SOIL TYPES AND DESCRIPTIONS

General soil type descriptions

During the initial exploration of the catchments and subsequently fieldwork a number of soil
types were identified. Firstly, there are the red gradational colluvial soils, mainly covered by
the Mountain Ash vegetation association. In most cases these soils were located on
southerly slopes, particularly lower slopes and drainage lines, and are associated with the
moister areas within the catchments. These soils are characteristically well-structured. Due
to the moist nature of the topography associated with this soil type, and the moist
characteristics of this soil type compared with the other soils in the area, this soil type is
designated as ‘wet’, reflecting the general moisture regime, the term ‘wet’ is used in the name
of this group of soils.

Secondly, there are the brown gradational and forest brown soils which are generally
juxtaposed to the red gradational soils, usually in slightly drier positions and as a transitional
away from the wettest micro-climate in the area to the driest. These soils are generally well
structured, due to their occurrence in a moist environment. However often there is less soil
development, as indicated by soil depth, and therefore as part of a transition to drier
soil/vegetation regime this soil type is described as (wet) transitional.

Thirdly, there are the skeletal stony soils with well-structured B horizons grading into the
“parent material” occupying the ridge crests and northerly slopes. These soils have poorly
developed shall A horizons and structure ranges from weak to moderately well structured.
Due to topographical position and general moisture status these soils are designated as ‘dry’
soils.

Fourthly, there are the ‘dry’ transitional soils which occupy the slightly wetter northerly or
westerly slopes, particularly the lower slopes and ridges. These soils are similar to the
skeletal stony soils on the upper slopes but are usually deeper and exhibit greater profile
development and oxidation and increased surface organic matter. The transition between the
‘dry’ transitional and brown gradational (‘wet’ transitional) soils is generally abrupt due to
moisture and exposure (i.e. aspect) differences.

Other soils identified include organic colluvial soils with varying amounts of clay content, often
found as deposits adjacent to and within gullies, as well as organic gley and gley soils which
are restricted to gully floors nearer the weirs and much denser than the organic colluvial soils.
See table 4.

Detailed soil type descriptions

1. Red gradational (‘wet’) soils

These soils are characterised by brown/red to red mineral horizons (Hue 7.5YR – 2.5YR) with
brown organic a horizons of varying depth, depending on topographic position, slope, aspect
and exposure. Those soils on gentler lower slopes have a greater accumulation of surface
organic matter which is broken down faster than at drier sites. As an example site 70 (fig 6)
has the next 20 cm is a mineral horizon with a high organic matter content which then grades
into the mineral B horizon.

Soil depth

Though difficult to ascertain I the field, soil depth was an important classificatory factor
between soil types. The red gradational soils often found on colluvium are the deepest soils
in the area and sustain the tallest and densest vegetation cover. Depth ranges from at least 1
metre to in excess of 3 metres. It was not possible to determine maximum depths due to
technical and time constraints.

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Field texture and laboratory mechanical analysis

This soil type grades from an organic loam/silty loam with increasing fine particle content to
clay loam, silty clay loam, light clay and light-medium to medium clay and silty clay.
Occasional increases in silt content were noted.

Stoniness

Stoniness is generally low in these soils (<5%) appearing mainly as sub-angular pieces of
fragmented fine sandstone, usually partially weathered. The siltstone and claystone appears
to break down quite rapidly leaving the more resistant fragmented sandstone to weather in
the already well-developed solum. Stoniness increases on those ridges and crests occupied
by this soil type.

Structure

Nearly all soils within the study area have well-structured mineral horizons. The surface
material has a crumb structure becoming fine blocky with increasing depth. The main a
horizon is moderately well structured and the B horizons are well structured.

The structural form down the profiles changes from crumb to slightly sub-angular blocky to
fine-medium sub-angular blocky to fine angular blocky (<5 mm) at depth. There is often a
mixture between sub-angular and angular blocky peds is the B horizons.

A key characteristic of this soil type is the friability of the solum breaking up into fine peds.
However, when moist and particularly in the B horizon, disturbance reduces this friability and
breaks up structure. This effect is due to the increased ‘stickiness’ of the moist horizons.

