HINDUSTAN

AVIATION ACADEMY
Bangalore
Module 6

Materials and Hardware

6.1 Ferrous Metals

For Training Purposes Only

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.2

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Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft
Maintenance Licence

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Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1,
2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2
basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

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LEVEL 1

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 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
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LEVEL 2
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 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.

 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
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 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
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subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
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LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
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 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
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and specific examples.

 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
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instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.3

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.4

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Table of Contents

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6.1 Ferrous Metals __________________________________________________________ 9

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(a) ________________________________________________________________________ 9
Properties and Terminology _________________________________________________ 9
Ferrous Metals ___________________________________________________________ 13

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Wrought Iron ___________________________________________________________ 13
Modern Iron Production ___________________________________________________ 13
Pig Iron _______________________________________________________________ 14
Cast Iron ______________________________________________________________ 15

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Microstructure ___________________________________________________________ 16
Steel ___________________________________________________________________ 17
Open Hearth Process ____________________________________________________ 18
Basic Oxygen Steelmaking ________________________________________________ 19
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The Composition of Steel __________________________________________________ 21
Plain Carbon Steel _______________________________________________________ 22
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Metal Condition _________________________________________________________ 23
Alloy Steel _____________________________________________________________ 23
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Identification of Steels ____________________________________________________ 27

Uses of Steel ___________________________________________________________ 28
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Heat Treatment __________________________________________________________ 29

Critical Points ___________________________________________________________ 29
Annealing and Normalising ________________________________________________ 31
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Hardening and Tempering _________________________________________________ 32

Surface Hardening _______________________________________________________ 34
(b) Testing of Ferrous Materials ______________________________________________ 39
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The Tensile Test _________________________________________________________ 39

Stress_________________________________________________________________ 39
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Strain _________________________________________________________________ 39
Tensile Test Pieces ______________________________________________________ 42
Creep _________________________________________________________________ 42
Hardness Tests __________________________________________________________ 45
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The Brinell Hardness Test _________________________________________________ 45

The Vickers Pyramid Hardness Test _________________________________________ 46
The Rockwell Hardness Test _______________________________________________ 46
The Shore Scleroscope Hardness Test _______________________________________ 48
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Impact Tests ____________________________________________________________ 49

Fatigue Tests ____________________________________________________________ 51
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.5

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.6

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Module 6.1 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement

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These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of CAR 66, and the associated Knowledge
Levels as specified below:

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Licence
CAR 66
Objective Category
Reference
A B1 B2 B3

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Ferrous Metals 6.1
Characteristics, properties and identification of (a) 1 2 1 2
common alloy steels used in aircraft;

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Heat treatment and application of alloy steels.
Testing of ferrous materials for hardness, tensile (b) - 1 1 1
strength, fatigue strength and impact resistance.
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.7

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.8

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6.1 Ferrous Metals
(a)

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Properties and Terminology

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Before studying the different types of metal and alloy it is necessary to define the terminology that
describes their properties. The properties which are important in engineering terms are;

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Tensile Strength

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Tensile Strength or Tenacity describes the ability of a material to resist breaking under a tensile
(stretching) force. Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) is a measure of the maximum pulling stress which a
material can endure before breaking. UTS is rated as a given load across a unit area.

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Compressive Strength
This is a measure of a materials ability to withstand compressive or squeezing loads without splitting or
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cracking.
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Shear Strength
Shear Strength is the ability to resist off-set (scissor action) loads.
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Toughness
Toughness is the ability of a material to resist fracture under impact load. It is the opposite of brittleness
and should not be confused with strength.
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.9

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Elasticity

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Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original shape after deformation. The extension or
compression of a spring is a good example.

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Plasticity
Plasticity is the opposite to elasticity and is the ability of a material to retain any shape imposed by a
force when that force is removed. A good example of this is the stamping of images on medals and
coins.
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Ductility
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Ductility is the capacity of a material for plastic deformation under tensile loading without fracture. A
ductile material may be worked into shape without loss of strength and may be drawn into wire form. If
subjected to a shock load, the material will yield and become deformed.
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Malleability
Malleability is the capacity of a material for plastic deformation and forming under compressive load
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without cracking. It should NOT be confused with ductility.

Note: These qualities are similar when selecting material for forming into sheet or strip, but not when
wire drawing, e.g. lead is malleable and can be beaten or rolled into sheet, but it is not ductile enough for
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making wire. Malleable materials are those used for forging, stamping or pressing.
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.10

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Hardness
The ability of a material to withstand scratching, abrasion, indentation or permanent distortion and wear.
Hardness may be increased by cold working the metals and, in the case of many alloys, by heat
treatment.

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Brittleness
Brittleness is the tendency of a material to fracture when subjected to a shock loading or blow. There is
no permanent deformation before fracture to act as a warning of failure.

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Rigidity

confused with strength and rigid materials are often brittle.

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Rigidity or stiffness is the ability of a material to withstand a load without deflection. It should not be

Hot Shortness
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Hot shortness is an undesirable property of certain metals and alloys
whereby they are brittle in some elevated temperature range.
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Cold Shortness
When a metal is brittle in the cold state.
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Physical Properties
Other important physical properties include;

 Fusibility, the ability of a material to be easily liquefied by heat for welding purposes,
 Thermal Conductivity, a measure of the ability of a material to conduct a certain amount of heat
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within a given time, Copper is a good example,

 Electrical Conductivity, a measure of the efficiency of a material to conduct an electrical
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current,
 Electrical Resistance, a measure of the ability of a material to impede the flow of an electrical
current through it.
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.11

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.12

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Ferrous Metals
Metals which contain mostly iron are known as Ferrous Metals from the Latin “ferrum” meaning iron.
Pure iron is too soft and reactive to be used on its own, but when alloyed with other elements it is one of
the most important metals to the engineer.

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Iron and the technology to produce it first came into use over three thousand years ago in Asia Minor

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and slowly spread throughout the world, replacing the earlier stone, copper and bronze ages. By five
hundred BC the Greeks were making steel (perhaps accidentally) by working iron in a charcoal furnace.

Iron ores such as magnetite (Fe3O4 - 72% iron) and haematite (Fe2O3 - 70% iron) are quarried or mined
from the earth‟s crust and converted by a series of processes into iron.

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Wrought Iron
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Wrought (worked) iron is one of the oldest forms of purified iron. Early wrought iron was made in the fire
from ore and charcoal. The heat was sufficient for the charcoal to reduce the iron oxide to iron, but not to
melt it or allow it to absorb carbon. As a result the silicate slags were not refined away as is done now,
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but entrained in the material to produce a fibrous structure. For this reason, old wrought artefacts have
lasted for hundreds of years. Iron may corrode, but not its coating of silicate slags.
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In the Aston process for mass production of wrought iron, pig iron is refined by modern methods and
then poured into molten iron silicate slag. The resulting semisolid mass is passed between rollers that
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squeeze out most of the slag. The wrought iron has 5% siliceous (glassy) slags which take the form of
linear fibres giving the metal the characteristic grain running through it. It is tough, malleable, ductile,
corrosion resistant, and melts only at high temperatures.

It is used to make rivets, bolts, pipes, chains, and anchors, and is also used for ornamental ironwork but
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due to its high production cost and comparatively low strength, wrought iron is now only used for
specialist applications.
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Modern Iron Production

Today Pig Iron is produced by smelting iron ore in a blast furnace similar to that illustrated. The 100 foot
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tall steel body of the furnace is supported in a framework and lined with refractory material.

The charge material consists of iron ore which is first washed and then added to the blast furnace
together with high quality coke - low in sulphur content, and limestone which melts and combines with
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impurities and forms a slag. During charging, the double bell arrangement forms an 'airlock' and prevents
gases escaping. The furnace may be filled to the stock line and the charge material takes about eight
hours to reach the bottom.

The blast furnace gases are cleaned of particles and burned as fuel in the hot stove, a cyclic heat
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exchanger, used to heat the compressed air entering the blast main, to about 1000°C at 50-60psi. This
reduces by half the amount of coke required.

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.13

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Pig Iron
The blast air enters the furnace through the tuyeres and takes four to eight seconds to travel up through
the charge material, undergoing rapid chemical reactions to produce blast furnace gas. The main
reaction is that the oxygen in the air causes the coke to burn fiercely, generating heat which reduces the
ore to metal and slag.

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Iron, which melts out at 1538°C, is the heaviest product and drips to the bottom of the furnace. The

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lighter slag floats on top of the iron. When the iron reaches the level of the slag tapping hole, the slag is
run off. The iron is then tapped out from the bottom of the furnace.

The molten iron may be cast into small moulds known as pigs. If the blast furnace is situated close to a

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steel works, the molten iron is conveyed direct to the steel making furnaces in torpedo cars.

With continuous re-charging a furnace can produce up to 13 000 tonnes of pig iron a day and may run
for many years before it needs overhauling and relining.

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.14

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Cast Iron
Pig iron from a blast furnace contains about 4% carbon and small amounts of manganese, silicon,
phosphorus, sulphur and other impurities. It is not refined enough for making castings. In a foundry the
pig iron is re-melted together with coke, broken pieces of scrap iron and some limestone (again to
absorb impurities) in a small blast furnace called a cupola. Different types of limestone can be blended to

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absorb different elements and achieve the desired composition of the iron. Similarly the grade of scrap
iron added can be used to determine the final composition.

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Of the constituents;
Carbon is always present, but takes several forms; combined with the iron to form compounds such as
ferrite and cementite or 'free' as graphite. These forms and the proportions of each control the useful

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properties of the iron.

Phosphorus embrittles the iron by forming iron phosphide and is kept to a minimum, although it does
improve the fluidity of molten iron for intricate castings.

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Sulphur is a natural product of iron ore and forms iron sulphide which seriously embrittles cast iron,
affecting its workability and weldability, for this reason it is kept to a minimum.

Manganese is important for two reasons. Firstly, it readily combines with sulphur to form manganese

the iron.
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sulphide, reducing the damaging effects of the sulphur. Secondly, in controlled extra amounts it hardens

Silicon affects the formation of the different types of carbon and can be used to soften the iron. The
amounts of silicon and manganese must be balanced to achieve the desired properties.
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In the cupola the molten iron, having a melting point of around 1200°C, flows to the bottom of the furnace
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and is tapped directly into ladles or moulds. Cast iron is an important material for the following reasons;

• It is a cheap metal, since it can be produced by simple adjustments to the composition of ordinary
pig iron.
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• Rigidity and strength under compression are good, but not good in tension.
• It is easy to machine.
• It casts easily due to its fluidity when molten.
• Its composition can be altered to make it stronger and tougher if required.
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Cast iron has a carbon content of between 2 and 6 % and is used extensively to make machine parts,
engine cylinder blocks, stoves, pipes, steam radiators, and many other products.
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.15

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Microstructure
The constituents of ferrous metals are mainly crystalline solid solution compounds of carbon in iron, such
as ferrite which contains no more than 0.006% carbon and has softness and ductility similar to pure iron,
and cementite (iron carbide - Fe3C) which contains 6.67% carbon and is hard and brittle. The

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arrangement of these crystals is referred to as the Microstructure of the metal and can be viewed under
a powerful microscope. The addition of other elements and/or heat will alter the microstructure.

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The microstructure of wrought iron is primarily ferrite crystals with inclusions of slag composed mainly of
iron silicate.

Cast iron can contain ferrite, cementite and free carbon in the form of graphite flakes which are brittle

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and weak. Ferrite and cementite tend to form a laminated structure called pearlite which combines the
properties of both.

Gray cast iron, or gray iron, is produced when the iron in the mould is cooled slowly. It has all three

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forms of carbon and is relatively soft and weak in tension due to the effects of the graphite flakes
distributed through the pearlite structure, which form during the slow cooling process. However the
graphite does give the iron self-lubricating and vibration damping properties and it is easy to machine.

White cast iron, or white iron, which is harder and more brittle, is made by cooling the molten iron rapidly.

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It is composed of pearlite and a larger proportion of cementite, as graphite cannot form during the rapid

A malleable cast iron can be made by annealing white iron castings in a special furnace. Some of the
carbon separates from the cementite; it is much more finely divided than in gray iron.
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A ductile iron may be prepared by adding magnesium to the molten pig iron; when the iron is cast the
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carbon forms tiny spherical nodules around the magnesium. Ductile iron is strong, shock resistant, and
easily machined.
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.16

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Steel
Steel is often described as an alloy of iron and carbon, although all commercially available ferrous
metals contain a proportion of carbon, in fact cast iron contains more carbon than high carbon steel! The
difference is in the form that the carbon takes, steel never contains free carbon (graphite).

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Reliable steel manufacture was first perfected by the Celts, in about AD 200. They cut wrought iron into

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small strips and stacked the strips in a wrought iron container with burnt bone and carbon and then
heated the iron in a charcoal-fired furnace for 10-12 hours at high heat. In the process, carbon was
absorbed into the surface of the metal and impurities removed. They then forge welded the red hot
pieces together and produced blades.

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At around the same time steel was produced in Pakistan, probably by melting iron ore and carbon in a
ceramic crucible and pouring it into ingots which were then exported widely through the middle east.

The mass production of steel was pioneered by Sir Henry Bessemer in1855. Molten pig iron was poured

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into his 'Bessemer Converter', a pivoted, egg shaped container with a charging hole at the small end.
This was tilted upright and air was then blown in through tuyeres at the bottom of the chamber and
bubbled through the molten iron. The oxygen in the air combined with impurities in the iron, some
burning violently (producing heat to keep the metal molten) others oxidising to form slag at the top. The
reaction produced flames, sparks, fumes and smoke at the opening and was both spectacular and
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dangerous . When completed, other element could be added to produce the composition required. The
converter was then tilted to pour out the finished steel into ladles for casting, leaving the slag to be
disposed of.
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This process could produce up to 20 tonnes of cheap, high quality steel in under one hour and was vital
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to the industrial revolution.

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.17

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Open Hearth Process
In the open hearth process, developed by the Siemens brothers in the 1860s, the heat required to melt
the pig iron and scrap is obtained by burning a mixture of gas or oil and air over the metal, as shown
below. The fuel and air are pre-heated to a high temperature in regenerators.

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Lime is added to the charge, in order to form a basic slag, and so remove the phosphorous which is

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present in most pig irons. The slag floats on the surface of the molten steel and is drawn off. Carbon is
then added in the form of anthracite which dissolves in the molten steel. Finally the molten steel is
tapped and transferred to a large ladle which in turn pours the steel into moulds to produce ingots each
of several tonnes mass.

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The open hearth process is no longer used in Europe but is still found elsewhere.

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.18

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Basic Oxygen Steelmaking
A typical Basic Oxygen Furnace is a modern version of the Bessemer Converter and consists of a steel
cased converter lined with dolomite holding up to 400 tonnes of metal. The charge consists of scrap
steel, lime and molten pig iron. Oxygen is then blown at the surface of the molten charge from a water
cooled „lance‟. This is lowered through the mouth of the converter to within 0.5 metres of the surface of

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the metal. The impurities in the metal are oxidised during the blow which lasts about fifteen minutes.
During this time the temperature is carefully controlled and the molten metal analysed. When the

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temperature and metal analysis are satisfactory, the hood is lifted, the converter tilted and the steel
poured from below the slag into the ladle. The steel is then conveyed to the continuous casting plant and
cast into ingots. Finally the converter is tilted to pour the slag into a slag ladle.

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.19

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Electric Arc Steel Making
An electric arc furnace is illustrated as below. The heat required to melt the charge is produced by
electric arcs struck between carbon electrodes and the steel. The impurities are oxidised from the charge
by melting it under a covering of slag which absorbs the oxidised impurities and may then be run off by
tilting the furnace. The charge consists of scrap, iron ore, blast furnace pig iron and limestone.

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When the impurities are oxidised, they combine with oxygen and form a oxides which floats on top of the

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molten steel, together with the slag.

The advantage of the electric furnace is that there is far less of the gas, fumes and impurities which are
present in fuel fed furnaces and which may allow impurities into the molten metal. Electric furnaces are

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used to make high quality steels.

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.20

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The Composition of Steel

Plain Carbon Steel

Plain carbon steels are alloys of iron and up to 1.7% carbon although 1.5% is seldom exceeded. Low

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carbon or „mild‟ steel contains up to 0.3% carbon, Medium carbon steel 0.3% to 0.8% carbon and High
Carbon Steel 0.8% to 1.7% carbon. Above 1.7% carbon, the excess is in the form of free (uncombined)

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carbon or graphite, which has very low strength (e.g. cast iron).

Most ordinary steels also contain up to 1.0% manganese, left over during the steel making process. As
with cast iron, manganese dissolves in steel, slightly increasing its strength and hardness, and helps
reduce the sulphur content of the steel. Both sulphur and phosphorous are harmful impurities causing

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brittleness in steels. Most specifications allow no more than 0.06% of either of these elements. High
quality steels would contain no more than 0.04% of each element.

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.21

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Plain Carbon Steel
In a low carbon steel, these constituents, when viewed through a microscope, appear as a laminated
structure (pearlite), surrounded by free ferrite. With increasing carbon content, the proportion of pearlite
to ferrite increases until, at 0.83% carbon content, the steel is entirely pearlite. Above 0.83% carbon
content, a microscopic examination shows pearlite surrounded by free cementite. Ferrite is soft, ductile

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and not very strong. Pearlite is strong and tough, but soft enough to be worked. Cementite is very hard
and brittle. As the carbon content is increased up to 0.83% the steel gets tougher and stronger. When

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the carbon content exceeds 0.83%, because of the increasing cementite content the steel becomes very
hard and progressively more brittle.

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.22

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Metal Condition
Apart from its composition, the properties of steel are affected by the condition of its crystalline grains.
When work is performed on the metal at normal temperatures, such as bending, squeezing and
stretching ('cold working'), the grains become distorted and stressed, and the metal becomes stiff and
brittle. In this state it is said to be 'work hardened'.

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Similarly, hot working, such as forging, hot rolling and extrusion at elevated temperatures, can lead to

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excessive grain growth, which occurs well below the melting point and which again weakens the metal.

Both of these problems can be overcome by recrystallising the metal in a heat treatment process which
will be described later.

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Alloy Steel

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Alloy steels are combinations of iron and carbon with some other element or elements added in varied
proportions. Such additional elements give the steel specific properties, unobtainable to the same
degree in plain carbon steel. To develop the desired properties, more varied heat treatment is required.
This may require the use of special equipment and skills. Alloy steels are used for the following
purposes:

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When it is desired that the steel should have great strength, resistance to wear, springiness or
resistance to corrosion.
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• To obtain mechanical properties by less drastic heat treatment than would be required in a plain
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carbon steel.
• To enable the effect of heat treatment to penetrate uniformly throughout a large mass of steel.
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The most common of these alloying metals are:

Nickel - with varying percentages of nickel, the following effects are produced
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• Prevents grain growth - used in case hardening steels.

• Increases strength and toughness.
• Improves resistance to corrosion.
• Lowers the critical temperatures so that hardening requires a less severe quench.
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• With 25% nickel added, the steel is austenitic at room temperature and thus non-magnetic.
• With 35% nickel added, the steel will have a coefficient of expansion of nearly zero.
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• A high percentage of nickel gives higher magnetic permeability than obtained with soft iron.
• Used in the production of Bolts, Keys, Clevises and Pins

Chromium
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• Increases hardness and strength.

• Increases rate of grain growth, so nickel, which has the opposite effect, is often added with
chromium to control the grain size.
• Increases corrosion resistance. Used to make ball and roller bearings.
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Nickel/Chrome Steels

• Low nickel/chrome steels (3% Nickel/ 1% Chromium) are used for piston engine crankshafts,
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connecting rods and similar applications

• High nickel/chrome steels (18% Chromium/8% Nickel) are the stainless steels.

