. The widespread use of GNSS has facilitated the use of global,
best fitting ellipsoids. The most common are the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84) and the
Geodetic Reference System of 1980 (GRS 80) ellipsoids. SeeTable 203 for WGS 84 defining
parameters.

LO 2.4 Compare and contrast the different types of chart projections in relation to their
practical uses and features.

Projections
 Because a cartographer cannot transfer a sphere to a flat surface without distortion, he or she
must project the surface of a sphere onto a developable surface.
 A developable surface is one that can be flattened to form a plane.
 This process is known as chart projection.
If points on the surface of a sphere are projected from a single point, the projection is said to be
perspective or geometric.

 Each projection has certain preferable features. However, as the area covered by the chart
becomes smaller, the differences between various projections become less noticeable.
On the largest scale chart, such as that of a harbor, projections are practically identical.

Some desirable properties of a projection are:

1. True shape of physical features
2. Correct angular relationships
3. Equal area (Represents areas in proper proportions)
4. Constant scale values
5. Great circles represented as straight lines
6. Rhumb lines represented as straight lines

Types of Projection

The Mercator projection is classified as a cylindrical projection upon a plane, the cylinder
tangent along the equator. Similarly, a projection based upon a cylinder tangent along a meridian is
called transverse (or inverse) Mercator or transverse (or inverse) orthomorphic.

 The Mercator is the most common projection used in maritime navigation, primarily because
rhumb lines plot as straight lines.
 Distances can also be measured directly if the spread of latitude is small.
 Great circles, except meridians and the equator, appear as curved lines concave to the equator.
 Small areas appear in their correct shape but of increased size unless they are near the equator.

Mercator Projection
Great circle and Rhumbline on a Mercator chart

Great Circle and Rhumbline on the surface of the earth

Conic Projections
 In a simple conic projection, points on the surface of the earth are transferred to a
tangent cone.
 is produced by transferring points from the surface of the earth to a cone or series of cones.
 This cone is then cut along an element and spread out flat to form the chart.
 When the axis of the cone coincides with the axis of the earth, then the parallels appear as arcs of
circles, and the meridians appear as either straight or curved lines converging toward the nearer
pole.
 Limiting the area covered to that part of the cone near the surface of the earth limits distortion.
 A parallel along which there is no distortion is called a standard parallel. Neither the transverse
conic projection, in which the axis of the cone is in the equatorial plane, nor the oblique conic
projection, in which the axis of the cone is oblique to the plane of the equator, is ordinarily used
for navigation.
 They are typically used for illustrative maps.
 Using cones tangent at various parallels, a secant (intersecting) cone, or a series of cones varies
the appearance and features of a conic projection.
 A simple Conic Projection

 In the Lambert conformal projection, the cone intersects the earth (a secant
cone) at two small circles. In a polyconic projection, a series of tangent cones is used.
 In an azimuthal or zenithal projection, points on the earth are transferred directly to a
plane.
 If the origin of the projecting rays is the center of the earth, a gnomonic projection results;
if it is the point opposite the plane’s point of tangency, a stereographic projection; and if
at infinity (the projecting lines being parallel to each other), an orthographic projection.
The gnomonic, stereographic, and orthographic are perspective projections.

Cylindrical Projections
 If a cylinder is placed around the earth, tangent along the equator, and the planes of the
meridians are extended, they intersect the cylinder in a number of vertical lines.
 These parallel lines of projection are equidistant from each other, unlike the terrestrial
meridians from which they are derived which converge as the latitude increases.
 On the earth, parallels of latitude are perpendicular to the meridians, forming circles of
progressively smaller diameter as the latitude increases.
 On the cylinder they are shown perpendicular to the projected meridians, but because a
cylinder is everywhere of the same diameter, the projected parallels are all the same size.
 If the cylinder is cut along a vertical line (a meridian) and spread out flat, the meridians
appear as equally spaced vertical lines; and the parallels appear as horizontal lines. The
parallels’ relative spacing differs in the various types of cylindrical projections.
 If the cylinder is tangent along some great circle other than the equator, the projected
pattern of latitude and longitude lines appears quite different from that described above,
since the line of tangency and the equator no longer coincide.
 These projections are classified as oblique or transverse projections.
 A Cylindrical Projection

Gnomonic Projection

Gnomonic is an azimuthal projection that uses the center of the earth as its perspective point. It
projects great circles as straight lines, regardless of the aspect. The projection is not conformal nor is
it equal-area.
Advantages- The latitude and longitude appear as a grid which makes easy to locate positions
with a ruler, it is very accurate at the equator. Disadvantages- Distances between regions and
their areas are distorted at the poles.

Gnomonic Projection

Horizontal and Vertical Datum

LO 2.5 Explain the difference in coordinates between datum referred to as “Datum shift”

One of the most serious impacts of different datums on navigation occurs when a navigation system
provides a fix based on a datum different from that used for the nautical chart. The resulting plotted
position may be different from the actual location on that chart. This difference is known as a datum
shift.

Modern electronic navigation systems have software installed that can output positions in a variety of
datums, eliminating the necessity for applying corrections. All electronic charts produced by NGA are
compiled on WGS and are not subject to datum shift problems as long as the GPS receiver is
outputting WGS position data to the display system. The same is true for NOAA charts of the U.S.,
which are compiled on NAD 83 datum, very closely related to WGS. GPS receivers default to WGS, so
that no action is necessary to use any U.S.-produced electronic charts.

To automate datum conversions, a number of datum transformation software programs have been
written that will convert from any known datum to any other, in any location. MSPGEOTRANS is such
a program. The amount of datum shift between two different datums is not linear. That is, the
amount of shift is a function of the position of the observer, which must be specified
for the shift to be computed. Varying differences of latitude and longitude between two different
datums will be noted as one's location changes.

There are still a few NGA-produced paper charts, and a number of charts from other countries, based
on datums other than WGS. If the datum of these charts is noted in the
title block of the chart, most GPS receivers can be set to output position data in that datum,
eliminating the datum shift problem. If the datum is not listed, extreme caution is necessary.

Another effect on navigation occurs when shifting between charts that have been compiled using
different datums. If a position is replotted on a chart of another datum
using latitude and longitude, the newly plotted position will not match with respect to other charted
features. The datum shift may be avoided by transferring positions using
bearings and ranges to common points. If datum shift conversion notes for the applicable datums are
given on the charts, positions defined by latitude and longitude may be replotted after applying the
noted correction.
NAD-North American Datum
NGA- National Geospatial Intelligence Agency 

LO 2.6 Evaluate the effect to the safety to navigation of using a chart given its horizontal
and vertical datum.

A geodetic datum is an abstract coordinate system with a reference surface (such as sea level) that
serves to provide known locations to begin surveys and create maps. In this way, datums act similar
to starting points when you give someone directions. For instance, when you want to tell someone
how to get to your house, you give them a starting point that they know, like a crossroads or a
building address.
Geodesists and surveyors use datums to create starting or reference points for floodplain maps,
property boundaries, construction surveys, levee design, or other work requiring accurate coordinates
that are consistent with one another.
Horizontal datums measure positions (latitude and longitude) on the surface of the Earth, while
vertical datums are used to measure land elevations and water depths.

The most common global datum today is WGS84 (World Geodetic System), championed by NGA
for world-wide mapping and the native reference for the GPS satellites.
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The safety of navigations depends upon the quality and reliability of chart plotting. Hence the
navigators doing chart plotting should do it with utmost care and attention. A wrong course line or
position can mislead the vessel and can probably make way to accidents. Over reliance on GPS are
commonly seen onboard. https://www.marineinsight.com/