As the structure changes down the soil profile so does the fabric, changing from ‘earthy’ on
the surface and upper horizons to rough ped or smooth ped at depth depending on the type of
soil structure and the proportion of clay.

The consistency of the soil ranges from loose to soft at the surface and slightly plastic to
plastic in the denser B horizons at depth. The latter property is particularly noticeable with
moist horizons.

Appendix 4 gives an indication of clay distribution in the representative soil profiles. The
above properties are also shown in other indices to be discussed i.e. bulk density.

Drainage

Site drainage refers to the ability of the soil to drain given its topographical position and is
influenced by soil permeability, slope steepness and slope shape. Site drainage is poor in
gullies and on gentler lower slopes but better on crests and upper slopes.

Permeability

Given the position of the soil site, the inherent ability of the soil to drain is also important.
Assessment of permeability relies on visual inspection of the profile to determine the degree
soil structure, the amount of organic matter and the presence of root channels and voids.
Permeability is generally moderate, sometimes moderately rapid, in the 20-50 cm depth
range. It decreases to moderately slow, occasionally slow or moderate lower in the profile
(see Infiltration and Hydraulic Conductivity Section).

A number of factors are important in this assessment, notably structure, texture, pore space
and the degree of mottling. The absence of mottles together with well-developed soil
structure are important indicators of more rapid rates of permeability as is the presence of
adequate pore space. Permeability in forest soils is also greatly affected by tree-root
networks and biological activity, providing flow paths for water. Well developed soil structure
has a similar effect. A more detailed survey of the inherent permeability for all soil types is
given in the Infiltration and Hydraulic Conductivity Section.

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Figure 6 - Soil profile examples for each soil type

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Figure 6 – Soil profile examples for each soil type

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Table 4: Soil type characteristics summary

(i) Topographical characteristics

Soil type and moisture regime Aspect Topographical position

‘Wet’ Southerly Lower and mid-slopes.

(‘Wet’) Transitional Southerly, easterly, westerly Middle, lower and upper slopes.

(‘Dry’) Transitional Northerly, westerly, easterly Middle, upper and lower slopes.

‘Dry’ Northerly Upper slopes and crests.

Organic Various Lower slopes and drainage lines.

Gley Drainage lines

(ii) Soil characteristics

Soil type and Depth Structure Stone (%) Colour

moisture regime Total A Horizon horizon Consistence B horizon B horizon
‘Wet’ 1-3m+ Deep A; mod. Strong B; Friable <8 5YR3/6
strong Friable
(‘Wet’) Transitional 1-2m+ Mod. Deep. A; mod. Strong Friable <10 7.5YR4/4
B; mod. Strong Friable 5YR4/4
(‘Dry’) Transitional 1m Shallow-moderate A; moderate Friable 20 7.5YR5/4
B; strong Hardsetting
‘Dry’ <1m Shallow A; weak-moderate Hardsetting 25-30 10YR5/4
B; strong Hardsetting
Organic 0 2m Deep A; moderate Friable variable 10YR2/1
B; strong Friable
Gley 0 2m+ Shallow-moderate A; moderate Friable plastic <15 10YR5/4
B; moderate plastic +mottles
(red/yellow)

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The root and biological activity have left channels through the soil. As a result, organic matter
and other material from higher in the profile has filled these channels, forming pseudokarsts
and organic coatings on peds (cutans).

At depth (>2 m) it has been noted that mottling does occur within the B3 (B/C) horizon. This
may be due to waterlogging but also can indicate weathering of primary minerals in the parent
material.

Hazards

Due to the rough nature of the soil surface it is difficult to establish whether there are any
widespread accelerated erosion on this soil type. On the steeper slopes there is evidence of
slope wash and creep.

There seems to have been little mass movement, through evidence of at least one slip was
noted. Accelerated movement of surface material seems partly due to past tree felling
operations and was also noted near the roots of trees downed by wind-throw on steeper
slopes. Surface movement of material on hill slopes is similar for all soil types through a
greater depth of material occurs on the wetter sites which may be due to a more pronounced
weathering conditions. Accumulation of surface material forms a superficial terracettes which
act to absorb moisture and also trap moving soil material resulting from sheet erosion. These
are often separated by bare soil exposures. Soil movement is also indicated by the vertical
position of trees (particularly young trees) and the loss of soil at the downslope base of trees.