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.23

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Manganese

• Increases strength, toughness, shock and wear resistance.

• High Manganese steels (about 12% manganese) are very soft when produced but any cold work

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by rubbing, cutting etc. causes the surface to become very hard and wear resistant.
• Used for rock crusher parts.

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Vanadium - percentage required is very low

• Increases tensile strength and elastic limit.

• Increases shock resistance and fatigue resistance. Used for valve springs, dies.

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Cobalt

• Used in the production of cutting tool materials.

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• Used in the production of permanent magnets.

Molybdenum - percentage required is very low

• Increases resistance to creep at high temperatures.

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Prevents brittleness experienced by some nickel/chrome steels when they are heated.
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Tungsten
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• Improves heat and wear resistance.

• Used in the production of many cutting tool materials.
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Alloy steel is used in undercarriages, engine mountings, joint plates (at wing roots etc.), door latches,
bolts and fasteners etc. where high strength and corrosion resistance is required. Steel is also used to
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make many engine parts.

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The various nickel steels used in aircraft are produced by combining nickel with carbon steel. Steels
containing from 3 to 3.75 percent nickel are commonly used. Nickel increases the hardness, tensile
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strength, and elastic limit of steel without appreciably decreasing the ductility. It also intensifies the

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.24

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hardening effect of heat treatment. SAE 2330 steel is used extensively for aircraft parts, such as bolts,
terminals, keys, clevises, and pins.

Chromium steel has high hardness, strength, and corrosion-resistant properties, and is particularly
adaptable for heat-treated forgings that require greater toughness and strength than can be obtained in

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plain carbon steel. Chromium steel can be used for such articles as the balls and rollers of antifriction
bearings.

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Chrome-nickel 'Stainless Steel' or 'Corrosion Resistant Steel' (often referred to as SS or CRES) are
the most corrosion-resistant alloy steels. The anticorrosive degree of this steel is determined by the
surface condition of the metal as well as by the composition, temperature, and concentration of the
corrosive agent. The principal alloy of stainless steel is chromium. The corrosion-resistant steel most

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often used in aircraft construction is known as 18-8 steel because it is 18 %chromium and 8 % nickel.
One distinctive feature of 18-8 steel is that its strength can be increased by cold working. Stainless steel
can be rolled, drawn, bent, or formed to any shape.

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Because these steels expand about 50 percent more than mild steel and conduct heat only about 40
percent as rapidly, they are more difficult to weld. Stainless steel can be used for almost any part of an
aircraft. Some of its common applications are in the fabrication of structural and machine parts, springs,
castings, tie rods, and control cables.

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Chrome-vanadium steels are made of approximately 18 percent vanadium and about 1 percent
chromium. When heat treated, they have strength, toughness, and resistance to wear and fatigue. A
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special grade of this steel in sheet form can be cold formed into intricate shapes. It can be folded and
flattened without signs of breaking or failure. SAE 6150 is used for making springs, while chrome-
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vanadium with high carbon content, SAE 6195, is used for ball roller bearings.

Molybdenum in small percentages is used in combination with chromium form chrome-molybdenum

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steel, which has various uses in aircraft. Molybdenum is a strong alloying element that raises the
ultimate strength of steel without affecting ductility or workability. Molybdenum steels are tough and wear
resistant, and they harden throughout when heat treated. They are especially adaptable for welding and,
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for this reason, are used principally for welded structural parts and assemblies. This type steel has
practically replaced carbon steel in the fabrication of fuselage tubing, engine mounts, landing gears, and
other structural parts. For example, a heat-treated SAE X4130 tube is approximately four times as strong
as an SAW 1025 tube of the same weight and size.
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A series of chrome-molybdenum steels most used in aircraft construction contains 0.25 to 0.55 percent
carbon, 0.15 to 0.25 percent molybdenum, 0.50 to 1.10 percent chromium. These steels, when suitably
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heat treated, are deep hardening, easily machined, readily welded by either gas or electric methods, and
are especially adapted to high-temperature service.

Although it is relatively easy to produce very high strength steel, such steels are difficult to manufacture
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into finished components. Maraging steel overcomes these problems.

Carbon is necessary for the hardening of conventional high tensile steels. However, it causes brittleness
and distortion which is difficult to rectify. It also makes welding difficult. Maraging steels contain little or
no carbon and are hardened by adding nickel, cobalt or molybdenum. A typical maraging steel would
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contain 17-19% nickel, 8-9% cobalt, and 3-5% molybdenum and 0.6-0.9% titanium. The carbon content
would be 0.03% and there would be in addition very small amounts of manganese, silicon, sulphur,
phosphorous, aluminium, boron, calcium and zirconium.
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The main advantages of maraging steels as compared with low alloy steels are:

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.25

For Training Purposes Only
 • tougher
• simpler heat treatments are possible
• much less distortion during heat treatments
• very much simpler to weld
• easier to machine

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• better resistance to stress corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement

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They are, however, very expensive.

Maraging steels have been used in aircraft undercarriages and various structural forgings.

A286 alloy is an iron-based 'superalloy' useful for applications requiring high strength and corrosion

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resistance up to 704°C and for lower stress applications at higher temperatures. It is a heat and
corrosion resistant austenitic iron-base material which can be age hardened to a high strength level. The
alloy is also used for low temperature applications requiring a ductile, non-magnetic high strength
material at temperatures ranging from above room temperature down to at least -196°C. It is comprised

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of 57% iron, 25% nickel, 14.5% chromium, 2% titanium, 0.3% vanadium plus traces of other elements
and 0.04% carbon.

Inconel is a family of nickel-chromium-iron alloys closely resembling stainless steel in appearance but is
a nickel alloy not a steel (60% nickel, 29% chromium, 6% iron). Because these two metals look very
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much alike, a distinguishing test is often necessary. One method of identification is to use a solution of
10 grams of cupric chloride in 100 cubic centimetres of hydrochloric acid. With a medicine dropper, place
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1 drop of the solution on a sample of each metal to be tested and allow it to remain for 2 minutes. At the
end of this period, slowly add 3 or 4 drops of water to the solution on the metal samples, 1 drop at a
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time, then wash the samples in clear water and dry them. If the metal is stainless steel, the copper in the
cupric chloride solution will be deposited on the metal leaving a copper-coloured spot. If the sample is
inconel, a new-looking spot will be present.
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.26

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Identification of Steels
In the USA, the Society of Automotive Engineers (S AE) has classified steel alloys with a four digit
numerical index system:

• The first digit identifies the principle alloying element in the steel.

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• The second digit, the percentage of this alloying element.
• The last two digits, the percentage in hundredths of a percent of the carbon in the steel.

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Where there is more than 0.99% carbon, a fifth digit is added. The fifth digit is also applied to distinguish
between some of the corrosion resistant alloys.

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.27

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Uses of Steel
Alloy steel has a more limited application in aircraft than aluminium alloys due to its weight, which gives it
a lower strength to weight ratio. It is, however, more dense and thus has a greater strength to volume
ratio. It also has greater heat resistance. It comprises about 15% of the structural weight of a modern jet
transport. Steel is used where high tensile strength, stiffness and resistance to wear is required. It is

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used for example in undercarriages, engine mountings, door latches, flap tracks and for bolts and other
fasteners.

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The proportion of steel in an engine is about 45% by weight. Alloyed steels are used for numerous parts
such as shafts, pinions, gears and casings.

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.28

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Heat Treatment
In a low carbon steel, the constituents, when viewed through a microscope, appear as a laminated
structure (pearlite), surrounded by free ferrite. With increasing carbon content, the proportion of pearlite
to ferrite increases until, with a 0.83% carbon content, the steel is entirely pearlite. Above 0.83% carbon

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content, a microscopic examination shows pearlite surrounded by free cementite.

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Ferrite, sometimes called the alpha (α) phase of steel, is soft, ductile and not very strong. Cementite,
referred to as the iron-carbide phase, is very hard and brittle.

Critical Points

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When a piece of steel containing about 0.3% carbon is heated at a uniform rate, the temperature of the
steel will, at first, rise steadily. When the temperature reaches 723°C (a dull red colour) it will remain
there for a time then rise again at a uniform rate. If the heating is continued there is a second pause in
the rise in temperature. After this, if the heating is continued, the temperature will continue to rise at

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approximately the initial rate until it melts at around 1600°C.

During these periods of arrest, the metal absorbs heat, but instead of raising the temperature, the heat
brings about a structural change in the steel. The temperatures at which these periods occur are called
„critical‟ or „arrest‟ points.
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If the steel is heated to 900°C (a bright reddish yellow colour) then removed from the furnace and
observed in a darkened room, it will be seen that as it cools it will lose its brilliance. At the points where it
received its checks in heating the metal is seen to glow more brightly and it will seem that the cooling
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has stopped. In fact the steel will be seen to take on an extra glow as though it was reheated. After this
the rate of cooling will be normal until the metal is cold.
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The temperature at which the changes start (the lower critical point) is the same for all steels and is
about 723°C. At this temperature, the pearlite disappears as the layers of ferrite and cementite of which
it is composed, dissolve and form a solid solution known as austenite and free ferrite. Austenite, which
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is non-magnetic, is known as the gamma (γ) phase of steel. At the upper critical point (which varies
depending on carbon content) the solution becomes pure austenite.
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In high carbon steels, at the lower critical point the solution becomes a mixture of austenite and
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cementite, again with pure austenite above the upper critical point. When steel is allowed to cool slowly
these changes occur in the reverse order.

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.29

For Training Purposes Only
At 0.83% carbon the ferrite and cementite are in such proportion that the structure is solid pearlite. When
heated to 723°C all the pearlite becomes austenite (i.e. upper and lower critical points have converged).

This is said to be the eutectoid point of steel and pearlite is the eutectoid of steel. The term 'Eutectic'
comes from the Greek tektos - to melt, and indicates that the mixture acts like a pure substance and

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melts at a single temperature. Eutectoid has a similar meaning but refers to the solid solution.

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Heat treatment is a series of operations involving the heating and cooling of metals in the solid state. Its
purpose is to change the mechanical properties of the metal so that it will be harder, stronger or more
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resistant to impact. It can also make a metal softer and more ductile when it has become work hardened
and release internal stresses after cold working. No single heat treatment can produce all these
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characteristics. Some properties may be improved at the expense of others e.g. when being hardened a
metal may become brittle.

The most common forms of heat treatment for ferrous metal are annealing, normalising, hardening,
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tempering and surface hardening.

The temperature to which the metal is heated and the rate of cooling is most important. The results
obtained depend on the structure of the metal and on the way the structure changes when the metal is
heated and cooled. Most alloys respond to heat treatment since their structures change with heating and
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cooling.

During heat treatments, steel should be heated slowly and uniformly. Close control of temperature is
essential. Electric and salt bath furnaces are often used. The steel must remain in the furnace until it is
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heated throughout and thus soaking time varies.

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.30

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Cooling after heating can be carried out in the furnace, in air or by quenching in liquid depending on the
process. Oil is normally used for quenching alloy steels.

Many alloy steels respond to the same heat treatment processes as plain carbon steels although the
alloying elements may alter the temperature required for the process.

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Annealing and Normalising

Annealing

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When steel is cold worked, hammered, bent, rolled etc., its crystal structure is distorted. Stresses and
strains are set up and the metal may become brittle and weakened. Also when steel is kept for
considerable time well above the upper critical point (during casting and forging) an increase in the grain
size takes place. This process is used to render the steel soft, ductile and stress free, so that further cold

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working or machining can take place.

Low carbon steel can be stress relief annealed at 630-700°C - below its lower critical point - by slowly
heating it, then slowly cooling it, usually still in the furnace after the source of heat has been removed.
This recrystallises it's grains. Steels with a higher carbon content may require quench hardening first to
reduce the grain size.
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Large castings, forgings and heavily worked items often require full annealing. Steels with a carbon
content below the eutectoid point are heated to about 50° above their upper critical point, while those
with a higher carbon content are heated to about 50° above their lower critical point.
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This higher temperature transforms some or all of the metal into austenite. The slow cooling allows the
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normal structural changes to take place and the steel returns to its stable pearlite and ferrite or pearlite
and cementite condition.
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Normalising
Work or heat hardening can result in a loss toughness as well as internal stress. Normalising is similar to
full annealing and restores the crystalline structure to a normal condition, relieving stresses and strains.

Normalising is carried out by heating all steels slowly to about 50°C above its upper critical point and
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then allowing it to cool freely in the air. This more rapid rate of cooling, when compared with the
annealing process, gives the steel a finer grain structure and greater toughness.
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Once normalised, the metal is suitable for only very limited cold working but is in a good condition for
final machining processes.
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.31

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Hardening and Tempering

Hardening

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When a carbon steel is heated to a temperature in its full annealing range then cooled by rapid
quenching, the normal structural change does not occur. Instead, the austenite is changed into

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martensite. Martensite has a fine needle like crystal structure and is the hardest structure that can be
produced in plain carbon steel. Because the crystals are a supersaturated solid solution of carbon and
iron this hardening effect only occurs in medium and high carbon steels, below 0.4% there is insufficient
carbon for martensite to form. Thus the degree of hardness of a steel depends upon its carbon content
and its rate of cooling.

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The cooling rate is critical as it affects the final properties of the steel; too slow and some pearlite will
form reducing the hardness of the metal; too fast and the metal will crack or distort. Steel may be
quenched in air, oil or water. Water gives the most rapid cooling. Oil gives a slower quench which

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reduces the hardness of the part but makes it tougher and reduces the risk of cracking. Air is the least
severe and is used for small sections.

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Tempering
Steel is tempered to reduce the brittleness which is caused by hardening. It is, however, very important
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that sufficient hardness is retained by the steel. The steel is reheated to a fairly low temperature, then
quenched in water. The temperature depends on the purpose of the tool or article. Tempering
temperatures below 200°C can only relieve hardening stresses, but above 220°C the hard, brittle
martensite starts to change into a fine form of pearlite. The higher the tempering temperature, the less is
the hardness but the greater is the toughness.
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The temperature required may be judged from the temper colours of the fine oxide film which appears on
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the bright surface of steel as it is heated slowly. Each colour indicates a temperature. A short table of
articles and suitable temper temperatures is given here. Where a large amount of tempering is carried
out, ovens, or baths of molten salts having accurate temperature control, give better results. The colour
method is used for single tools but is a rough guide only.
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.32

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.33

For Training Purposes Only
Surface Hardening

Very often a component must have a hard, wear resisting surface that is supported by a tough, shock
resisting core. This combination of different properties can be obtained in a single piece of steel by

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surface hardening. Methods of surface hardening are as follows:

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Case Hardening
In this process the component is usually made from a low carbon steel which will not respond to direct
hardening treatment. The component is carburised to increase the carbon content of the surface to about
0.83%. This part is then heat treated to refine the grain of the core which is still low carbon steel and
harden the case which is now high carbon steel. The carburising process is carried out at a temperature

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of about 900°C to 950°C. The depth of the case will depend on the time held at this temperature.

The Box Process (Pack Carburising)

The parts are thoroughly cleaned and packed in a steel box along with a material rich in carbon. The lid

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is sealed to prevent gas escaping during carburising and to prevent gases from the furnace entering.
The box is placed in the furnace and heated to a temperature of 900°C. This temperature is maintained
for sufficient time to give the required thickness of case. Carburising at this temperature for four hours
gives a case approximately one millimetre thick. This permits final machining of the part. The parts are
allowed to cool down slowly in the box in order to anneal the newly formed case.

Heat Treatment
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The grain of the core (which will have grown during the carburising process) is refined or normalised by
heating to its annealing temperature of about 850°C then quenching in water or oil.
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The case is refined and hardened by heating the part to its hardening temperature of about 750°C, then
quenching in water or oil.
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The article can then be tempered at about 200°C to remove the quenching stresses.
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Surfaces of the part not requiring case hardening can be protected by electro-plating these areas with
copper.

Cyanide Hardening
The part is placed in molten salts consisting mainly of sodium cyanide at a temperature of approximately
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900°C, which provides both the necessary heat and the material for carburising. This process is used
where a hardened layer of 0.1 to 0.25 mm may be sufficient.
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Articles carburised by this method are then subjected to the same refining and hardening heat treatment
as case hardened parts.

Note: Sodium Cyanide is highly poisonous and strict safety precautions must be observed in workshops
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where it is used.
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.34

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Gas Carburising
In this process the components are heated at about 900ºC for three hours or more in an atmosphere
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containing methane and propane which deposit carbon at the surface of the component. These gases
are usually mixed with nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon monoxide.

Again, articles carburised by this method are then subjected to the same refining and hardening heat
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treatment as case hardened parts.

Flame Hardening
In this process localised areas of the surface of a medium and high carbon steel part may be hardened
by heating and quenching. The surface is heated to above its hardening temperature by means of a
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travelling oxy-acetylene torch and is immediately quenched, before the core temperature rises, by a jet
of water from a supply built into the torch assembly.
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Slideways and tracks on machine beds are hardened in this way. Gears and spindles can be rotated, the
whole surface being treated simultaneously.
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Low alloy steels containing up to 4.0% nickel and 1.0% chromium are also suitable for this process.
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.35

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Induction Hardening
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This process is similar in principle to flame hardening except that the component is held stationary while
the whole circumference is heated simultaneously by means of an induction coil. The coil carries a high
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frequency current, which produces eddy currents in the surface of the component, raising its
temperature.
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As soon as the surface of the component has reached the necessary temperature, the current is
switched off and the surface is quenched by jets of water. Again the component must contain at least
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0.4% carbon. Using this process it is possible to harden selected areas of symmetrical components.
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.36

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Nitriding
This is a process in which certain alloy steels assume an intensely hard surface when heated in an
atmosphere rich in ammonia gas.

These steels, generally known as nitriding steels, contain aluminium and chromium. The process

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consists of heating the parts in a box at a temperature of 500°C, and passing a steady stream of dry
ammonia gas through the box for a period of from 10 to 90 hours. During this time the steel absorbs

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nitrogen from the ammonia gas. The hardened layer produced is from 0.15mm to 0.8mm thick.

The fairly low temperature of the process means there is no need to quench the parts, and thus there is
less chance of the parts being distorted.

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Nitriding is used to harden the bearing surfaces of piston engine crankshafts. It is also used to harden
the cylinders of piston engines. Any areas of the surface which are not required to be hardened are
protected by coating with tin or by nickel plating.

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.37

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.38

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(b) Testing of Ferrous Materials
The specifications aircraft materials will list the tests which must be applied to a material to ensure that it
is suitable for use in aircraft construction. British Standard BS 4A, „Specification for test pieces and test

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methods for metallic materials‟, describes the various tests which may be required on these materials.

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Among the tests which may be required are those for tensile strength, fatigue strength, hardness and
impact resistance.

The Tensile Test

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Tensile Strength describes the ability of a material to resist breaking under a tension (stretching) force.
The tensile test measures the stress required to cause fracture of a test piece in tension. The results of a
tensile test will give tensile strength proof stress and Youngs Modulus of Elasticity.

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Stress
Stress is the state that occurs within a material when the said material is subjected to forces which tend
to cause distortion. The intensity of the stress will depend on the magnitude and direction of the applied
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force and the cross-sectional area of the material withstanding the stress.

Therefore, stress is the applied force (or load)divided by the cross sectional area. The most commonly
used unit of stress is the N/mm2, the use of large figures is avoided by the use of SI units since 1N/mm2 =
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1MN/m2 or 1MPa. Imperial measurements in thousands of pounds force per square inch (lbf/in2 , PFSI or
just PSI), or 'KSI' can also be found, particularly in American specifications.
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1lbf = 4.448N

The bar (b) and its multiple the hectobar (hbar) are also sometimes used as units of stress.
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1 bar = 105 N/m2 or 105 MPa.