Soil material tested in the field exhibited very little dispersion but slaking of peds was noted.
Refer to the Erodibility Section for further analyses.

2. Brown Gradational and Forest Brown (‘Wet’ transitional) soils

These soils are characterised by dark organic upper horizons (which may not be as well
developed as on the red-gradational soils on wetter sites) and brown to reddish-brown sub
soils are also characteristic (Hu 7.5YR). The typical Factual Key is Gn 4.31 and there is no
significant mottling.

Typical Colour sequence; Site 30

Horizon A0 A1 B1 B2
Hue 7.5YR2/1 10YR2.5/2 10YR3/3 7.5YR3/3

Depth

Soil depth varies but is generally shallower that the red gradational soils, due to weathering
and topographic position. Profiles are usually about 1 metre deep and the soil may be deeper
if topographic factors allow.

Field Texture

These are similar to the texture ranges of the red/brown gradational soils, the lower horizons
are light clays tending to light-medium and therefore slightly lighter than the more developed
(‘wet’) soil surface organic content is usually high.

Stoniness

These are a few stones in the upper horizons but stoniness increases down the profile.
Stoniness is also influenced by the position of the soil site i.e. there are more stones in soils
on ridges. The underlying rock strata are also a consideration and differences in soil structure
and texture result from variation in rock types which ranges from moderately thick beds of
sandstone to thinly bedded siltstone and claystone.

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Structure

Surface horizons are weakly structured with an open tilth but the main A and B horizons are
well-structured. The soil structure form is a sub-angular blocky, very occasionally tending to
angular blocky with depth. The fabric consists of rough-faced peds.

The consistency ranges from loose at the surface to slightly hard and hard at depth,
particularly when dry. However these soils still have the friable characteristic of the red
gradational (wet) soils.

Drainage

Site drainage varies with the soil type and position in the landscape but generally is
moderately well drained.

Permeability ranges from rapid at the surface to moderately in the 25-50 cm depth range,
and moderately slow at depth. As there is little or no mottling except for some organic
staining and soil structure is well-developed, these soils are generally well drained.

Hazards

The hazards for this soil group are similar to those for red gradational soils. Slope wash and
creep or surface material and upper horizons are the most common forms of erosion,
particularly on the steeper slopes. Field tests of soil stability indicate only slight dispersion
increasing a little in the sub-soil. Slaking also increases with depth from slight to medium in
the sub-soil. The B horizons break down into individual peds relatively rapidly, hence their
medium slaking values. These soils are acidic with little change through the profile apart from
the surface organic matter and the gradual textural change.

3. Skeletal, stony (‘Dry’, Lithosol) soils

These soils represent the dries extreme of soils in the study areas and are referred to as “Dry”
soils.

Surface and organic horizons are normally very shallow overlie stony mineral horizons. The
sub-soil (B horizon) has a brown/yellow brown hue when moist (7.5 YR – 10YR), paler than
other soil types; typical colours are 7.5 YR/4YR and 10YR/4. Upper horizons usually have
yellow brown hues (10YR).

Soil depth

Soil depth varies according to the position of the soil site and is usually between 40 cm - 1
metre in depth. The depth also depends on the degree of parent material weathering and the
gradation between soil and rock. There is a thin organic surface horizon (2-3 cm) overlying a
thin A horizon (10 cm thickness) which grades into the well structured B horizon to
approximately 60 cm.

Field Texture

The surface horizon is an organic sandy loam. The A horizon are (silty) loams, grading to
light clay loams and silty clay loams which grade into heavy clay loam, light clay or light-
medium clay B horizons.

Stoniness

Stoniness generally increases with depth although a veneer of surface stone was fairly
common. The A Horizons have a ‘medium’ stone content, about 15% by volume, of sub-
angular sandstone up to 5 cm across. This increases with depth, usually to 30% by volume,
sub-angular to angular sandstone up to 8 cm across. Stoniness is particularly marked in the

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lower catchments (1, 2 and 3) where this soil is dominant (see profiles fig. 6). Ridges and
crests in these catchments were particularly stony.

Structure

The surface horizon consists of a humus layer with little structure. The A horizons are weakly
to moderately structured and B horizons are moderate to moderately strongly structured.
Peds are usually larger for the A horizons whereas the B horizons have finer peds. The peds
are sub-angular and blocky but occasionally angular. Peds are rough faced.

The consistency varies from loose at the surface, slightly hard when dry for the A horizon
and hard when dry for the B horizon through there are minor variations. This soil type is more
hardsetting than the other soil types, especially as the upper horizons have less structure
and are often exposed. The lower (B) horizons are also hard when dry. The difference
between the friability for the two extreme soil types in the area is illustrated by Fig 7 and
plates 3 and 4. This is an examples of an upper drainage line where a ‘dry’ soil is overlying a
developing ‘wet’ soil. The latter it is believed will eventually dominate downslope. It is also
notable that the rock strata dip down giving this upper drainage head a deep profile despite its
elevation.

Drainage

Site drainage for this type varies, but generally water is shed, often rapidly from areas with
this soil type.

Permeability for the upper soil horizons was difficult to assess due to the thinness of the
horizons but was estimated at between moderate and rapid, despite the weaker structure.
The presence of stones gives possible lines of moisture penetration partly off-setting the
lower level of biological activity.

The permeability of the lower horizons was estimated as moderate, helped by the greater soil
structure and movement along stone faces. It is evident that water is penetrating the parent
material and passing along and through the rock structure as clay skins on rock structure
(cleavages) would indicate. However the large volume of stone and weathered parent
material is the structured B horizon will significantly reduce the available water capacity in this
soil.

Hazards

Sheet-wash and creep are particularly noticeable on this soil type as evidenced by the
shallow surface horizons, especially the steeper upper slopes. The B horizon is often
exposed and presumably logging activities have aggravated this condition. Organic
accumulation is much slower on this soil type than for the ‘wet’ soil. The degree of ground
cover is also a significant hazard factor despite tree and shrub canopies. Dispersion and
slaking are only slight for surface horizons but the soil is susceptible to detachment due to the
velocity of run-off, the steep slopes and exposure. The lower (B) horizons have low
dispersions and moderate slaking properties. For further analysis see the ‘Erodibility’ section.

4. Yellow Brown/Brown Gradational (‘Dry’ transitional) soils

These soils are similar to the ‘dry’ soils but are usually more developed (i.e. deeper) and have
lower topographical positions or are located on wetter ridges and crests, as in catchment 6.
These soils are therefore called (dry) transitional soils in their relation to the total moisture
regime of the area.

The upper horizons have a greater proportion of organic material and darker in colour i.e.
10YR2/2. The lower horizons have a brown hue (7.5YR) but are not as pale as the ‘dry’ soils.
Factual keys are gradational; Gn 4.31, Gn 4.51.

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Figure 7 – Road exposure, upper drainage line, catchment 5

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Plate 3 – Site 31: Upper drainage line profile

Plate 4 – Site 31: Sample peds for each horizon

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Depth

Apart from possible organic accumulation and possible greater oxidation in the sub-soil, a
characteristic of the ‘dry’ transitional soil is that it is deeper and more developed than the ‘dry’
soil proper. The example quoted below (site 50, see fig. 6) has a deeper, more defined B
horizon with a heavier texture which is more a characteristic of a ‘wet’ soil.

Texture (Field)

Textures range from a light organic loam, at the surface to silty clay at depth. For example,
site 50: light organic loam – sandy clay loam, fine sandy clay loam grades into the lower
horizons of light/medium clay – medium clay – silty clay. (see fig 6.)

There are other variants of this gradation especially the fine sand/silty component which is
more characteristic of the drier soil than of the wet soils. The slight trend to a lighter texture
for the lowest horizon of the given example is most likely due to the presence of less
weathered parent material.

Stoniness

Stoniness is generally lower than that for the ‘dry’ soil but till high, particularly in the lower
horizons where 20% by volume is common.