1hbar = 107 N/m2 or 10 N/mm2.

Note: When converting between metric and imperial values both the load and the area have to be
converted.
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Strain
When a force is applied to a body which resists the force, some distortion of the shape of the body must
occur. This distortion is measured by what is called the strain.
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In the tensile test, a test piece of known cross sectional area is gripped in the jaws of a tensile testing
machine. A tensile force is then applied which is increased by suitable increments. For each increment of
force applied the amount by which the „gauge length‟ of the test piece increases, is measured using an
extensometer. When the test piece begins to stretch rapidly the extensometer is removed, otherwise it
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may be damaged. The maximum force applied to the test piece before it fractures is measured. Using
the results obtained during the test a stress/strain diagram can be plotted.
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.39

For Training Purposes Only
At first the amount of strain is very small and is directly proportional to the applied stress, therefore the
line OA in diagram opposite is straight. If the stress is released at any point before A is reached, the test
piece will return to its original length. Thus the extension between O and A is elastic and within the
elastic limit the strain is proportional to the stress producing it (Hooke‟s Law).

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Stress is directly proportional to strain;
stress = a constant x strain

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stress = constant E, a constant for the material
strain

This constant 'E' is known as Young‟s Modulus of elasticity for the material and is:

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E = stress where stress = load
strain area

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Strain is the ratio or fraction:

strain = Final Length - Original Length = Change in length (e)

Original Length Original Length (L)

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Its value indicates the ability of the material to resist tensile or compressive loading.
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.40

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For steel, the constant „E‟ is approximately 20,000 hectobar (or 200 kN/mm2). Thus a stress of 1 hbar will
produce an extension or contraction of 1 of the original length.
20,000
E = Stress E = Stress
Strain e/L

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E = Stress x L
e

So 20,000 = 1xL
e

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e= L or 1/20,000 of original length
20,000

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The working stress for mild steel under steady load conditions is approximately 10 hbar and the strain
produced by this stress will be 10 mm per millimetre length of specimen.
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different loads within the elastic range.

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The constant „E‟ may be found for a particular metal by comparing the extensions produced by two

If the test piece is stressed past the point A on the graph (known as the elastic limit or limit of
proportionality), the material suddenly „gives‟ i.e. it shows a sudden extension for very little increase in
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stress. This is called the yield point (Y) and if the stress is now removed, a small permanent extension
will remain in the material. Any extension of the material which occurs beyond the point A is of a plastic
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nature.

As the stress is increased the material stretches rapidly. At first along its entire length, and then locally to
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form a neck. Necking occurs just after the maximum stress has been applied at M.

After this point the test piece will go on stretching when some of the force has been removed until it
breaks at the point B. B is not the real breaking stress, because if the load is divided by the reduced
area the graph will follow the dotted line and show maximum stress at B1.
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In practice, a nominal value of the tensile strength of a material is calculated, using the maximum force
(at M) and the original cross sectional area of the test piece, thus:
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Tensile strength = maximum force used

(ultimate strength) original area of cross section
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.41

For Training Purposes Only
Tensile Test Pieces
The shape and dimensions of standard round and flat test pieces are specified in BS [Link] gauge
length specified is to allow measurement after fracture. The percentage elongation of the test piece can
then be derived. This is a measure of the ductility of the material. Proportional test pieces are round in
section and the gauge length is always five times the diameter.

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If the material is less than 10mm thick, a flat non-proportional test piece is used. It is 12.5mm wide and

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normally the full thickness of the material.

Tensile Test Pieces

Tensile testing machines vary both in design and capacity. Large machines capable of applying forces of

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over 1MN are in use.

Extensometers
Extensometers are used for measuring the extension over the gauge length of a test piece during a
tensile test. Strains within the elastic limit are extremely small, and during the routine testing of materials

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it is necessary to take measurements as small as 0.0025 mm (0.0001 in).

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Creep
When a metal is subjected to both tensile stress and high temperature over a long period, continuous
and permanent tensile elongation takes place even if the stress is below the yield stress.
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This is known as „creep‟, and the final fracture due to creep is known as „rupture‟. This phenomenon
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occurs within the normal limits of proportionality and must be studied when a metal is to be used in a
high temperature environment in order to determine working clearances and component life.

The „limiting creep stress‟ of a material at any given temperature is the maximum stress it can withstand
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without showing any measurable extension.

Creep tests are carried out on test pieces. A test piece is enclosed in a thermostatically controlled
electric tube furnace which can be held at a fixed temperature over the long period of time occupied by
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the test. The test piece is statically stressed and a sensitive extensometer is used to measure the
extremely small extension at suitable intervals of time. Creep curves, obtained for different static forces
at the same temperature are produced, and from these, the limiting creep stress is derived.
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.42

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.43

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.44

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Hardness Tests
Hardness is the resistance of a material to indentation, and by pressing a suitably shaped indenter into
the surface of the material being tested, a comparison of hardness values can be made.

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Hardness values are normally required by the material specification, and tests are also carried out to
check case hardening and hardening and tempering at the various stages of manufacture.

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The Brinell Hardness Test
In this test a hardened steel ball of known diameter is forced into the surface of a test piece by means of
a suitable standard load (which may be varied depending on the material under test). The diameter of

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the impression is then measured using a calibrated microscope and, knowing D, the diameter of the ball
and d, the diameter of the impression, the Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) is found from:

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To make calculations unnecessary, the hardness number H is found by reference to British Standard
tables, where H is read directly by entering the diameter of the impression d. The greater the number,
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the harder is the material.
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.45

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The Vickers Pyramid Hardness Test
The Vickers hardness test is similar to the Brinell test in that an impression is made by applying a load to
an indenter. The hardness number is then obtained from measurement of the impression. The indenter
is a diamond in the shape of a square based pyramid and the measurement is made across the diagonal
of the impression.

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The diagonal length of the square impression is measured by means of a microscope which has a

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variable slit built into the eyepiece.

An advantage of the Vickers hardness test is that hardness values for very hard materials are more
accurate than the corresponding Brinell numbers. This is because a diamond does not deform under

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high pressure, as a steel ball does, and so the result will be more accurate.

The width of the slit is adjusted so that its edges line up with the corners of the impression. The diagonal
length of the impression is then obtained from a digital counter geared to the movement of the slit. The
reading is converted to Vickers Pyramid Hardness Number (VPN) by reference to tables. The higher the

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number, the harder is the material.

The specified time of contact between the indenter and the test piece in both Vickers and Brinell
hardness tests is 15 seconds.

The Rockwell Hardness Test

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In the Rockwell hardness test an indentation is made in the test piece using a 1/16in. diameter hardened
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steel ball or a diamond cone of 120° angle using standard loads. The hardness number is indicated
directly on a dial on the test machine, no measurement of the diameter of the impression is required. It is
used mainly for the rapid routine testing of finished materials.
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.46

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.47

For Training Purposes Only
The Shore Scleroscope Hardness Test
This is a small portable instrument which can be used for testing the hardness of large components such
as castings and gears. These components could not be placed on the table of one of the other hardness
testing machines. The scleroscope uses a small diamond tipped hammer of approximately 2.5g, which is
released so that it falls from a standard height of about 250mm inside a graduated glass tube placed on

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the test surface. The height of rebound of the hammer is taken as the hardness index.

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The height of rebound is less with soft materials as they absorb more of the kinetic energy of the
hammer. Hard materials produce a greater height of rebound.

NOTE: This is not very accurate and is little used now.

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.48

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Impact Tests
Impact tests are used to indicate the toughness of a material and most importantly its ability to resist
mechanical shock, and to ensure that temper brittleness has not been introduced during heat treatments.

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The Izod impact test employs a standard notched test-piece which is clamped in a vice. A heavy
pendulum is allowed to strike the test piece after being released from a fixed height. The striking energy

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of approximately 163J is partially absorbed in breaking the test piece and as the pendulum swings past,
it carries with it a drag pointer which it leaves at its highest point of swing. This indicates the amount of
mechanical energy used in fracturing the test piece.

The notches in the test pieces are standardised using gauges.

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The Charpy impact test differs from the Izod test in that the test piece is supported at each end while the
Izod test uses a test piece held at one end only. The load on the pendulum can be varied so that the
impact energy is either 15OJ or 300J.
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The Izod test is required by most of the British material specifications, but where the test piece must be
tested at high or low temperatures the Charpy test is used. This is because it is easier to fit the test piece
into the Charpy machine and complete the test within the required 6 seconds after removal of the test
piece from the heating or cooling bath. Machines are available which carry out both the Izod and Charpy
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tests.
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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.49

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.50

For Training Purposes Only
Fatigue Tests
Fatigue is defined as the progressive deterioration of the strength of a material or structural component
during service such that failure can occur at much lower stress levels than the ultimate tensile stress of
the material. It affects most metals and their alloys and some plastics. Fatigue initiates small cracks in

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the material or component and causes them to grow into large cracks, under cyclic loading. If these
cracks are not detected, catastrophic failure of the structure may follow.

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Fatigue tests can be applied to materials to establish a fatigue limit or endurance limit. Using a radial
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fatigue testing machine like the one illustrated, alternating stresses can be produced in a test piece very
rapidly, reducing to a reasonable period the time required for a fatigue test. As the test piece turns
through 180°C the force W acting at a point on the test piece falls to zero, and then increases to W in the
opposite direction. The test piece is twisted until it breaks, when the motor stops automatically. The
number of reversals of stress is recorded by a revolution counter.
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A second test piece of the same material is now put in the machine and a smaller stress applied, until
the test piece again breaks. The test is repeated with more test pieces and lower stresses, until a test
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piece lasts up to, for example, twenty million reversals of stress without breaking.

From the fatigue test results, an S/N graph is plotted; stress (S) against the number of stress
reversals.(N). The curve becomes horizontal at a stress which can be endured for a very large number
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or infinite number of stress reversals. This stress is known as the Fatigue Limit or Endurance Limit.
Some non-ferrous metals do not show a well defined fatigue limit; that is, the S/N curve slopes gradually
down to the horizontal axis. This explains the need for a safe life for aircraft structures or parts of
structures. The structure is replaced after a period of service during which it would have been subjected
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to an estimated safe number of stress reversals, not exceeding the endurance limit.

The illustration shows the fatigue fracture of the test piece. One part of the fracture is smooth and
burnished and shows ripple like marks or striations radiating outwards from the centre of the crack
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formation. The other part is coarse and crystalline, indicating the final fracture of the remainder of the
cross-sectional area, which could no longer withstand the load.

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.51

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It has been found that the finished surface of the test piece affects the endurance limit. A polished test
piece having a much greater endurance limit than a roughly turned test piece, a small scratch or slight
corrosion will reduce the endurance limit considerably. This shows the necessity of having a good finish
on those parts of an engine or structure which are subject to fatigue. Any sudden changes in section in a
member will also considerably reduce the fatigue strength.

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Apart from material samples and individual components, fatigue tests can be applied to complex
assemblies such as the wing and fuselage shown here, and entire airframes, by cyclically loading the
structures with hydraulic rams or pressurising sealed components. Frequently a static test airframe is
dedicated to these tests during the development phase of an aircraft programme. These tests can also
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be performed at different temperatures to simulate the effects of environmental conditions.

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.52

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.53

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.54

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Module 6 N
Licence Category
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A, B1, B2 and B3
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Materials and Hardware

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6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

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For Training Purposes Only

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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.2

For Training Purposes Only
Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft
Maintenance Licence

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Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1,
2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2
basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

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LEVEL 1

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 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
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LEVEL 2
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 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.

 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
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 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
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subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
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LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
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 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
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and specific examples.

 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
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instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.3

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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.4

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Table of Contents

6.2 Non-ferrous Metals _______________________________________________________ 9

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(a) ________________________________________________________________________ 9

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Aluminium ______________________________________________________________ 10
Production _____________________________________________________________ 10
Mechanical Properties ____________________________________________________ 12
Aluminium Alloys ________________________________________________________ 13

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Metal Condition _________________________________________________________ 15
Corrosion Protection _____________________________________________________ 17
Heat Treatment Processes ________________________________________________ 18
Heat Treatment Indication _________________________________________________ 23

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Specifications ___________________________________________________________ 25
Identification Markings ____________________________________________________ 27
Cast Aluminium _________________________________________________________ 28
Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys __________________________________________ 29
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Titanium ________________________________________________________________ 30
Nickel and its Alloys ______________________________________________________ 32
Electrical Resistance Alloys For Use at High Temperatures _______________________ 32
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Low Expansion Alloys ____________________________________________________ 32

High Temperature Corrosion Resistant Alloys __________________________________ 32
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Monel Metal ____________________________________________________________ 33

Copper and its Alloys _____________________________________________________ 34
Tungum _______________________________________________________________ 34
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Brass _________________________________________________________________ 34
Bronze ________________________________________________________________ 34
Lead and its Alloys _______________________________________________________ 36
White Bearing Metals _____________________________________________________ 36
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Miscellaneous Metals _____________________________________________________ 37

Depleted Uranium _______________________________________________________ 37
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Tungsten ______________________________________________________________ 37
Cadmium ______________________________________________________________ 37
Chromium _____________________________________________________________ 37
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Metal Fatigue ____________________________________________________________ 39

General _______________________________________________________________ 39
Fatigue Life and Safety Margin _____________________________________________ 40
Shot Peening ___________________________________________________________ 42
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Rotopeening ___________________________________________________________ 43
Cold Working ___________________________________________________________ 44
(b) Testing of Non-Ferrous Materials __________________________________________ 45
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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.5

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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.6

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Module 6.2 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement

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These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of CAR 66, and the associated Knowledge
Levels as specified below:

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CAR 66 Licence Category
Objective
Reference A B1 B2 B3
Non Ferrous Metals 6.2

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Characteristics, properties and identification of (a) 1 2 1 2
common non-ferrous materials used in aircraft;

Heat treatment and application of non-ferrous

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materials;
Testing of non-ferrous material for hardness, tensile (b) - 1 1 1
strength, fatigue strength and impact resistance.
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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.7

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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.8

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6.2 Non-ferrous Metals
(a)

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The term “non-ferrous” refers to all metals which have elements other than iron as their base or
principal constituent. This group includes pure metals such as aluminium, titanium, copper and

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magnesium, as well as alloyed metals like brass, bronze, monel and babbit. Alloys of aluminium
and magnesium are referred to as Light Alloys.

Aluminium is the most important metal in aircraft engineering. Most modern aircraft are

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constructed from aluminium alloys of one form or another.

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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.9

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Aluminium

Production

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Aluminium is derived from the red ore Bauxite, which is widely distributed within the earth‟s
crust. However, large deposits of sufficiently high purity for commercial exploitation are located

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in comparatively few places.

Bauxite is refined into aluminium oxide trihydrate (alumina) and then electrolytically reduced into
metallic aluminium. Two to three tonnes of bauxite are required to produce one tonne of

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alumina and two tonnes of alumina are required to produce one tonne of aluminium metal.

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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.10

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The aluminium industry relies on the Bayer process to produce alumina from bauxite. The
bauxite is washed, ground and dissolved in caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) at high pressure
and temperature. The resulting liquor contains a solution of sodium aluminate and un-dissolved
bauxite residues containing iron, silicon, and titanium. These residues sink gradually to the
bottom of the tank and are removed. They are known colloquially as “red mud”.

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The clear sodium aluminate solution is pumped into a huge tank called a precipitator. Fine

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particles of alumina are added to seed the precipitation of pure alumina particles as the liquor
cools. The particles sink to the bottom of the tank, are removed, and are then passed through a
rotary kiln at 1100°C to drive off the chemically combined water. The result is a white powder,
pure alumina. The caustic soda is returned to the start of the process and used again.

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The aluminium reducing or 'smelting' process used is the Hall-Héroult Process, invented in
1886. The alumina powder is dissolved in an electrolytic bath of molten cryolite (sodium
aluminium fluoride) within a large carbon or graphite lined steel container known as a “pot”. An

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electric current is passed through the electrolyte at low voltage, but very high current, typically
150,000 amperes. The current flows between carbon anodes (positive), made of petroleum
coke and pitch, and a cathode (negative), formed lining of the pot, and heats the solution.
Oxygen is given off at the anodes, which burn as a result, and need to be replaced quite often.
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Molten aluminium particles, being positively charged, are attracted to the lining of the furnace
and collect at the bottom of the pot to be siphoned off periodically, taken to a holding furnace,
often but not always blended to an alloy specification, cleaned and then generally cast.
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Because of the nature of the process, abundant electrical power must be available. Thus production
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plants are situated close to the sources of electricity such as hydroelectric or nuclear power stations, and
not normally near the bauxite mines.

Aluminium is formed at about 900°C, but once formed has a melting point of only 660°C. In some
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smelters this spare heat is used to melt recycled metal.

Recycled aluminium requires only 5 per cent of the energy required to make “new” aluminium. Blending
recycled metal with new metal allows considerable energy savings, as well as the efficient use of
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process heat. There is no difference between primary and recycled aluminium in terms of quality or
properties.

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.11

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Most smelters produce aluminium of 99.7% purity, which is acceptable for most applications. However,
super purity aluminium (99.99%) is used for some special applications, typically those where high
ductility or conductivity is required. The marginal difference in the purities of smelter grade aluminium
and super purity aluminium results in significant changes in the properties of the metal.

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Mechanical Properties
Pure aluminium is a silvery-white metal which is soft and ductile. It has a melting point of 660°C
and a specific gravity of about 2.7, i.e. nearly one third that of steel or copper. It is resistant to
atmospheric corrosion owing to the presence of an oxide film which forms naturally on its

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surface. Aluminium is also resistant to dilute acids, but alkalis attack and destroy the oxide film,
causing corrosion. The metal is a good conductor of electricity and its electrical conductivity is
about 65% that of copper. It also conducts heat well and is widely used in heat exchangers,
aircraft, food production and chemical plant.

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It is non-magnetic and non-sparking, making it suitable for use as a shielding metal for certain
electrical equipment.

The pure metal has a tensile strength in the annealed condition of about 13 000 pounds per
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square inch (lb/sq in), often expressed as 13 ksi., one-third that of steel.
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Cold-working, such as rolling, will increase the strength of the metal and its alloys, sometimes
almost doubling their original values.
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The pure metal is not strong enough to be used economically as a structural material, but, in
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alloyed form (suitably heat treated), the tensile strength may be increased to nearly 100 ksi.

Because of its properties, aluminium and its alloys can be formed into a finished product in
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many ways. These generally fall into two classes; Wrought or worked and Cast or moulded.

Wrought aluminium can be bent or folded, stamped, hammered, drawn, rolled, machined, forged,
extruded, brazed or welded into a wide variety of objects.
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Aluminium can be Cast by any known foundry process to practically any shape at a comparatively low
temperature.
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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.12

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Aluminium Alloys
As mentioned, the properties of aluminium can be drastically improved by alloying it with other
elements. Although older national specifications exist, aluminium and its alloys are now
normally classified into eight groups, identified by a four digit series number devised by the

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Aluminium Association Inc and accepted as an international standard.

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The first digit indicates the principle alloying element. For example any alloy in the 2000 series
such as 2117 or 2024 has copper as its main alloying element. 7075 has zinc as its main alloy.

The second digit identifies the alloy modification. 0 indicates that the alloy is original. 1 indicates

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that the alloy has been modified once etc. The 3rd and 4th digits identify the specific aluminium
alloy.

In the case of 2024, the alloy consists of about 4.5% copper, 1.5% magnesium, 0.6%

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manganese, with traces of other specific elements permitted, and the remainder aluminium.