Structure

Structure varies from weak for the surface horizon to medium to strongly structured at depth,
the peds being sub-angular blocky throughout though some angular blocky ped may occur.
In most cases the soil fabric is rough ped except for the earthy fabric of the surface layer.

The consistency of the soil ranges from loose at the surface to slightly hard and hard at
depth when the soil is dry. This soil type is also hardsetting.

Drainage

Site drainage for the type varies according to topographical position but is generally water-
shedding and therefore well-drained to excessively drained.

Permeability is similar to the dry soil though a deeper A horizon would indicate a greater
water holding capacity than for the ‘dry’ soil. Permeability ranges from rapid/moderately rapid
near the surface to moderate and moderately slow at depth. There are no indications of
waterlogging in the profile.

Hazards

Slope wash and creep are the main forms of erosion, the surface horizon being the most
vulnerable horizon despite relatively stable behaviour of the soil in water. The action of fauna
notable scratching by lyre birds and wombats in the area, influences surface soil movement.

5. Organic soil

These soils are high is organic matter with varying amounts of clay. They are located in the
incised gullies or adjacent to them, wherever the topography has allowed deposition.

These soils are either uniform or gradational (Northcote classification), developing some
structure with depth depending on the proportion of clay particles present. They are typical
dark in colour i.e. 10YR2/1, and may lighten with depth and increasing mineral content.

These soils are particularly permeable in the upper horizons site drainage is poor as these
sites are water receiving.

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Stoniness is variable due to transportation of material downslope to these sites; gully areas
normally have a high surface coverage of stones and other areas may have larger blocks of
sandstone eroded from the drier ridges of rock outcrops.

These soils are generally light and transportable, though stable in water. Erosion occurs as a
result of undercutting and detachment mainly along the sides and heads of gullies.

6. Gley Soils

There are a few occurrences of gley soils and these are restricted to gully floors near the
weirs. There is only one mappable example to date, found in catchment 1.

This is the only deposit of significance and appears to be the result of the topography which
has allowed significant deposition. The deposited material appears to be derived from the
surrounding dry ridges (see soils map).

The deposits are dark and mottled, indicating a fluctuating and possibly perched watertable.

Though significantly different from the other soil types, this soil is not considered to be very
significant in the hydrological performance of the study area because of its limited spatial
distribution.

Distribution of soil types

The distribution of soil types for each catchment is given in table 5 and fig 8. This distribution
was calculated from the soil map of the study area. Map 4.

Catchment 1 is the driest catchment having a very high proportion of ‘dry’ soil (over 50%).
Together with the ‘dry’ transitional soil, total ‘dry’ soil accounted for over 75% of the
catchment.

Only 13.6% is ‘wet’ soil. This varies markedly with catchment 2 where there is a sharp
increase in ‘wet’ soil but in catchment 3 the proportion of ‘wet’ soil drops to nearly 20%.

‘Wet’ soil generally increases in distribution due to the proportion of southerly aspects and
size of catchment. Catchment 6 has the highest proportion of ‘wet’ soil (46.7%) and
combined with ‘wet’ transitional, the proportion under ‘wet’ soil increases to 60% of the
catchment.

Apart from catchment 1 there is a similar proportion of organic soil in all catchments. This can
be related to the gully areas in each catchment. The morphology of catchment 1 is basin
shaped and there is a greater area of deposition and therefore retention of organic and
mineral material from the surrounding slopes.

Catchments 4 and 5 have similar proportions of each soil type; see also aspect comparison.

Table 5. Proportions of soil type per catchment. (%)

Soil Type Transitional

Catchment ‘Wet’ ‘Wet’ ‘Dry’ ‘Dry’ Organic Gley
1 13.6 2.5 23.6 52.2 7.0 1.1
2 28.6 17.0 12.6 37.3 4.5
3 19.8 21.6 21.2 33.4 4.1
4 37.0 21.2 12.0 24.7 5.1
5 33.8 18.4 17.3 25.6 4.9
6 46.7 14.2 11.8 21.9 5.4
Total area 37.7 15.7 14.3 27.0 5.2 0.08

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Figure 8 – Proportion of soil types in each catchment: Catchments 1-6

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