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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.13

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Various aluminium alloys are used for aircraft fabrication:

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1000 series. Aluminium of 99 percent or higher purity has practically no application in the
aerospace industry. These alloys are characterised by excellent corrosion resistance, high
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thermal and electrical conductivity, low mechanical properties, and excellent workability.
Moderate increases in strength can be obtained by strain hardening. Soft 1100 rivets are used
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in non-structural applications.

2000 series. Copper is the principal alloying element in this group. These alloys require solution
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heat-treatment to obtain optimum properties; in the heat-treated condition mechanical properties

are similar to, and sometimes exceed, those of mild steel. In some instances artificial aging is
employed to further increase the mechanical properties. This treatment materially increases
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yield strength. These alloys in the form of sheet are usually clad with a high-purity alloy. Alloy
2024 is perhaps the best known and most widely used aircraft alloy. Most aircraft rivets are of
alloy 2117.
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3000 series. Manganese is the major alloying element of alloys in this group, which are
generally non-heat treatable. One of these is 3003, which has limited use as a general-purpose
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alloy for moderate-strength applications requiring good workability, such as cowlings and non-
structural parts. Alloy 3003 is easy to weld.

4000 series. This alloy series is seldom used in the aerospace industry.
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5000 series. Magnesium is one of the most effective and widely used alloying elements for
aluminium. When it is used as the major alloying element, or with manganese, the result is a
moderate to high strength non-heat treatable alloy. Alloys in this series possess good welding
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characteristics and good resistance to corrosion in various atmospheres. It is widely used for
the fabrication of tanks and fluid lines.

6000 series. Alloys in this group contain silicon and magnesium in approximate proportions to
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form magnesium silicide, thus making them heat treatable. The major alloy in this series is
6061, one of the most versatile of the heat-treatable alloys. Though less strong than most of the

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.14

For Training Purposes Only
2000 or 7000 alloys, the magnesium-silicon (or magnesium-silicide) alloys possess good
formability and corrosion resistance, with medium strength.

7000 series. Zinc is the major alloying element in this group, and when coupled with a smaller
percentage of magnesium results in heat treatable alloys of very high strength. Usually other

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elements, such as copper and chromium, are also added in small quantities. The outstanding
member of this group is 7075, which is among the highest strength alloys available and is used

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in airframe structures for highly stressed parts.

8000 series. Of this group the Aluminium-Lithium alloys are the most important for the aviation
industry. Having a low density, lithium reduces the weight of the alloy while offering strength

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comparable to the 7000 series and competes with carbon composite material. It's development
problems and high cost have so far prevented it's wide spread use in commercial aviation.

Other terms which may be encountered include;

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Duralumin (or Dural) which was the original aluminium/copper alloy patented in 1908 and
formed the basis of the 2000 series alloys.

rivets, skins, castings and forgings.

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Hiduminium - A family of British high performance aluminium/copper/ nickel alloys. Used for
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Metal Condition
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Work Hardening
Like all metals, at a microscopic level, aluminium is crystalline in structure. When the metal is
worked (cut, bent, stretched or otherwise deformed) the crystals or grains slide over each other
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at the „slip planes‟ formed by the crystal boundaries. The crystals will also bend or distort, but as
they do, stresses form in them and the structure will become more resistant to movement and
therefore harder. This process is known as „Work' or 'Strain Hardening‟. If further work is done
the stress becomes too great, the crystals fail and the metal will fracture and break.
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Alloying elements, normally metals, may be mixed with the aluminium base and either bond
with, or are dissolved in, the aluminium in its molten state. Adding these other metals to form an
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alloy modifies the properties of the crystals and the boundaries between them. Heating and
cooling the metal will change the distribution of the components in the alloy and the sizes of the
crystals formed, both of which affect its mechanical properties.
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Age Hardening
Alloys which have been heated may not return to their normal cold level of hardness straight
away. It can take several hours, days or weeks, depending on the alloy and treatment applied,
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for the metal to 'Age Harden' to its original state. This allows work to be done to the metal before
its full strength is naturally restored.

Temper
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Temper is the term used to describe the condition of the metal with regard to its workability. This
includes the hardness, malleability and ductility of the metal.

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.15

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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.16

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Corrosion Protection
Introducing other elements into aluminium to form alloys reduces its corrosion resistant
characteristics, in some cases by quite a large margin. Altering the crystal structure by heating
and working also affects these properties.

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Various chemical and electro-chemical processes and coatings are used to protect the finished

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product, and these will be covered at a later date, however, sheet aluminium alloy is often
protected at manufacture by 'Cladding' it with a layer of almost pure aluminium on each side.

The cladding is cold rolled onto the alloy and forms 5% of the total thickness on each side of

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sheet material (up to 0.249 inch) and 2.5% of the thickness of thicker plate (over 0.250 inch)
material, e.g. flat sheet 0.150 inch thick would have 0.0075 inch clad on either side. This
material is produced under trade names such as Alclad and Pureclad.

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The surface of the cladding oxidises to form a durable protective coating, however scores or
deep scratches which penetrate this coating may expose the alloy core, so great care is
required when handling and working this material. It also offers cathodic protection to the core
alloy.
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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.17

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Heat Treatment Processes
Apart from work and age hardening, the temper of aluminium alloy may be modified by heat
treatment processes, each of which may be applied to some, but not all alloys.

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The heat is normally applied in an air or muffle furnace, or a salt bath. The air furnace circulates
hot air around the work piece and is normally electrically heated as gas would introduce

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moisture. They are particularly suitable for small parts and a small furnace may be
accommodated in almost any workshop.

A salt bath is a heated tank containing mineral salts, typically 90% nitrate of soda and 10%

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sodium nitrate, although others may be used. These are solid at room temperature and melt
when heat is applied. Electricity is normally used to apply gradual heat and prevent spattering
an spitting as the salts melt. Before emersion the work piece should be thoroughly dried and
water kept away from the bath. Some salt mixtures are also flammable.

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The salt bath provides rapid and uniform heating for large objects which may be placed in a
basket for emersion. Small objects should be suspended on a wire or placed in a perforated
container. Work pieces should not touch the sides of the tank as the salt solution must be able
to circulate around them.
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Accurate temperature control is vital to these processes as a variation of as little as 5°C may
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affect the successful outcome. Similarly soak time is important, especially for large heavy items.
Cooling rates and the time between heating and quenching, known as Lag-time (typically 7
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seconds) must be adhered to or the materials strength and corrosion resistance properties may
be adversely affected.
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Items removed from a salt bath must be thoroughly cleaned to remove all residues.
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Clad sheet material must not be heat treated more than three times as migration of the alloying
elements into the cladding will reduce both the strength of the core alloy and the corrosion
resistance of the sheet.
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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.18

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Annealing
If metal which has become work hardened is heated, the internal crystalline stresses begin to
dissipate and rearrangement of the deformed structure starts. As the temperature rises, the
distorted original grains disappear and new grains grow to form a stress-free system. This
„recrystallisation‟ brings the metal to its softest state. This process is known as annealing and

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leaves the cooled metal in a softened state so that further work can be done.

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These effects depend on time as well as temperature. So that the change may be completed
quickly, it is usual to heat the metal in air at a much higher temperature (340ºC to 450ºC) than
the minimum necessary for recrystallisation. Apart from convenience, this is done to avoid the
merging of crystals to form larger ones, which is encouraged by, among other factors, a long

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heating time. „Grain growth‟, as it is called, impairs mechanical properties. Alloys that are
especially prone to gain growth are sometimes annealed more rapidly in molten salts at about
500ºC.

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The heating and soaking times specified for the alloy must be carefully observed to prevent
grain growth and all manipulation should be completed within 24 hours of annealing as age
hardening will begin to take place.

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Several anneals may be needed before the metal reaches its final shape. A variation is „partial-‟,
„back-‟, or „temperannealing‟, where fully-hard material of some compositions may be allowed to
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soften only to the intermediate degree of hardness, or temper, required.
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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.19

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Solution Treatment
Within the aluminium crystal structure some alloying elements such as copper are capable of
being in a 'solid solution', a matrix of aluminium atoms with copper atoms dissolved in it.

An aluminium alloy containing 4% copper at room temperature (21ºC) will have 0.5% of the

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copper in solid solution with the aluminium. The remaining 3.5% of copper is chemically
combined with the aluminium to form the intermetallic compound Cu Al 2.

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The ability of copper to dissolve in aluminium increases with temperature so that, as the alloy is
heated, the Cu Al2 is dissolved and the 4% copper is in solid solution with the aluminium at
about 500ºC.

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If the alloy is slowly cooled, the Cu Al2 will gradually reappear as fairly large particles, visible
under the microscope. This coming out of solution is termed 'precipitation'. At room temperature
only 0.5% of the copper remains dissolved.

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If, however, the alloy is quenched from 500°C, the copper is 'frozen' in the solid solution and no
Cu Al2 is seen in the structure. In this state the alloy is relatively soft and malleable. This is
known as Solution Heat Treatment (SHT) or simply Solution Treatment.
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After a period of about two hours the copper will begin to precipitate out of solution and the
tensile strength and hardness begin to increase until, after about 5 days, these properties are at
a maximum. This is known as “Age Hardening” .
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While the chemistry is complicated, the reason for these changes can be explained in a fairly
simple way. The components of the alloy are crystals of metal which must slide over each other
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when the metal is bent or worked. After the quenching treatment, all the 4% copper is trapped
inside the crystals at room temperature. There is no obstruction to the crystals sliding or slipping
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so the material is soft and malleable.

This structure is chemically unstable and so small particles of CuAl2 (too small to be seen under
an optical microscope) begin to precipitate at the crystal boundaries. These small particles
continue to come out of solution until, after five days, only 0.5% copper is in solid solution. The
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remaining 3.5% of copper has combined with aluminium to form very small particles of Cu Al 2,
dispersed throughout the structure. These particles will obstruct sliding at the slip planes,
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making the material strong and hard again.

Solution treatment distributes the Cu Al2 more evenly than annealing so the age hardened
material is stronger and, when appropriate, annealed parts are often solution treated to attain
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higher strength.

This process has been explained using copper/aluminium alloy as an example. The process is
similar when carried out with other modern aluminium alloys .
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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.20

For Training Purposes Only
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As with annealing, the heating, soaking and quenching must be carefully controlled as they are
time and temperature sensitive. Quenching may be required to be done in hot or boiling water to

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reduce quenching stress. All manipulation should be performed within 2 hours and if there is to
be a delay between solution treatment and Precipitation Treatment the surfaces should be
protected against corrosion.

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Refrigeration is sometimes used to delay precipitation from the supersaturated state. In rivets,
for example, the soft formable condition that prevails for an hour or so after solution treatment
may be maintained for about twenty hours, if need be, by storing at a low temperature. These
are often referred to as 'Ice Box' rivets. O N
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Precipitation Treatment
In some alloys, the spontaneous ageing process is complete after a few days at room
temperature. A greater degree of precipitation and hardening than occurs naturally can, in
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certain alloys, be induced by heating to about 170ºC for ten hours or so (time and temperature
depending on composition). This is called „Precipitation Treatment‟ or „Artificial Ageing‟.

During this hardening and strengthening operation, precipitation of the soluble constituents from
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the supersaturated solid solution takes place. As precipitation progresses, the strength of the
material increases, often by a series of peaks, until a maximum is reached. Further ageing (over

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.21

For Training Purposes Only
ageing) causes the strength to steadily decline until a somewhat stable, often brittle, condition is
obtained. As with natural age hardening, the submicroscopic particles that are precipitated
provide the keys or locks within the grain structure and between the grains to resist internal
slippage and distortion when a load of any type is applied.

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Precipitation Treatment controls the size and distribution of the precipitates and in this manner,
the strength and hardness of the alloy is increased beyond that achieved by natural age

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hardening.

The ageing practices used depend upon many properties other than strength. As a rule, the
artificially aged alloys are slightly over aged to increase their resistance to corrosion. This is

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especially true with the artificially aged 7000 series alloys that are susceptible to intergranular
corrosion when aged to peak strength.

Heat Treatment Precautions

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Keep the number of heat treatments to a minimum. Clad materials must not be heat treated
more than three times because long periods at high temperature causes the copper atoms to
move into the aluminium coating, decreasing its corrosion resistance and strength.

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Do not rivet aluminium alloy sheet until at least 24 hours has passed from the time of solution
heat treatment. Failure to wait for this period can cause local distortion at the rivet positions.
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Allow five days to pass before putting the part into service
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Do not allow the metal to be overheated, or heat it for too long a time. A large grain size,
causing brittleness, weakness and roughness of the surface may result and the part will have to
be scrapped.
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The maximum time between removal from the heat treatment furnace and quenching or Lag
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Time must be not more than 7 seconds.

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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.22

For Training Purposes Only
Heat Treatment Indication
As mentioned, not all aluminium alloys can be heat treated. They are generally divided into two
groups termed:

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• Non-Heat Treatable - those that can be softened but not hardened by heat treatment.
• Heat Treatable - those that can be softened and hardened by heat treatment.

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The first group rely on the work hardening effects of manganese, silicon, magnesium and iron
when cold worked and so are found in the 1000, 3000, 4000 and 5000 series.

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If these Non-Heat Treatable alloys are heated to their annealing temperature, around 350 -
400°C depending on the alloy, and allowed to cool slowly they will be softened to their annealed
condition with no temper. This is indicated by adding a -O to the series number.

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They are hardened to a specific temper by strain hardening, usually done by rolling the sheet
material. The cold worked temper of these alloys is indicated by the letter -H followed by a two
digit number (tempers in the -H series are not applicable to castings).

The first digit following -H indicates the strain hardening process which is dependent on the
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specific alloy. 1 indicates the material is strain hardened to a partial temper, 2 indicates fully
strain hardened then partially annealed to the desired temper, while 3 indicates strain hardened
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and stabilised.
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The second digit, a 2, 4, 6 or 8 indicates the degree of hardness between fully hard condition, 8,
and the fully annealed -O condition.
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Therefore 5052-H24 indicates 5052 material which has been strain hardened and partially
annealed to a strength midway between fully annealed and full hard i.e. 'half hard'.
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The letter -F indicates the „as fabricated‟ condition of wrought alloys. In the case of castings, the
letter „F‟ is used to indicate the „as cast‟ condition.
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Most alloys will work harden, or become partially tempered by the forming processes of
component manufacture. In this condition they may be re-annealed to allow further work to be
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done.
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The Heat Treatable alloys can be softened, hardened and strengthened by the solution treatment and
precipitation processes as well as cold working.
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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.23

For Training Purposes Only
The heat treated temper of these aluminium alloys is indicated by the letter -T followed by one or more
numbers. The number following the letter T shows the type of heat treatment. Any variations are
indicated by a second number.

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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.24

For Training Purposes Only
Specifications
American aluminium alloys are given a Federal Specification such as Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE) or American Military Specifications (AMS). This precedes the alloy series
number

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e.g. AMS-QQ-A-250 2024-T3

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Within the European Community most national standards will eventually be replaced by Comité
Européen de Normalisation (CEN) 'Euronorms' such as EN 2419 which will align with the
American specification.

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In the UK the British Standards (BS) L series of specifications (L88, L109 etc.) for sheet
aluminium is still in use. Other specifications include the Directorate of Technical Developments
(DTD) series, the British Aerospace BAEM series for sheet, plate, bar and tube which are still
active.

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Other European specifications include the French ASN series, the German DAN series and the Dutch
numeric system.

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It is important that only the metal specified for a repair or modification is used, to ensure the desired
strength, fatigue resistance and weight characteristics are obtained. Where chemical composition and
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physical properties are very similar it is possible to replace one material with an equivalent. It is,
however, vital to remember that material substitution may only be made on the authority of an approved
design organisation.
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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.25

For Training Purposes Only
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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.26

For Training Purposes Only
Identification Markings
Aluminium alloy sheet must be marked with letters and numbers ink stamped at one corner by
the manufacturer, but it is common practice to repeat these marks at regular interval all over the
sheet. These identification symbols should include a specification number, the alloy number

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with temper designation, and the thickness of the material in thousandths of an inch (the
thickness British material is graded by Standard Wire Gauge - SWG). On some material red

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markings are used to indicate the material condition and further processing required. These
marks disappear when the necessary heat treatment is completed.

Aluminium alloy sheet in common with all other materials is given a batch release number (or

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Approved Stores Serial -ASS number) before being placed in the bonded store. This batch
number must not become detached from the material during storage.

When cutting material, any that is returned to storage must have the identification markings

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intact. This ensures that part used material is always identifiable. The release or ASS number
must be recorded on the work documentation for traceability.

If a batch of material has been heat treated by the user it must be clearly marked as such to
ensure that required further treatment is carried out and that treatment limits are not exceeded.
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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.27

For Training Purposes Only
Cast Aluminium
Cast aluminium alloys often contain silicon, which creates high fluidity and, thus, is good for producing
complex shapes. It also reduces the coefficient of linear expansion, so is often included in piston
castings.

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They are not used extensively on airframes mainly due to their lack of strength, poor fatigue
characteristics and lack of elasticity when compared to the wrought aluminium alloys. The lack of

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elasticity is particularly relevant, as the very nature of an airframe structure requires the ability to flex
considerably without cracking.

Although their use is obviously limited on airframes, cast aluminium alloys are used extensively on

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engines, where there is a need to produce complex shapes such as gearboxes, component cases and
on piston engine crankcases, drive casings and cylinder heads. No other method than casting would be
viable for such items. The stresses can be kept to a modest level on these parts by producing robust
castings of adequate stiffness.

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The specification of castable alloys differs from that of wrought aluminium. There are several systems in
use and international standardisation has yet to take place.

Very few non-heat-treatable cast alloys are used in aerospace applications and, for heavy-duty engine

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casings and pistons, some very strong, temperature-resistant alloys exist. One of the most common in
the category is Hiduminium RR 58 (sometimes known as Y Alloy), which is an age-hardening material
containing approximately 2.5% copper, 1.5% magnesium, 1.5% nickel, and 1% iron. A derivative of this
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material was also used (in wrought form) for the skin of the supersonic Concorde aircraft, due to the high
metal temperatures encountered.
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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.28

For Training Purposes Only
Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium is difficult to obtain from its ore, and is now normally extracted from sea water or
deep well brine by electrolysis.

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It is the lightest engineering metal in general use, having a relative density of 1.7 and a weight
only 66% that of aluminium. Silvery-white pure magnesium is a fairly weak metal but alloying

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with small amounts of aluminium, zinc, manganese and zirconium will increase its strength.
Although weaker than aluminium alloys, their lower densities often result in magnesium alloys
having a better strength to weight ratio.

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Magnesium has an affinity for oxygen and will ignite and burn with a fierce white flame if
overheated. Its high conductivity prevents large sections from overheating, but when molten
(650°C) or in the form of fine dust or swarf it burns readily. Machining processes must,
therefore, be performed very carefully. Casting is also difficult and dangerous. The metal is

AC
melted under a flux to exclude atmospheric oxygen and, when poured, is dusted with sulphur
powder which burns on contact producing sulphur dioxide to blanket the metal until it has
cooled. Magnesium fires should be fought with dry powder extinguishant as water and foam will
intensify combustion and may cause explosions.

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Without protection magnesium alloy corrodes easily, but chemical surface treatments and
coating processes give it good protection from corrosion by excluding oxygen. Use of
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compatible bolts, nuts, rivets etc. is also important in combating dissimilar metal corrosion.
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Most of the alloys can be annealed, solution treated precipitation hardened in a similar way to
that used for aluminium alloys.
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Magnesium alloys have been used to make aircraft wheels, piston engine crankcases, turbine
engine compressor casings, gearboxes, valve bodies etc. Magnesium alloy sheet is used in the
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structure of some aircraft and helicopters where weight saving is particularly important.

American magnesium alloys are identified by a series of letters and numbers. The first letter or
letters identify the main alloying elements. The middle digits identify the percentage of each of
the identified elements. The last letter and number indicate the heat treatment of the alloy.
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Example: AZ31A - T4
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AZ The main alloying elements are aluminium and zinc.

31 This is 3% aluminium and 1% zinc.
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A Indicates that the alloy is original.

T4 The alloy has been solution heat treated
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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.29

For Training Purposes Only
Titanium
Titanium is a greyish white metal having a high strength to weight ratio. It has a relative density of 4.5,
making it 60% heavier than aluminium, but twice as strong, and 45% lighter than steel but equal in
strength. Titanium also falls between Aluminium and Stainless Steel in terms of elasticity, and elevated

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temperature strength.

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Titanium has excellent corrosion resistance properties due to the oxide film which forms. It is not
normally susceptible to stress, fatigue, intergranular or galvanic corrosion, pitting or localised attack.
Under certain circumstances it will burn in air, so to prevent it's reaction with oxygen or nitrogen it may
be treated with chlorine gas to form a coating of titanium dioxide.

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Commercially pure titanium and some of its alloys are non-heat treatable and can be annealed but not
hardened or strengthened. These are usually hot formed or rolled and work harden. When suitably
alloyed, heat treatable forms can be produced which can be both annealed and hardened. These are
softer and more ductile for cold working until hardened.

AC
The normal alloying elements include aluminium, chromium, iron, manganese, molybdenum and
vanadium.

Titanium and it's alloys are classed as A (alpha), B (beta) and C (combined) depending on their
crystalline form:

•
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A - is weldable, tough, strong both hot and cold and resistant to oxidisation.
• B - has excellent bend ductility, strong both hot and cold but vulnerable to
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contamination.
• C - combined alpha and beta with compromised performance, strong cold and
warm but weak hot, excellent forgeability, good bendability, moderate
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contamination resistance.
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The melting point of titanium is 1668°C, and it has low thermal conductivity and a low coefficient
of expansion. It's high temperature properties are, however, disappointing. Ultimate yield
strength falls rapidly above 425°C, and atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen absorption above
540°C makes the metal brittle and worthless after long exposure. It is useful for short duration,
high temperature applications where strength is not important such as aircraft fire walls where it
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can withstand brief exposure at 1650°C.

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Special care is required when machining titanium due to its extreme work hardening properties.
For example, centre drilling should be used prior to drilling, as centre punching would harden
the metal, causing difficulty in starting the drill.
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Fine titanium swarf or powder, even when moist, is a possible fire risk. Piles of fine titanium
swarf or dust must not be allowed to accumulate around machines. A fire can be extinguished
with dry powder. Water must not be used.
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Cadmium coated fasteners must not be used with titanium as, when stressed, cadmium atoms
will migrate into the titanium causing localised embrittlement and cracking. Chlorinated hydro-
carbons such as trichloroethylene cleaning fluids will cause hydrogen embrittlement as will
phosphate ester hydraulic fluids (e.g. Skydrol) at elevated temperatures.
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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.30

For Training Purposes Only
Titanium specification is described by a number of systems.

The American A-55 is an example of a commercially pure titanium; it has a yield strength of 55
to 80 ksi and is a general-purpose grade for moderate to severe forming. It is sometimes used
for non-structural aircraft parts and for all types of corrosion resistant applications, such as

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tubing.

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Type A-70 titanium is closely related to type A-55, but has a yield strength of 70 to 95 ksi. It is
used where higher strength is required, and it is specified for many moderately stressed aircraft
parts. For many corrosion applications, it is used interchangeably with type A-55. Type A-55
and type A-70 are weldable.

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One of the widely used titanium-base alloys is C-110M. It is used for primary structural members and
aircraft skin, has 110 ksi minimum yield strength, and contains 8 percent manganese.

AC
Type A-110AT is a titanium alloy that contains 5 percent aluminium and 2.5 percent tin. It also has a high
minimum yield strength at elevated temperatures with the excellent welding characteristics inherent in
alpha type titanium alloys.

Titanium and its alloys are used to make corrosion resistant, high strength bolts and fasteners,
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compressor discs and blades for gas turbine engines, fire walls, hot air pipes, hydraulic pipes and
structural parts which require high strength or operate at high temperatures. It is also used to skin high
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performance aircraft where skin friction prevents the use of aluminium.
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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.31

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Nickel and its Alloys
Nickel is silvery white, takes on a high polish and has good resistance to corrosion. It is hard,
malleable, ductile, somewhat ferro-magnetic, and a fair conductor of heat and electricity with a
melting point of 1455°C. It belongs to the iron-cobalt group of metals and is chiefly valuable for

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the alloys it forms. Three basic alloy types are of interest to the aircraft engineer.

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Electrical Resistance Alloys For Use at High Temperatures
These are usually nickel-chromium iron alloys produced under trade names such as 'Brightray'
and 'Resistohm'. Their important features are:

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• They do not oxidise at high temperatures.
• They have a high melting point.
• They have a high electrical resistance.

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These alloys are used to make heater elements for electric furnaces, soldering irons etc. They
are also used in temperature sensing thermocouples. Temperature sensing bulbs use nickel in
its pure form.

Low Expansion Alloys

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Most materials expand when they are heated and contract again as they cool. Some iron-nickel
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alloys, however, have very small coefficients of thermal expansion, making them very useful in
many types of precision equipment, used where temperatures are always changing.
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An alloy known as 'Invar' which contains 64% iron and 36% nickel has a negligible coefficient of
expansion. It is used for bi-metallic strip thermostats, precision instruments and measuring
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equipment and for cathode ray tube shadow masks.

High Temperature Corrosion Resistant Alloys

These are sometimes known as Superalloys.
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Among the first of these were the 'Nimonic' series of alloys developed in the UK in the early
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1940's for gas turbine applications. They are basically nickel-chromium alloys, stiffened and
strengthened by adding small amounts of titanium, aluminium, cobalt and molybdenum.
Development has continued and nimonic alloys are still used in the latest engines.
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Another well known family of high temperature alloys is the „Inconel‟ group developed in the
U.S. Inconel 600 contains 76% nickel, 15% chromium and 8% iron with small amounts of cobalt,
manganese, carbon etc. Others within the family contain Zirconium, Molybdenum, aluminium
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and various other elements to obtain the desired characteristics. Their appearance and
performance are similar to stainless steel at low temperatures and they remain very tough at
high temperatures and do not oxidise very much because of the protective film of chromium
oxide which forms on the surface.
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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.32

For Training Purposes Only
Other alloys in this type are Incoloy, Udimar, Udimet, Nilo, Waspaloy and Hastasloy. They are
used throughout gas turbine engines where high strength at high temperatures and resistance
to oxidation and creep are required. They are also used structurally where high strength,
corrosion resistant components and fasteners are required.

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Monel Metal

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This is an alloy containing 68% Nickel, 29% Copper, 1.5% Iron and 1.5% Manganese. It has
good resistance to corrosion. It is malleable and used to make rivets.

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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.33

For Training Purposes Only
Copper and its Alloys
Copper is a good conductor of heat and electricity and is reddish brown in colour. When cut, it
forms a greenish oxide layer (verdigris) which protects it from further corrosion. It is very
malleable and ductile and can be shaped by rolling, drawing, forging and pressing. Copper is

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used to make electrical cables and parts for electrical equipment.

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Copper is one of the few metals which is mechanically strong enough to be used in its (nearly)
pure form. It is also valuable both as a constituent and as a base of alloys.

Tungum

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Tungum is an alloy containing 81% to 86% copper and small amounts of nickel, silicon,
aluminium and zinc. It is highly resistant to fatigue and corrosion, is strong and ductile and was
used to make hydraulic and other pipelines. However it was found to become brittle over
extended time scales and is no longer used on aircraft.

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Brass
Brasses are copper based alloys containing up to 45% zinc and sometimes small amounts of
other metals such as tin, lead, aluminium, manganese and iron, these additions increase the
tensile strength and resistance to corrosion.
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Some brasses are very ductile and their sheets can be pressed and drawn into deep sections.
Others are more suited to hot working and stamping. All are readily machinable. Brass is used
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in the manufacture of instrument mechanisms, bellows assemblies and pitot heads.
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Bronze
Bronzes are copper based alloys containing up to 25% tin, sometimes with smaller amounts of
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phosphorus, zinc or lead. Low tin bronzes are used for springs and instrument parts, tubes and
pipes as they have good elastic properties and are corrosion resistant. High tin bronzes are
often cast and are used in bearings and bushes which are subjected to heavy loads.

There are other copper alloys that contain practically no tin and yet are still referred to as
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„bronzes‟. For instance „Manganese Bronze‟, so called because of its manganese content, is
55% copper, 40% zinc 3.5% manganese, 1% tin (technically a Brass rather than Bronze) while
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Phosphor and Silicon bronzes also contain practically no tin at all. Wrought aluminium bronzes
are almost as strong as medium-carbon steel while cast aluminium bronzes are found in
bearings and pump parts.
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One of the most important of the bronzes to aviation is Beryllium Bronze. This contains 97%
copper, 2% beryllium and small amounts of nickel to increase its strength. Once it has been
heat-treated, beryllium bronze is very strong (300-400 Brinell) and is used for diaphragms,
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precision bearings and high performance bushings, ball bearing cages and spring washers.

Note: Beryllium and its salts are toxic and should be handled with the greatest of care.
The metal, its alloys, and its salts can be handled if certain work codes are
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observed, but no attempt should be made to work with beryllium before becoming
familiar with proper safeguards.

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.34

For Training Purposes Only
Leaded Bronze is found in the bearings of some aero engines and is composed of 80-85% copper with
equal amounts of lead, tin and zinc. The very high pressures (and speeds) tend to squeeze the lubricant
out of normal journal bearings, but with the addition of lead, this bronze acts as a self-lubricating bush in
the event of the oil film breaking down.

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The Sintering process involves the compaction of powdered metal, or metals, in a mould under pressure
of up to 50 tons per square inch. The item is removed from the mould, heated in a furnace to a

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temperature below the melting point and held there until the particles become chemically bonded. The
resultant part remains porous. Sintered Bronzes are often used to make small oil retaining bearings and
filters.

Solder is a general term frequently used for joining metals together. The principal types are „soft solder‟

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(which is a mainly lead-tin alloy), and „hard solder‟ which is an alloy of copper, silver and zinc.

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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.35

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Lead and its Alloys
Lead is bright and lustrous when freshly cut, but soon oxidises to a dull grey. It is very heavy and has a
relative density 11.3. It is soft and malleable, resistant to corrosion and has a low melting point, 327ºC. It
also has self lubricating properties and is used in some bushing alloys.

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Lead is a major constituent of soft solder. It has been used to make flying control surface mass balance

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weights. It gives protection from X-rays and is used to make containers for radio-active isotopes, used
during certain non-destructive tests on aircraft engines and airframes.

White Bearing Metals

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White bearing metals used in piston engines are either tin base or lead base. Tin base bearing metals
are known as Babbitt metals and contain between 3.5% and 15% Antimony. e.g. 7% antimony, 90% tin
and 3% copper. They are generally heavy duty bearing metals.

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The lead based White Metals are intended for lower duty since they can withstand only limited pressures.
They also contain tin and antimony e.g. 13% antimony, 12% tin, 0.75% copper and lead the remainder.

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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.36

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Miscellaneous Metals

Depleted Uranium

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Depleted Uranium (DU) is a by-product of the nuclear enrichment process and is 1.7 times as dense as
lead. Because of its weight it has, in the past, been used to produce balance weights for aircraft flight

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control surfaces.

Uranium and its compounds are, however, highly toxic, both from a chemical and radiological standpoint.
It is important that this material is handled carefully and maintenance manual instructions observed.

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Damaged coatings may be repaired if no corrosion is evident. Corroded weights must be removed,
packaged as described in the manual and returned to the originator. Under no circumstances may DU
weights be cut, machined or mechanically cleaned. Adequate protection must be worn when handling
corroded or damaged DU.

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Tungsten
Tungsten is a hard, dense, corrosion resistant metal which is used in light bulb filaments and as an
alloying element in steels. Tungsten based alloy has also largely replaced depleted uranium as the
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material for balance weights. As it is less dense than DU the weights are larger.
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Cadmium
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Cadmium is a bluish-white metal which is used as a corrosion protective sacrificial coating on steel parts.
Because cadmium is less electrochemically active than zinc or aluminium, it is frequently used on high-
strength steel parts that might be embrittled by more active, sacrificial corrosion reactions and that
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contact aluminium parts. It is commonly used on steel fasteners and their mating parts (nuts washers
etc.) and followed by chromate passivation which gives them a golden yellow colour.
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If used in high temperature environments, however, the cadmium has a tendency to cause Liquid Metal
Embrittlement where it melts and diffuses in to the underlaying grain structure, weakening the steel.
Cadmium plated parts should, therefore, never be used on engine hot sections. It also reacts with
titanium and the two should not be allowed to come into contact.
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Pure cadmium and solutions of its compounds are toxic by ingestion.

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Chromium
Apart from being used in high performance steels, chromium is important as a plating material. In
aviation it is used to give a hard, smooth, protective coating rather than just a decorative finish. Hard-
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chromium (as opposed to 'Bright Chrome') plating is used for improving sliding and sealing properties,
preventing wear and, in thick layers, corrosion. It is typically used for hydraulic cylinders and rams, and
undercarriage oleo legs. Thickness varies from 10 to 1000 micron.
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Chromium compounds are toxic and should be handled with proper safeguards.
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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.37

For Training Purposes Only
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Intentionally Blank
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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.38

For Training Purposes Only
Metal Fatigue

General

Y
Whilst not strictly a form a of corrosion, fatigue is, however, closely associated with it. Each can
accelerate the development of the other and together they pose a serious threat of catastrophic

EM
failure.

Briefly, fatigue is the phenomena where by a component which is subjected to repeated cyclic
loading will eventually fail at a stress level far lower than its ultimate failure load. The number of

AD
cycles required to cause this fatigue failure is dependent on the magnitude of the load applied
as shown in the SN graph.

Fatigue failure is caused by microscopic flaws or faults in the metal structure. These may be

AC
inclusion particles, voids, cracks, intergranular corrosion, scratches, blemishes, pits or micro-
cracks. The repeated stress reversals cause these faults to enlarge, concentrating stress on the
'good' material and reducing the load carrying capacity of the component until eventual failure.
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND

Because of its nature, the fatigue life of two seemingly identical components can vary
significantly, however, fatigue analysis can predict failure fairly accurately where uniform loads
are applied to parts of comparable quality.
HI

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.39

For Training Purposes Only
On an aircraft, the fatigue loads will vary considerably depending on the nature of its operation,
the environment it operates in and it's handling on the ground and in the air. Typical loads which
may be encountered are:

 Atmospheric gusts

Y
 Manoeuvres

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 Taxiing
 Ground handling
 Landing impact
 Ground-air-ground cycles.

AD
A schematic stress history for a wing lower surface on a typical flight is shown opposite.

Fatigue Life and Safety Margin

AC
With growing experience, manufacturers are now better able to predict structural fatigue and
design and build airframes with better fatigue lives and safety margins.

Methods used include:


O N
the elimination of stress risers by careful design, e.g. position of holes etc.
 shot peening of surfaces of highly stressed components
TI
 cold working of holes in critical areas
 use of modern fasteners
 high degrees of surface finish
IA

 development of maintenance programmes to ensure that faults are detected and

repaired.
AV

In the maintenance arena it is important that all inspections and repairs are carried out to the
highest standards to detect the onset of fatigue cracks and prevent their propagation. Unusual
events such as heavy or overweight landings and flight through turbulence must be thoroughly
investigated in accordance with the manufacturer‟s instructions.
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.40

For Training Purposes Only
 Y
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AC
O N
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N
TA
US
ND
HI

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.41

For Training Purposes Only
Shot Peening
As fatigue cracks will only develop in areas of tensile stress, the main method used to prevent
them is to induce a layer of compressive stress in components and areas which are known to
be susceptible.

Y
This compressive layer is often produced by shot peening where small balls of known diameter

EM
are blasted with predetermined force against the surfaces to be protected. The balls used may
be steel shot or glass or ceramic beads, depending on the material being treated. Components
are treated in sealed cabinets or chambers while areas in-situ on the aircraft are treated using
portable Vacu-blast type equipment similar to that used for corrosion removal.

AD
The exposure time is determined by first peening a spring steel test piece or 'Almen strip' in a
special holder for a set duration. This is then inspected for coverage (density of impacts) and
intensity (by measuring the deflection or curvature of the strip). The air pressure and time are

AC
altered accordingly and a new Almen strip is used until the correct coverage (100%) and
intensity is achieved.

Each component to be treated is given an Almen number dependant on its material and
coverage requirement. The exposure time determined from the test strips is then factored by the
N
Almen number, coverage requirements and surface area to give the total treatment time.
O
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.42

For Training Purposes Only
Rotopeening
Small inaccessible areas and components in-situ can also be treated by Rotopeening. Several
tungsten carbide balls are held captive in a flexible strip or 'flap wheel' which is mounted in a
mandrel. This in turn is held in a high speed windy drill. Testing is similar to that for shot

Y
peening but intensity is governed by drill speed which must be kept constant.

EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.43

For Training Purposes Only
Cold Working
Compressive stress can be induced around fastener holes by several methods. 'Cold working'
or 'cold expansion' is the most commonly used in critical areas. In this process the hole is
drilled, reamed and deburred. A mandrel mounted in a powered puller tool and a lubricated

Y
sleeve are then inserted into the hole. With the sleeve seated the mandrel is drawn through it,
the interference causing the hole to expand and the material around it to be compressed. The

EM
fatigue life of a cold worked hole is between 3 and 10 times better than for a plain drilled hole.

A similar effect to cold working can be achieved by using interference fit fasteners such as 'Hi-
loks'. 'Hi-Tigue' fasteners have a radiused lead-in at the thread end of the shank which

AD
broaches the hole as the fastener is driven home. 'Taperlok' fasteners also compress the
surrounding material as the fastener is drawn into the tapered hole. The effects of these
fasteners are, however, less controllable than the cold working process.

AC
Before attempting to perform any of these operation you should be fully conversant with the
process specification and all equipment to be used. Additional training and authorisation may be
required.
O N
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IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.44

For Training Purposes Only
(b) Testing of Non-Ferrous Materials
Non-ferrous metals are tested for strength, toughness, fatigue and hardness using exactly the same
techniques as described in Subsection 6.1 (b) for Ferrous Metals. Please refer to that section for

Y
descriptions of those techniques.

EM
AD
AC
O N
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IA
AV
N
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ND
HI

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.45

For Training Purposes Only
 Y
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AC
O N
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Intentionally Blank
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N
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ND
HI

Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.46

For Training Purposes Only
 Y
EM
AD
AC
Module 6
Licence Category
O N
A, B1, B2 and B3
TI
IA

Materials and Hardware

AV

6.3 Aircraft Materials - Composite

N

and Non-metallic
TA
US
ND
HI

For Training Purposes Only

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AC
O N
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Intentionally Blank
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ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.2

For Training Purposes Only
Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft
Maintenance Licence

Y
EM
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1,
2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2
basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

AD
LEVEL 1

AC
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
O N
LEVEL 2
TI

 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.

 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
IA

 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
AV

subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
N

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
TA

 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
US

and specific examples.

 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
ND

instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.3

For Training Purposes Only
 Y
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AC
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Intentionally Blank
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HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.4

For Training Purposes Only
Table of Contents

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6.3.1 Aircraft Materials - Composite and Non-metallic ____________________________ 11

EM
Composite Materials ________________________________________________________ 11
Glass Reinforced Plastic __________________________________________________ 12
Introduction ____________________________________________________________ 12
Types of Glass __________________________________________________________ 13

AD
Nomenclature for Glass Fibre ______________________________________________ 14
Styles of Woven Fabrics __________________________________________________ 16
Fabric Identification Requirements __________________________________________ 18
Storage _______________________________________________________________ 19

AC
Aramid Fibres ___________________________________________________________ 20
Carbon Fibres ___________________________________________________________ 21
Other Fibres _____________________________________________________________ 23
N
Polyester ______________________________________________________________ 23
Polyethylene ___________________________________________________________ 23
O
Quartz ________________________________________________________________ 23
Boron _________________________________________________________________ 23
TI

Ceramics ______________________________________________________________ 23
Natural ________________________________________________________________ 24
IA

Resins__________________________________________________________________ 27
General _______________________________________________________________ 27
Thermoplastics _________________________________________________________ 27
AV

Thermosetting Plastics____________________________________________________ 28
Thermosetting Resins ____________________________________________________ 29
Epoxy Wet Resins _______________________________________________________ 31
Resin/Fibre Ratio ________________________________________________________ 32
N

Prepregs ______________________________________________________________ 33
Workshop Conditions for Good Bonding ______________________________________ 34
TA

Health and Safety _______________________________________________________ 34

Storage _______________________________________________________________ 35
Inspection and Damage Assessment ________________________________________ 43
General _______________________________________________________________ 43
US

Ultrasonic Inspection _____________________________________________________ 45

Radiography ___________________________________________________________ 45
Vibration Methods _______________________________________________________ 45
ND

Thermal Imaging ________________________________________________________ 45

Composite Repairs _______________________________________________________ 47
General _______________________________________________________________ 47
Wet Lay-up ____________________________________________________________ 48
HI

Prepreg Lay-up _________________________________________________________ 50

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.5

For Training Purposes Only
 Fibre/Metal Laminate (FML) ________________________________________________ 51
Other Non-metallic Materials _______________________________________________ 53
Plastics _______________________________________________________________ 53
Types of Plastics ________________________________________________________ 54

Y
Plastic Transparencies – Perspex ___________________________________________ 55
Elastomers _____________________________________________________________ 56

EM
Ceramics ______________________________________________________________ 58
Adhesives _____________________________________________________________ 59
Jointing Compounds _____________________________________________________ 65
Sealants _______________________________________________________________ 66

AD
6.3.2 Wooden Structures ____________________________________________________ 73
General _________________________________________________________________ 73
Sitka Spruce_____________________________________________________________ 74

AC
Timber Conversion _______________________________________________________ 75
Alternatives To Spruce ____________________________________________________ 79
Inspecting Wood For Aircraft Use ___________________________________________ 81
O N
Plywood ________________________________________________________________ 83
Fabrication ______________________________________________________________ 87
Glue ___________________________________________________________________ 93
TI

General _______________________________________________________________ 93
Glued Joints ____________________________________________________________ 95
IA

Assembly _______________________________________________________________ 98
Protection______________________________________________________________ 100
AV

Inspection _____________________________________________________________ 101

Glued Structures _______________________________________________________ 101
Structural Survey _______________________________________________________ 102
Timber And Glued Joints _________________________________________________ 103
Access Holes __________________________________________________________ 103
N

Glue Line _____________________________________________________________ 104

Timber Condition _______________________________________________________ 105
TA

Compression-Shake ____________________________________________________ 105

Water Penetration of Structure ____________________________________________ 106
Joint Failure ____________________________________________________________ 109
US

6.3.3 Fabric Covering ______________________________________________________ 111

General ________________________________________________________________ 111
ND

Materials _______________________________________________________________ 115

Fabrics _______________________________________________________________ 115
Tapes ________________________________________________________________ 115
Thread _______________________________________________________________ 115
HI

Stringing cord __________________________________________________________ 115

Cotton and Linen Fabrics _________________________________________________ 117

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.6

For Training Purposes Only
 General ______________________________________________________________ 117
Glass Fibre Fabric ______________________________________________________ 118
Polyester Fabric ________________________________________________________ 118
Aircraft Dope ___________________________________________________________ 121

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Covering _______________________________________________________________ 123
General ______________________________________________________________ 123

EM
Stringing______________________________________________________________ 126
Miscellaneous Methods Of Fabric Attachment _________________________________ 128
Doping ________________________________________________________________ 131
Environment ___________________________________________________________ 131

AD
Procedures ___________________________________________________________ 132
Problems _____________________________________________________________ 133
Inspection and Testing ___________________________________________________ 135

AC
Excess Tension ________________________________________________________ 135
Loose Fabric __________________________________________________________ 135
Coating Cracks ________________________________________________________ 136
Fabric Identification _____________________________________________________ 136
Coating Identification ____________________________________________________ 137
N
Strength Criteria for Aircraft Fabric _________________________________________ 137
Fabric Testing _________________________________________________________ 137
O
Fabric Replacement _____________________________________________________ 139
TI

General ______________________________________________________________ 139

Equipment ____________________________________________________________ 139
Storage ______________________________________________________________ 140
IA

Repairs to Fabric Coverings _______________________________________________ 141

General ______________________________________________________________ 141
AV

Repair of Cuts and Tears _________________________________________________ 141

Herring-Bone Stitch _____________________________________________________ 141
Repairs with Woods Frames ______________________________________________ 142
Repair by Darning ______________________________________________________ 143
Repair by Insertion ______________________________________________________ 144
N

Rejuvenation of the Dope Film _____________________________________________ 146

TA
US
ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.7

For Training Purposes Only
 Y
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AC
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TI
Intentionally Blank
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N
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US
ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.8

For Training Purposes Only
Module 6.3 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement

Y
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of CAR 66, and the associated Knowledge
Levels as specified below:

EM
CAR 66 Licence Category
Objective
Reference A B1 B2 B3
Aircraft Materials — Composite and Non-Metallic 6.3

AD
Composite and non-metallic other than wood and 6.3.1
fabric
Characteristics, properties and identification (a) 1 2 2 2
of common composite and non-metallic

AC
materials, other than wood, used in aircraft;
Sealant and bonding agents;
The detection of defects/deterioration in (b) 1 2 - 2
composite and non-metallic material;
Repair of composite and non-metallic
material
Wooden structures
O N 6.3.2 1 2 - 2
Construction methods of wooden airframe
structures;
TI

Characteristics, properties and types of wood

and glue used in aeroplanes;
IA

Preservation and maintenance of wooden

structure;
Types of defects in wood material and
AV

wooden structures;
The detection of defects in wooden structure;
Repair of wooden structure
Fabric covering 6.3.3 1 2 - 2
N

Characteristics, properties and types of

fabrics used in aeroplanes;
TA

Inspections methods for fabric;

Types of defects in fabric;
Repair of fabric covering
US
ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.9

For Training Purposes Only
 Y
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AC
O N
TI
Intentionally Blank
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N
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ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.10

For Training Purposes Only
6.3.1 Aircraft Materials - Composite and Non-metallic

Composite Materials

Y
EM
A composite material consists of two (or more) different materials whose mechanical properties
complement each other although they maintain their separate identities (unlike an alloy). One
material forms a matrix which bonds to the other, the reinforcement material. In simple terms a
mud brick may be considered as a composite, where the brittle (when baked) clay is reinforced

AD
with straw to produce a structure with greater strength and resilience then either component
separately. Another example is reinforced concrete with steel rods strengthening the concrete
matrix. Wood may be considered as a natural composite with its fibrous composition.

AC
In aircraft engineering terms, a composite usually consists of a plastic resin matrix and
reinforcing fibres of various materials.

Among the reasons that composite materials are used on aircraft are their strength to weight
N
ratio and corrosion resistance. Reinforced plastics are much lighter than metals. A metal part
can be as much as 25 times heavier than an equivalent composite part. The composite part,
O
however, must be as strong and durable as the original.
TI
Reinforced plastics must therefore have strength, stiffness and impact resistance.

Strength is the ability of a material to support a load without breaking. A reinforced plastic may
IA

have to support a tensile load, a compressive load or a bending load. In each case it is the
fibres which support most of the load. Fibres have a smaller effect in the case of compressive
loads.
AV

Stiffness is the ability of a material to support a load without bending too much. As before, the
load can be in tension, bending or in compression. Again the fibres do most of the work.
N

Impact resistance is the ability of a material to withstand impact without shattering. Fibre
reinforced composites are very resistant to impact because the fibres prevent cracks from
TA

running right across the plastic, and absorb the energy of the impact.
US
ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.11

For Training Purposes Only
Glass Reinforced Plastic

Introduction

Y
Fibreglass was the first of the composites, originally developed in the 1940s for radomes, the
fairings which cover radar antennas and which must be transparent to radio waves.

EM
It is, as its name implies, a fibre made of glass. About 90 miles of glass filament can be run from
a single glass sphere no larger than a common marble. This fibre not only possesses
tremendous strength for its weight, but is impervious to all but the strongest acids and alkalis,

AD
and it will not corrode or burn. The thread-like fibres may be woven into a cloth as any other
fibre.

The fibreglass used as reinforcement for thermosetting resins in aircraft applications is available

AC
as a cloth in many different weights and weaves, as a loose mat and as loose strands of
fibreglass. When combined, the fibre and resin form Glass Reinforced Plastic or GRP as it is
commonly referred to.

N
For applications which require the most strength, it is necessary to use uni-directional glass
tape. Woven glass cloth has better shaping properties and high strength. Weave styles and
O
orientation are important as can be seen later in this section.
TI
For many non-aeronautical applications where low cost is more important than high strength, a
mat of rough chopped fibre strands is used instead of woven cloth. The glass fibres are
gathered and pressed together loosely. The random placement of fibres in the mat gives a
IA

uniform strength in all directions when it is bonded with resin.

Note: Glass fibres and glass dust are irritants and can cause reddening of the skin, itching
AV

and allergic reaction. If inhaled they can produce respiratory problems. Barrier cream,
gloves and dust masks must always be worn when appropriate.
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.12

For Training Purposes Only
Types of Glass
Various types of glass can be used, each with its own properties. Among
them are:

Y
‗A‘ Glass - Standard soda glass in common use for windows etc. It has a high alkali content
which absorbs water leading to degradation of material and corrosion. Resin

EM
adhesion also deteriorates with water absorption

‗C‘Glass - High resistance to corrosive materials. It is normally produced and used only as a
surface matt to reduce cost.

AD
‗D‘Glass - An improved electrical grade for modern radomes. It has a lower di-electric
constant.

AC
‗E‘ Glass - (Calcium-Alumina-Borosilicate) Low alkali content and good resin adhesion
properties. Also has good temperature properties. The most common type used
for aeronautical GRP.

‗R‘Glass - American and European version of „S‟ glass

‗S‘ Glass -
N
(Silica-Alumina-Magnesia) It's strength claimed to be 40% in excess of „E‟ glass.
O
Temperature stable in excess of 700ºc. It is used in high performance aerospace
application only, due to its high cost.
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.13

For Training Purposes Only
Nomenclature for Glass Fibre

Filament - A single fibre of glass usually between 5 and 14 microns () in diameter, several
times thinner than a human hair. Due to the near perfect surface, it may have an

Y
Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) of around 3400MPa (E Glass) or 4400MPa (S
Glass).

EM
Size - A lubricant used on the fibres during manufacture, it is burnt off prior to twisting.

Finish - A compound used to coat the filaments to improve handling and bonding

AD
characteristics. It must be compatible with the resin system used. DuPont "Volan
A" is a common finish used with glass fibres.

Strand - A number of filaments bonded together with a size.

AC
TEX Count - The weight of a strand in grammes/kilometre, e.g. 68 TEX = 68g/1000m

Roving - Loose combination of strands with no twist.

Yarn - Single Yarn: N

One or more strands with applied twist of 20 - 40 turns per
metre.
O
Plied Yarn: Two or more single yarns with applied twist in the opposite
direction to the single yarn twist.
TI

Cheese - A roll or spool of Roving or Yarn prior to weaving into cloth or chopping for mat.
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.14

For Training Purposes Only
Warp - The name given to the longitudinal direction of the fibre in woven fabric, i.e. Warp
Yarns; Yarns running the length of the fabric.

Weft - The transverse direction of the fabric, or yarns running crosswise (also called

Y
"woof" or "fill" in the US).

EM
Bolt - A roll of cloth.

Selvedge - Woven edge reinforcement of fabric which must be trimmed off before use. Woven
tape also has edge reinforcement but this may be incorporated in a repair.

AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.15

For Training Purposes Only
Styles of Woven Fabrics

There are many styles of woven fabric available. The most common for general use are the
plain weave fabrics where the warp and weft threads cross alternately. Plain woven fabrics are

Y
the least pliable, but are easy to cut and handle because they do not tend to unravel. However,
their strength is compromised due to the severe “pre-buckling” already present in the fabric.

EM
Fibres only produce their greatest strength when they are perfectly straight. The frequent over/
under crossing of the threads reduces the strength of plain weave types, though they are still
adequate for non-aerodynamic applications. Twill weaves and satin fabrics are highly pliable
and stronger than the plain weave styles.

AD
AC
O N
TI

In a satin weave, 1 weft yarn floats over between 3 and 7 warp threads before passing under
IA

another warp thread. The total number of warp threads in the pattern defines the style, i.e. 4-
harness (or shaft) to 8- harness satin weave. The stagger in the repeat pattern between rows
produces different finishes. The threads run straighter much longer in this loosely woven type,
AV

maintaining the theoretical strengths of the fibre. Obviously, pliability is higher and these fabrics
conform easily to complex shapes. Once cut, however, they tend to unravel because each
thread is not held as tightly.
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.16

For Training Purposes Only
Twill or Bias weaves offer a compromise between the satin and plain weave types, as well as a
sometimes desirable herringbone cosmetic finish.

As mentioned before, Unidirectional fabrics offer the greatest strength. In these, heavy warp
yarns are held in place by light, loosely woven weft yarns which carry no load.

Y
EM
AD
AC
N
This table shows a comparison of the properties of common weaves used in aerospace:
O
• Stability is the ability of the weave to hold together when cut,
TI
• Drape is the ability of the cloth to follow a complex shape,
• Porosity is an indication of the amount of resin required to thoroughly wet the cloth,
• Smoothness is the surface finish of the cloth,
IA

• Balance is a comparison between the warp and weft direction,

• Symmetry concerns the weave pattern and
AV

• Crimp is an indication of the amount or frequency of bend in the yarns.

N
TA
US
ND
HI

Typical styles for aeronautical use include;

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.17

For Training Purposes Only
 Style Weave
116 Plain
120 4 Harness Satin
143 4 Harness Satin

Y
181 8 Harness Satin
1581 8 Harness Satin

EM
7581 8 Harness Satin
7781 8 Harness Satin

The cloth is further defined by its Part Number. The format of the number varies with

AD
manufacturer and standard system employed, but typical examples are shown below.

Fabric Identification Requirements

AC
The glass fabrics designation and the applied chemical finish shall be marked on both ends of
the cardboard roll on which it is supplied. It should also have attached the release note,
approval certificate and label showing manufacturing batch number, quantity and specification
reference. O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA

Release notes and approval certificates which must be supplied with all deliveries of glass fabric
must state that the material meets the residual size content, fabric breaking strain and general
US

requirements of Specifications such as BS 3396.

ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.18

For Training Purposes Only
Storage
For the integrity of aircraft repairs, it is essential that the glass cloth is undamaged and not
contaminated with oil, grease, dust or moisture. Glass fibre fabric should, therefore, be stored
horizontally in suitably protected rolls on cradles at an ambient temperature not exceeding 20°C

Y
and humidity not exceeding 65% relative humidity. Fabric must not be stored flat, folded or on
end as the fibres are easily damaged.

EM
For prolonged storage, the roll of fabric must be stored in a sealed polythene container. The
expiry date of the roll must not be exceeded, so rotation of stock is important in storage
facilities.

AD
Whether in a store or production shop, each roll must have its part number and release
documentation attached or adjacent to ensure positive identification and proper use, and
because these details must be quoted in all repair certification paperwork.

AC
Some glass fibre cloth is supplied pre-impregnated with resin (Prepreg) and must be stored in a
freezer at -18°C or below. This must be stored in sealed bags with a desiccant to remove
moisture, laid horizontally with a tube in the centre to prevent distortion. To prevent the
condensation of moisture on the cloth before use, the material must be allowed to reach room
N
temperature before the storage bag is opened. As this affects the ultimate useful life of the
cloth, a log must be kept of the removal and duration out of the freezer for each roll.
O
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.19

For Training Purposes Only
Aramid Fibres
Aramid fibres are made from aromatic polyamide, a type plastic similar to nylon. They were
developed in the 1960s and entered service in the 1970s. The best known is DuPont's Kevlar
although other manufacturers produce similar materials such as Twaron and Technora.

Y
Their properties include;

EM
• the highest tensile strength and resistance to impact of any composite reinforcing fibre
• stiffer than glass but only about half as stiff as carbon fibres
• about 40% lighter than glass fibres

AD
• ten times as strong as aluminium
• up to 400% stronger than comparable glass reinforced laminates
• up to 20% stronger than comparable carbon reinforced laminates

AC
Aramid fibre has a very high impact strength with the damage confined to a small area.
Because of this they are frequently used in areas prone to stone and runway debris damage as
well as bullet proof vest!

However, aramid fibre has a lower compression strength than carbon, it absorbs moisture more
N
readily than either glass or carbon and it deteriorates in strong sunlight. It is also much more
difficult to cut, drill and sand than either glass or carbon, tending to 'fuzz' and not give clean
O
edges.
TI

Aramid fibres do not resist flame well and burn through more quickly than other fibres. Resin
adhesion is also lower, delamination being one of the ways in which it absorbs impact energy.
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Like the other fibres, aramid fibre is available in a number of weave patterns and weights. The
fibre is yellow in colour and carries coloured tracers every two inches along the weft and six
AV

inches along the warp.

Aramid fibre should always be kept covered when not in use because of the effects of ultra
violet light. This is not a problem once the fibres are incorporated into the composite and the
surface is painted.
N

When incorporated into a resin matrix, the material is often referred to as Aramid Fibre
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Reinforced Plastic (AFRP).

US
ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.20

For Training Purposes Only
Carbon Fibres
Carbon fibres, often referred to as graphite fibres in the USA, are made from pure carbon and
are black in colour. First developed in the 1960s, they began use on production aircraft in the
1980s.

Y
The fibres are manufactured by the controlled heating of Polyacrilonitrile (PAN), polythene or

EM
rayon fibres (e.g. Courtelle, Acrilan, Orlon) in a furnace filled with an inert gas. The fibres are
pre-oxidised at 200-300°C for one hour, carbonised at 1200°C then graphitised at 2000 -
3000ºC. This process removes the hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen leaving long oriented carbon
chains.

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The fibres may be surface oxidised, which improves their bonding characteristics, and sized,
which reduces the build-up of static electricity and also improves bonding.

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A range of carbon fibres is available in four basic groups produced at different graphitisation
temperature and defined by Tensile Modulus;

• Standard Modulus (High Strength)

• Intermediate Modulus (High Stiffness)
•
•
High Modulus
Ultra High Modulus
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All of them are stiffer than glass fibres, but only the high strength carbon fibres are stronger that
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glass fibres in tension. The higher modulus fibres are very brittle and not suitable for general
aeronautical use.
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The carbon fibres are woven into cloth to make them easier to handle, cut and align, and to
reduce damage to the fibres during lamination. Plain and satin weave patterns are available.
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To help alignment of the weave and to keep the fibres straight in the composite, Kevlar threads
may woven into the cloth every two inches along the weft and six inches along the warp.

Carbon fibre cloth is often supplied pre-impregnated with resin (Prepreg) and, like prepreg glass
N

cloth, must be stored in a freezer.

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When sanding carbon fibre composites during repair work for example, the fine carbon fibres
may find their way into electrical equipment and cause short circuits. When machining and
sanding carbon fibre composite, a vacuum cleaner is used to remove all the dust being
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produced.

Kevlar and carbon fibres have one added advantage over glass. They both have negative
coefficients of expansion. This means that they shrink very slightly when heated so composites
ND

can be made which do not change in size or shape when the temperature changes.

When incorporated into a resin matrix, the material is often referred to as Carbon Fibre
Reinforced Plastic (CFRP).
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.21

For Training Purposes Only
Cloth materials are sometimes mixed to give a structure it's desired characteristics. For
example, a carbon fibre component may have one or more layers of aramid fibre to improve its
impact resistance, or a GRP sanding layer to allow a smooth finish to be achieved.

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N
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ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.22

For Training Purposes Only
Other Fibres
There are a variety of other fibres which can be used in advanced composite structures but their
use is not widespread. These include:

Y
EM
Polyester
A low density, high tenacity fibre with good impact resistance but low modulus. Its lack of
stiffness usually precludes it from inclusion in a composite component, but it is useful where low
weight, high impact or abrasion resistance, and low cost are required. It is mainly used as a

AD
surfacing material, as it can be very smooth, keeps weight down and works well with most resin
types.

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Polyethylene
In random orientation, ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene molecules give very low
mechanical properties. However, if dissolved and drawn from solution into a filament by a
process called gel-spinning, the molecules become disentangled and aligned in the direction of
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the filament. The molecular alignment promotes very high tensile strength to the filament and
the resulting fibre. Coupled with their low S.G. (<1.0), these fibres have the highest specific
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strength of the fibres described here. However, the fibre‟s tensile modulus and ultimate strength
are only slightly better than E-glass and less than that of aramid or carbon. The fibre also
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demonstrates very low compressive strength in laminate form. These factors, coupled with high
price, and more importantly, the difficulty in creating a good fibre/matrix bond means that
polyethylene fibres are not often used in isolation for composite components.
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Quartz
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A very high silica version of glass with much higher mechanical properties and excellent
resistance to high temperatures (>1,000°C). However, the manufacturing process and low
volume production lead to a very high price.
N

Boron
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Carbon or metal fibres may be coated with a layer of boron to improve the overall fibre
properties. The extremely high cost of this fibre restricts it use to high temperature aerospace
applications and in specialised sporting equipment. A boron/carbon hybrid, composed of carbon
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fibres interspersed among 80-100m boron fibres, in an epoxy matrix, can achieve properties
greater than either fibre alone, with flexural strength and stiffness twice that of HS carbon and
1.4 times that of boron, and shear strength exceeding that of either fibre.
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Ceramics
Ceramic fibres, usually in the form of very short „whiskers‟ are mainly used in areas requiring
high temperature resistance. They are more frequently associated with non-polymer matrices
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such as metal alloys.

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.23

For Training Purposes Only
Natural
At the other end of the scale it is possible to use fibrous plant materials such as jute and sisal as
reinforcements in „low-tech‟ applications. The fibres‟ low S.G. (typically 0.5-0.6) mean that fairly
high specific strengths can be achieved, however, they are rarely encountered in aerospace

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applications.

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Fibre Properties and Cost

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AC
O N
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N
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ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.24

For Training Purposes Only
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ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.25

For Training Purposes Only
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Intentionally Blank
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ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.26

For Training Purposes Only
Resins

General

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Resins are plastic materials used for laminating and bonding all the types of materials used in
composites engineering. These resins are formulated to provide specific properties such as

EM
heat-resistance and flame proofing, although in some cases, an additive may be used. The type
of resin used, therefore, is most important, since a particular type will have been chosen at the
design stage to provide the necessary properties in a particular component and may not be
suitable for carrying out repairs in different locations. Resin often comes in liquid form, but is

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also available as a 'dry' film adhesive with a strippable protective sheet on both sides.

The resins used to bind together the fibres in a composite structure, and structural adhesives
have many things in common. They should ideally have the following characteristics:

AC
 Have good wettability to the fibres or surface to be bonded (substrate) and develop very
good adhesion upon cure.
 Should not give off volatiles of any cure products during cure.



Should have a simple cure cycle process.
Should have ambient temperature storage.
O N
Should be tolerant of imperfect processing - should be robust.
 Should not shrink during cure.
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 Should have excellent retention of room temperature properties when exposed to

extremes of temperature and humidity.
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 Should not have any toxicity hazards in either the uncured form or during decomposition
as would occur for example in an aircraft passenger cabin fire.
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No one resin system exists that provides outstanding performance in all of the above areas - in
effect, this is a wish list. However, a wide range of matrix resins and adhesives exist that meet
many of the above requirements.

The resins that are used in fibre reinforced composites can also be referred to as „polymers‟. All
N

polymers exhibit an important common property in that they are composed of long chain-like
molecules consisting of many simple repeating units. Man-made polymers are generally called
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„synthetic resins‟ or simply „resins‟. Polymers can be classified under two types, „thermoplastic‟
and „thermosetting‟, according to the effect of heat on their properties.
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Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics, like metals, soften with heating and eventually melt, hardening again upon
cooling. This process of crossing the softening or melting point on the temperature scale can be
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repeated as often as desired without any appreciable effect on the material properties in either
state. Typical thermoplastics include nylon, polypropylene and ABS, and these can be
reinforced, although usually only with short, chopped fibres such as glass.
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While tough, thermoplastics tend to lack rigidity and are not commonly used for aeronautical
composite resins.

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.27

For Training Purposes Only
Thermosetting Plastics
Thermosetting materials, or „thermosets‟, are formed from a chemical reaction in situ, where the
resin and hardener or resin and catalyst are mixed and then undergo a non-reversible chemical
reaction to form a hard, infusible crystalline polymer. Heat can be used to accelerate the cure

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process and also improves the strength of the resin, but overheating damages the molecular
bonds.

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In some thermosets, volatile substances are produced as by-products (a „condensation‟
reaction). Other thermosetting resins cure by mechanisms that do not produce any volatile by-
products and thus are much easier to process („addition‟ reactions).

AD
During the cure process most resins will exotherm or produce heat. This in its self will
accelerate the cure and has a greater "chain reaction" effect in larger masses of resin. Incorrect
mixing ratios can lead to runaway exothermy and fire or even explosion of certain types of resin.

AC
Once cured, thermosets will not become liquid again if heated, although above a certain
temperature their mechanical properties will change significantly. This temperature is known as
the Glass Transition Temperature (Tg), and varies widely according to the particular resin
system used, its degree of cure and whether it was mixed correctly. Above the Tg, the
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molecular structure of the thermoset changes to a more flexible, amorphous polymer. This
change is reversible on cooling back below the Tg although the resin may not regain its original
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strength. Above the Tg properties such as resin modulus (stiffness) drop sharply, and as a
result the compressive and shear strength of the composite does too. Other properties such as
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water resistance and colour stability also reduce markedly above the resin‟s Tg.
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AV
N
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ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.28

For Training Purposes Only
Thermosetting Resins
As previously stated, these harden or cure by a process of chemical cross linking, whereby
resins of low -molecular weight and good solubility grow into products of very high molecular
weight and limited solubility. The cross linking is an irreversible process. Some examples of

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thermosetting resins:

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Polyurethane High toughness materials, sometimes hybridised with other resins,
due to relatively low laminate mechanical properties in compression.
Uses harmful isocyanates as curing agent. Little use in modern
aircraft.

AD
Polyester Two or three part systems. Good environmental resistance. Heat
resistant up to150ºC. Used as wet resin and prepreg, it produces
toxic fumes (styrenes) during the cure process. Easily fire retarded

AC
but produces a lot of smoke when burning. Not as strong as epoxy.
Was used extensively for aircraft but use now diminishing. Can be
dangerous if mixed incorrectly (risk of explosion).

Epoxy Very strong, good environmental resistance. Can have high

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temperature resistance (>200ºC). Used as wet resin, prepreg or
adhesive film. Will usually burn readily and produces a lot of smoke
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when burning.
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Phenolics Fairly brittle system but has a good fire/smoke toxicity performance.
Hence extensive use in interior passenger cabin composite
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components. Good heat resistance (>200ºc).

Cyanate Esters Primarily used in the military aerospace industry. The material‟s
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excellent dielectric properties make it very suitable for use with low
dielectric fibres such as quartz for the manufacture of high speed
radomes. The material also has temperature stability up to around
200°C wet.
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Bismaleimides (BMI) Primarily used in aircraft composites where operation at higher

temperatures (230°C wet/ 250°C dry) is required. e.g. engine inlets,
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high-speed aircraft flight surfaces.

Polyimides Used where operation at higher temperatures than bismaleimides

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can stand is required (use up to 250°C wet/300°C dry). Typical

applications include missile and aero-engine components. Extremely
expensive resin, which uses toxic raw materials in its manufacture.
Polyimides also tend to be hard to process due to their condensation
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reaction emitting water during cure, and are relatively brittle when
cured.

The adhesive/resin types most commonly used in commercial aerospace structures

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manufacture and repair include:

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.29

For Training Purposes Only
Phenolic Resins
Phenolic resins were the first resin types used for aerospace adhesive and composite
applications and are still used extensively for metal-to-metal bonding and as matrix resins for
aircraft passenger cabin furnishing panels where the low smoke and toxic gas emissions
characteristics of Phenolic resins is advantageous. The key problems with Phenolic resins

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however is that they produce water as a product of cure and need cure temperatures of 125ºc to
150ºc to achieve a cure.

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Epoxy Resins
Epoxy resins are the most widely used resin types for aerospace adhesive and composite
applications. They range in type from two-part, room temperature curing pastes (e.g. Araldite) to

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liquid resins and hot-cure film adhesives capable of operating up to 150ºC for long periods of
time in aero engine applications.

Epoxy based matrix resins for aerospace composites tend to fall into three categories:

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350ºf (177ºC) Cure Epoxy Systems
These systems are mainly used for components that will meet elevated temperature conditions
in service and are most resistant to moisture absorption. Most major structural items such as
airframe class 1 items are based on these resins.
O N
They need a high temperature cure to be able to develop attractive elevated temperature
mechanical properties in service structure. However, the degradation of properties after long
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term exposure to humidity means that these systems are generally limited to service
temperatures of around 135ºC/275ºf.
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These matrix systems are good for fabrication of solid composite laminates, but is generally not
possible to cure these prepregs directly onto honeycomb core and achieve satisfactory core-to-
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skin strength from the matrix resin attachment to the honeycomb cell ends. If these resin
systems are to be used for composite sandwich panel skins, it is customary to use an epoxy film
adhesive to bond the pre-cured skins to the honeycomb core in a secondary bonding operation.

250ºf (121ºC) Cure Epoxy Systems

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These systems are used on less highly loaded structures such as fairings and access panels
and are less resistant to elevated temperatures and moisture absorption.
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They are designed to operate in aerospace applications such as exterior secondary structures
for civil and military sub-sonic aircraft and helicopters. Generally, the long term continuous
operating temperatures for structures using these resins does not exceed the 93º C/200ºf level
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and their use tends to be limited to secondary structural items.

These modified epoxy systems can be formulated to have the characteristic of one-shot
laminating and bonding to substrate (e.g. honeycomb core) without the need for a separate
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structural adhesive. The matrix system flows and fillets around the cell ends of the honeycomb
core to form a high strength adhesive bond. This honeycomb bonding behaviour considerably
simplifies the fabrication of sandwich panels using 250ºf cure matrix resins.
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.30

For Training Purposes Only
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AD
AC
Room Temperature Cure Epoxy Systems
These systems are used for repair of composite parts and recent developments in paste
adhesive technology provide systems with performance close to that of 250ºf (121ºC) cure
resins.

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The convenience of mixing, applying and curing a two-part epoxy liquid or paste adhesive at
room temperature is very attractive in terms of repairs to composite structures. However, until
O
recently, these resin systems had relatively poor elevated temperature strength and poor
toughness characteristics. Recent improvements in room temperature cure epoxy resins allow
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us to use these materials to a greater extent in composite structure repair.

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Epoxy Wet Resins

These are usually two part systems:
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• Part A is a polyepoxide resin (base resin)

• Part B is a curing agent (hardener) - this can be an acidic, amine or amide cross linking
agent to achieve the polymerisation process.
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The ratio of Part A to Part B will vary according to the particular epoxy material but the
manufacturer‟s instructions should always be followed. Keep kits of the two parts together and
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do not mix the lids as these will tend to bond. The tolerance on ratio quantities is + 1% pbw
(parts by weight). Mixing by weight is preferred to mixing by volume. Use digital scales (0.1%
accuracy). Mixing should be for 3 minutes minimum to ensure good dispersion of hardener into
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the base resin. Dyes are sometimes included to provide a colour change which gives a visual
check on mixing.

Mix in non-metallic receptacles (e.g. waxless paper cups) using flat non-metallic stirrers (e.g.
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wooden or plastic spatulas). If air is introduced into the mix, it may be desirable to vacuum, de-
gas or allow to stand for a while to allow air to reach the surface. The higher the viscosity, the
fewer gas/air bubbles will ever reach the surface and escape. Care should therefore be taken to
avoid trapping air during mixing.
HI

Pot Life

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.31

For Training Purposes Only
Usable life of resin in the Pot (mixing receptacle). The pot life may be extended by decanting
the mixed resin into smaller units because this reduces the heat generated in the curing resin by
exothermic reaction. Mixing in shallow trays can help remove the heat and reduces the
temperature reached as a result of the exotherm. Many epoxies exotherm as the cure initiates.
In extreme cases they can ignite and give off vapour and smoke. It is very important to mix in

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small quantities following manufacturers recommendations.

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Work Life
This is the usable life after resin has been wetted into reinforcement and before it begins to gel.

Gel Point

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On addition of the hardener a resin will begin to become more viscous until it reaches a state
when it is no longer a liquid and has lost its ability to flow. This is the „gel point‟. The resin will
continue to harden after it has gelled, until, at some time later, it has obtained its full hardness
and properties.

AC
Cure
Wet resins will usually cure at ambient temperatures (21-24ºC) in 16-72 hours though they will
harden in less time than this. Cure can be accelerated (and properties improved) by the addition
of heat.
O N
For Boeing aircraft, the cure temperature should be less than 66ºC for 'room temperature'
repairs. These do not replicate the strength of the original 350° or 250°f cures used during
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fabrication. Manufacturers recommendations, which are based on extensive research, should
always be followed for optimum performance.
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It is very important to refer to the manufacturer‟s instructions when using resins of all kinds.
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Resin/Fibre Ratio
An important feature of a composite structure is the proportion of fibre to resin used, or the
resin/fibre ratio. If too much resin is used, the fibres will have little effect and the composite will
be weak. If too little is used the fibres may not be fully encapsulated and the structure will lack
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rigidity.
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There is an optimum resin/fibre ratio to produce the best composite. The value will vary
depending on the fibre and resin used. With polyesters the ratio is usually about two parts of
resin to one part of fibre by weight. This is because of the inferior adhesion of the polyester
resin to the fibre, and it is usual to use a slight excess of resin to make sure that the fibres are
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thoroughly wetted with resin.

Epoxy resins, with their superior adhesion, bond very well to the fibres so the fibre resin ratio
can be higher to produce a lighter but strong composite. For example, when using glass fibre
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and carbon fibre with epoxy resin, equal parts by weight of resin and fibre are used. Precise
resin/fibre ratios are given by the fibre and resin manufacturers.

Epoxies have other useful properties which make them superior to polyesters.
HI

• Very good resistance to chemicals.

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.32

For Training Purposes Only
 • Low shrinkage as they cure.
• Variable curing time - different combinations of resin and hardeners can be used to give
curing times varying from a few minutes to days. Pot life can also be varied by choice of
hardener.
• Variable curing temperature - some epoxides cure at room temperature, but by choosing

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the right hardeners, materials can be produced which will only cure when heated. This
gives more

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• time in which to work with the mixed resin.

Epoxy resins do have some disadvantages.

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• They are more expensive.
• They are more difficult to use than polyester.
• They are possibly hazardous to health.

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Prepregs
A prepreg (an abbreviation of pre-impregnated) is a sheet of fibre reinforcement impregnated
with the resin/hardener system. The resin is chosen so that it is fairly solid at room temperature
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in its uncured state. When it is heated it initially softens, then cross-links to form a cured solid.
Glass-fibre, carbon fibre, Kevlar and aluminium mesh are available as a prepreg.
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The advantages of a prepreg are that the resin/hardener ratio and the fibre/resin ratio are
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carefully controlled by the manufacturer. Each batch of prepreg is identical. The resin is already
spread evenly throughout the fibres. This is important in the manufacture of items such as
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helicopter rotor blades. It allows the blades to be moulded to a controlled thickness and weight
in a repeatable process.
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Because the prepreg material contains only enough resin to cure its own fibres it must be
bonded to the substrate with a separate adhesive. This is usually in the form of a thin layer of
thickened epoxy resin known as film adhesive, its thickness controlled by the manufacturer.

To prevent premature cure, prepregs and film adhesives must be transported and stored at a
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very low temperature. They will begin to cure at room temperature but will never reach their
ultimate strength and can only be used with hot curing systems.
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All polymer resins deteriorate during storage. If prepregs or resins get warm, cross-linking starts
and the resins can cure before they are used. Resins must be stored in an even, cool
temperature as specified by the manufacturer. Prepregs and film adhesives are stored in a
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sealed bag at -18ºC or below. A record must be kept on the package of the date and time of
each transfer of material in and out of the freezer. After warming to room temperature to prevent
the condensation of moisture on the material, the required amount is removed from the
package. The package is then re-sealed and returned to the freezer. The log is used to
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determine the total time out of the freezer which reduces its shelf life.

Resins and prepregs must be used before their shelf life expires.
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.33

For Training Purposes Only
Structural Repair Manuals often specify the use of prepregs when carrying out repairs to
composite structures. However, this may cause difficulties. An operator may have a number of
different aircraft types, and it is likely that each type will use prepreg from various
manufacturers. This would require the operator to stock a wide range of prepregs in a number
of freezer units. Most of these prepreg repair materials would need to be discarded every 6 to

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12 months as their shelf life expired.

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Workshop Conditions for Good Bonding
The environmental conditions required for good bonding include;

AD
 Air temperature 18ºC to 30ºC
 Repair surface temperature 18ºC to 30ºC
 Relative humidity 65% maximum (humidity should be kept as low as possible. Dependent

AC
on the temperature)
 Dust free atmosphere (positive pressure work area to keep out
 the dust)
 No smoking
 No exhaust or other oily fumes


No aerosols
O N
No silicone release agents are permitted in any bonding shop. This includes WD40 and
any other silicone de-watering fluids
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 Clean white cotton gloves must be worn at all times during and after surface preparation
prior to bonding
 Handle parts by their edges (do not touch the faces to be bonded
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 at any time)
 Resins should not be used if excessive humidity exists (>85%) because water will
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condense on the resin and affect the cure and subsequent properties. Containers should
also be closed
 immediately after removal of the required quantity of resin or hardener. This is especially
important for the curing agent which picks up atmospheric moisture more quickly than the
resin.
N
TA

Health and Safety

Major points are:
 Handling of resins, curing agents and solvents - clean gloves of correct type
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 Skin protection - barrier creams and protective equipment

 Fume and dust extraction and ventilation
 Clean up of self and tools - Clean overalls
 Disposal of uncured resin and contaminated materials – special waste
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 Flammability risk
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.34

For Training Purposes Only
Storage
Epoxy resins should be stored in their original containers in metal cabinets
in a dry environment. If they are used as kits, these kits should not be
mixed up. The performance of each resin can be found on the

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manufacturers data sheets. Data sheets also give details of storage
and the associated temperatures.

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If applicable allow kits of resin to reach ambient temperature before
opening. Resin storage categories:
 Category A -18ºc and below

AD
 Category B 1ºc to 5ºc
 Category C Ambient

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O N
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.35

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Intentionally Blank
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.36

For Training Purposes Only
Composite Construction
Fibre reinforced plastic resins can be used as;

 a laminate; a simple structure built-up from layers of cloth impregnated with

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resin,
 a sandwich; laminated skins separated by a light weight core, or a

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 monolithic structure; a structure with integral stiffeners bonded in or formed during
manufacture.

These methods can also be combined to produce a structure with the desired characteristics.

AD
Plain laminated structures are not commonly used in aircraft construction due to their lack of
rigidity and the need for internal support.

AC
Sandwich construction represents by far the most common use of composite materials on
aircraft. This structure consists of two laminated skins separated by a crush resistant core. This
gives it a high degree of rigidity and impact resistance.

Core materials have, in the past, included Balsa wood, polyurethane foam and PVC foam, but a
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structure composed of thin walled hexagonal cells is now the most common. This 'honeycomb'
structure can be made from glass fibre, aluminium or Nomex, a resin impregnated aramid fibre
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'paper'.
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Glass fibre honeycomb is rarely used due to its comparatively poor performance. Aluminium foil
honeycomb is used where high strength and heat resistance are needed but has a relatively
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high weight. It is sometimes bonded to metal skins on one or both sides for stressed panels
such as flying control surfaces and engine components.
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N
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Nomex offers a very high strength to weight ratio and excellent resistance to moisture and fire. It
is easily carved into complex contours and modified cell shapes such as Ox-core and Flexcore
can be formed around two and three dimensional cures respectively (with a slight loss of
strength).
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.37

For Training Purposes Only
Honeycomb is produced from flat sheet material which is corrugated to give the desired cell
size. The sheets are bonded along the corrugation nodes and cured under pressure. When
cured it is mechanically expanded to the correct cell shape. The joint lines within the
honeycomb give the material a 'ribbon direction' which is slightly stiffer and must be noted when
replacing honeycomb during a repair.

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The cell size dictates the density, weight and strength of the honeycomb material.

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Flat honeycomb sandwich panels are used for aircraft floor boards, bulkheads and internal
structures. Contoured panels, often with plain laminated edges and attachment points, are used
for external fairings, access panels, cowlings and aerofoil and flying control leading and trailing

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edges. They are also used for cabin linings, stowages and decor panels.

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Monolithic carbon composites are being used increasingly to produce airframe structural
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components. These include floor beams, stabiliser spars, ribs and skins, flight control surfaces,
cowlings and even wing box components and the rear pressure bulkhead of the Airbus A380.
Monolithic components are usually formed in a mould.
HI

As well as integral stiffeners, much of the strength is obtained by the ply orientation of the cloth.
Woven cloth has greater rigidity in one direction, so by laying-up the cloth plies in a set

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.38

For Training Purposes Only
directions, the bend and twist properties of a component can be controlled. This is determined
during the design of the component and must be observed when any repairs are carried out.

Y
EM
AD
AC
N
The advantages of monolithic structures include weight reduction compared to conventional
construction, due to the reduction in the number of parts and the absence of fasteners,
O
resistance to corrosion and high fatigue strength.
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

To ensure proper adhesion and optimum strength and weight, all composite fabrication and
repair must be completed in a controlled environment. The work area must be free from dust, oil

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.39

For Training Purposes Only
and grease with adequate air extraction and filtration for the removal of fumes during cleaning
and cure, and dust during sanding processes. Humidity and temperature must be controlled and
kept within acceptable levels.

The cure cycle must be carried out with adequate heat and pressure on the structure. It is

Y
usually necessary to ensure the temperature is raised, or "ramped-up" at a set rate (degrees per
minute), in a set number of steps (to ensure even temperature soak throughout the structure)

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and held for the correct "dwell" time and temperature. Ramp-down is also important. These
parameters may be controlled manually, or by a computer based Hot Bonder. The Bonder will
also produce printed and digital records of the cycle which would otherwise need to be plotted
by hand.

AD
Heat may be provided by lamps or electrical mats. It is monitored by thermocouples which are
situated as close to the bond as possible at several locations around the structure to check for
average temperature and localised hot or cold spots. The thermocouples may be connected to

AC
a bonder or a hand held thermometer. Heat lamps may be adjusted manually, moved toward or
away, to regulate the temperature. A bonder will automatically control the temperature by
regulating the current supplied to heater mats or lamps.

N
Pressure is normally provided by a vacuum drawn around the structure which is partially or
completely enclosed in an air tight 'bag'. Suction may be provided by a bonder or by a separate
air pump.
O
TI
IA
AV
N
TA

Autoclaves are pressurised ovens ranging in size from bench-top units to large plant with a
working chamber over 4 meters in diameter and 12 or more meters long. For aerospace use
US

they apply a pressure of around 15 bar and temperatures up to about 250°C. They are generally
used for manufacture and large repairs, accommodating whole control surfaces.

The component is assembled with any jigs or formers required, bagged up with a vacuum
ND

applied to hold the parts in the correct relationship. They are loaded into the autoclave and their
thermocouples are connected to the recording device located outside the chamber. When all
jobs are loaded, the chamber is sealed and pressure and heat applied. Large autoclaves may
have independently controlled heat zones.
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.40

For Training Purposes Only
 Y
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AD
AC
O N
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.41

For Training Purposes Only
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Intentionally Blank
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.42

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Inspection and Damage Assessment

General

Y
Damage to composite components can result from a number of causes, such as rain or hail
erosion, lightning strikes or static discharges, bird strikes and impact by thrown up runway

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debris, catering lorries etc.

Physical damage may be hard to detect, since the surface will often spring back to its original
shape after impact. The damage may only be visible as cracks, crazing, stains or scuffs in the

AD
paintwork. Any such marks must be investigated to ascertain whether damage to the composite
material has occurred. The structure should also be examined for secondary damage such as
may occur at attachments and fittings, and where the shock may have been transmitted to
adjacent parts.

AC
Any damage to the surface of a composite laminate or honeycomb core will allow moisture to
enter the structure and cause damage. Once moisture has entered, the repeated cycle of
freezing and thawing during flight operations will progressively destroy the bonded structure
N
from the inside, thus extending the damage over a wide area. When it is suspected that
moisture has entered the structure through a skin puncture, in investigation should be carried
O
out to check the extent of the moisture absorption. On glass fibre components such as
radomes, a moisture meter is recommended for detecting water ingress. Where the use of a
TI
moisture meter is impractical, X-ray methods may be helpful in assessing moisture quantity.
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND

Delamination, the separation of plies from each other or from the core, may be caused by
moisture absorption or impact damage and when either is known to exist, the area surrounding
the visible damage should be checked to ensure the structural integrity of the laminations. This
HI

can be determined by tapping the skin with a small metallic object such as a coin. This should

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.43

For Training Purposes Only
produce a live resonant tone if the bonding is sound, but if delamination has occurred, a flat,
dead response will be obtained.

Since composite components are often situated at the extremities of an aircraft, such as its
nose, tail and wing tips, they can be quite susceptible to lightning strikes and static discharges.

Y
Where this is the case, lightning diverter strips are often fitted to a radome and bonding strips
and static discharge wicks are often fitted to other composite components. These are then

EM
electrically bonded to the adjacent metallic structure. The electrical bonding of these
components should be checked after removal and replacement. Non-conductive materials such
as glass and aramid composite panels are often treated with a coat of conductive paint to aid
electrical bonding.

AD
The extremities of any damage found in a composite structure should be marked, and the
maximum area and depth of the damage should be assessed in order to determine whether a
repair is required, and if so, the type of repair which should be carried out The limits of the

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various standard repairs which can be carried out are defined in the relevant manual, (Structural
Repair Manual or Repair Scheme) for the aircraft concerned and may vary considerably
depending on the type of structure and its location It must be emphasised that repairs may only
be made in accordance with the manufacturer‟s instructions, and that repairs may be prohibited
N
in certain areas. In some cases, repairs may not be permitted within a specific distance from the
edge of a panel or fastener hole, while in other instances temporary (room temperature) repairs
O
may be permitted, but these must usually be replaced by a permanent repair within a specific
time period.
TI
IA
AV
N
TA

Exotic inspection equipment may be used today, however visual inspection is still the principal
method of damage detection. Some of today‟s more common methods of Non-Destructive
US

Inspection (NDI) are as follows:

ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.44

For Training Purposes Only
Ultrasonic Inspection
With laminated sheet and monolithic construction the easiest way of assessing material quality
by ultrasonic inspection is to scan the sheet and to measure the attenuation of an ultrasonic
beam transmitted through it. This can be done by a single transmission of the beam and the use

Y
of a pair of probes held in a calliper. It is often more convenient to use a single probe as both
transmitter and receiver, and to let the ultrasonic beam return through the specimen by using a

EM
reflector plate or by examining the back surface echo.

Ultrasonic inspection can help indicate the presence of delaminations, voids, foreign materials,
moisture ingress and disbonds

AD
Radiography
X-ray is widely employed for inspection of metal and carbon fibre composite components. It

AC
provides an excellent means of detecting transverse cracks, foreign inclusions such as metal
swarf in solid composite, the position of core inserts and shims, damage to honeycomb and
moisture ingress.

Vibration Methods
O N
Probably the oldest test for the inspection of laminated constructions is the coin tap test. This is
a subjective vibration method which depends upon the experience of the operator to detect any
TI
damage present.

An automated version of this test, known as the Acoustic Flaw Detector (Woodpecker) is now in
IA

use which takes away some of the subjectivity of the coin tap test when used by trained
personnel. It can be used to detect all types of composite defect and large structures can be
tested in a short period of time, which is very attractive.
AV

Thermal Imaging
Thermal photography can be used to survey large areas of the airframe in service but will
N

generally only reveal gross water damage and delamination.

TA

These methods are not only employed in assessing damage, but are also used to confirm the
integrity of a component once it has undergone a repair.
US
ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.45

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Intentionally Blank
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.46

For Training Purposes Only
Composite Repairs

General

Y
The repair of composite materials is a specialised process and should not be attempted without
adequate practical training.

EM
Specific repair instructions and limitations are provided in the Structural Repair Manual for each
aircraft type. These must be complied with to ensure continued airworthiness. The following is a
description of a repair to one skin and the core of a sandwich construction panel, however, the

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general principles are common to most repairs.

Clean the area around the damage ensuring that no water is allowed to enter the structure.
Punctures and holes may be masked or sealed to prevent the ingress of moisture.

AC
Determine the extent of the damage and remove the material as required. Moisture must be
removed before carrying out a repair, and this is usually done by the application of heat. This
can be done by either placing the component in an oven or applying heat using lamps, heater
N
mats or warm air jets. In some cases vacuum bagging with absorbent material may be used to
assist the heat drying process. With honeycomb components, it may be recommended that an
O
outlet path should be provided for the moisture by drilling holes into the affected cells before the
heat is applied.
TI

Remove any paint or protective coatings by sanding – paint stripper will damage cured resin.
External surface repairs may require „taper‟ or „step‟ sanding to meet smoothness requirements.
IA

Care must be taken to avoid damage to the fibres in the component‟s skin beyond the taper
sanding requirements.
AV
N
TA
US
ND

Thoroughly clean with a vacuum to remove dust and degrease the area with Acetone, Isopropyl
HI

Alcohol (IPA) or Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK).

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.47

For Training Purposes Only
Note: These materials are highly inflammable, produce explosive vapours and are toxic.
Observe all safety precautions and wear the required protective equipment.

Determine ribbon direction of existing honeycomb core and orientation of skin plies and mark on
skin away from repair.

Y
Determine repair materials to be used, e.g.. cloth, resin, adhesive, honeycomb, thixotropic
agent etc. and the ancillary materials e.g. breather, absorber, parting film, bagging film, seal

EM
strip, tape etc.

Check availability, serviceability and calibration of equipment, e.g. vacuum pump, thermometer,
heat lamp, hot bonder etc.

AD
Prepare repair materials and ancillaries. Ensure materials are in date (shelf life, fridge life etc.).
Ensure ribbon direction and ply orientation are observed. Record the release numbers of all
repair materials.

AC
O N
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AV

Wet Lay-up
Mix sufficient resin to bond in lower repair ply and core. Work resin into cloth between melamine
sheets, cut to size/shape, peel melamine from one side, place in hole in correct orientation and
N

remove other melamine.

TA

Note: Ensure all melamine pieces are removed and accounted for.
Failure to remove will prevent proper adhesion.

Mix resin with thixotropic agent (e.g. phenolic 'micro-balloons' which expand to add volume but
US

not weight to the resin) and coat outer edge of core repair piece and inner edge of hole, place in
hole in correct orientation.

Lay-up ancillary materials as shown, draw vacuum and apply heat. Cure for required duration.
ND

Remove ancillary materials and inspect. Sand core flush with skin. Vacuum clean and solvent
wipe.
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.48

For Training Purposes Only
 Y
EM
AD
AC
Mix sufficient resin to bond in skin repair plies. Work resin into cloth between melamine sheets,
cut to size/shape. Peel melamine from one side, place over core and remove other melamine.
Repeat for each ply.

Note: N
Ensure all melamine pieces are removed and accounted for.
Failure to remove will prevent proper adhesion.
O
Lay-up ancillary materials as shown, draw vacuum and apply heat. Cure for required duration.
TI

Remove ancillary materials and inspect. Sand lightly if required. Solvent clean and reprotect.
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.49

For Training Purposes Only
Prepreg Lay-up
Remove one backing paper and lay film adhesive in hole. Remove other backing paper and
insert repair ply/s observing orientation. Apply film adhesive onto repair ply/s. Wrap foaming
adhesive round core plug and insert observing ribbon direction.

Y
Note: Ensure all backing papers are removed and accounted for. Failure to remove will prevent

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proper adhesion.

Lay-up ancillary materials as shown, draw vacuum and apply heat. Cure for required cycle.

AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA

Remove ancillary materials and inspect. Sand core flush with skin. Vacuum clean and solvent
wipe.

Apply layer of film adhesive over repair area. Lay repair plies in correct order and orientation.
US

Lay sanding ply if required.

Note: Ensure all backing papers are removed and accounted for. Failure to remove will prevent
proper adhesion.
ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.50

For Training Purposes Only
Fibre/Metal Laminate (FML)
A new type of composite used in aircraft construction is the fibre/metal laminate (FML). In the
past, sheets of aluminium alloy and aramid fibre prepreg have been laminated together and
used as non-structural cargo hold lining where the impact resistant qualities of the material are

Y
of great advantage.

EM
Currently a glass fibre/aluminium composite known as 'Glare' is being used to form the upper
skin panels of various new aircraft designs. This material is both lighter than conventional sheet
metal, and has greater fatigue resistance and lower crack propagation. It offers better fire
resistance and is less prone to corrosion as the glass fibre layers will prevent corrosion from

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spreading through the sheet.

The components of the Glare sheet are pre-formed and laid-up in a mould where they are
heated and cured under pressure. Door and window cut-outs are milled out and the sheets are

AC
bonded onto the structure. The edges of the sheets are joined by seamless splices with no
break in the fibre reinforcements.

The strength of the panel can be controlled by the number of laminates laid-up, normally 2-4 of
glass cloth and 3-5 of aluminium, and the orientation of the fibre layers.
O N
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AV
N
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ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.51

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Intentionally Blank
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.52

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Other Non-metallic Materials

Plastics

Y
As we have seen, there are two groups of plastics;

EM
Thermoplastic materials - become soft when heated and can be moulded again and again.
Thermosetting materials - become permanently hard during the moulding process and cannot
be softened again.

AD
A third group, referred to as Cold setting materials, are really thermosetting plastics which cure
at room temperature. Some plastic resin materials used with glass fibres to repair certain types
of aircraft structure are in this group.

AC
Plastics are made from materials obtained from animal or vegetable products and coal or
petroleum by-products.

Properties of Plastics
 they are resistant to corrosion.
N
 they have a fairly low relative density and light weight.
O
 their strength decreases rapidly as the temperature rises.
 they can be coloured if required. Some are transparent.
TI
 many can be bonded together or fused by heat reducing the need for fasteners.
 some plastics are flexible and can absorb impact by distortions but are not themselves
damaged.
IA

 some plastics are recyclable making them more environmentally friendly.

AV

The strength of plastics is less than that of metals. Generally the only plastic material that can
be used for the load carrying parts of an aircraft are the fibre reinforced plastics. Other plastics
are used to make fairings and cabin furnishings.
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.53

For Training Purposes Only
Types of Plastics

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC or Vinyl)

PVC is a thermoplastic material often used to replace rubber for making protective gloves and

Y
aprons. It is also used to make seat covers in light aircraft. A plasticiser can be added to PVC to
soften it. PVC can be shaped by injection moulding and extrusion. It can also be compression

EM
moulded without a plasticiser to give a tough rigid material.

Other Thermoplastics
Two modern thermoplastics approved for aerospace structural use are polyphenylene sulphide

AD
(PPS), and polyetherimide (PEI) both of which are available under several trade names. PPS is
produced as granules and is moulded and formed with heat and pressure, PEI is produced in
both granular and resin form. Both can be modified with reinforcing materials such as glass,
aramid and carbon fibres. With inherent flame retardancy and high hardness and rigidity, these

AC
engineering plastic are specially suitable for the manufacture of semi-finished products,
mouldings and films. Continuous service temperatures up to 240°C are possible. Reinforcement
with glass fibres lowers the thermal expansion coefficient to values that are typical of metal.
Both are also characterized by very good chemical and oxidation resistance, minimal water
absorption and low creep, even at elevated temperatures.
N
Formed products can be welded together to form light weight, fatigue resistant structures free
O
from fasteners and the necessary processing to install them.
TI

Proposed uses include wing fixed leading edges 'D' sections, leading edge ribs and stabiliser
components where their impact resistance is of great value.
IA

PolyTetraFluoroEthylene
Produced under brand names such as DuPont's 'Teflon', PTFE is a fluorocarbon-based polymer
AV

which has a very high resistance to most chemicals at temperatures from -80°C to>200°C and
very low friction (hence it's use on non-stick cookware). With low compressibility it is widely
used for dynamic seals, low friction runners, anti-fretting tapes and blocks, but is not suited to
applications where severe deformation is required. It is also not recommended for high
vacuums and excessive temperatures.
N

Tufnol and Micarta Laminates

TA

Laminates are made by pressing together sheets of cotton or linen which have been soaked in
a thermosetting plastic resin.
US

These laminates are tough, have a high electrical resistance and can be drilled and machined
successfully. Among other things, they are used to make control system pulleys, the materials
being strong enough to resist breakage yet not hard enough to wear the cable itself. Laminates
are also used to make printed circuit boards. They are known by the trade names „Tufnol‟ and
ND

„Micarta‟.
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.54

For Training Purposes Only
Plastic Transparencies – Perspex
Passenger windows, some windscreens, canopies and light covers etc., are usually
manufactured from Polymethyl-Methachrylate, which is generally referred to by its trade names
of Plexiglas, Perspex, Acrylite, Acrylplast and Lucite. It is commonly called Acrylic glass or

Y
simply Acrylic.

EM
Acrylic or Perspex sheet material for British aircraft glazing must comply with specification DTD
5592 or equivalent. (Although all Directorate of Technical Development - DTD - standards are
now obsolescent and are no longer revised, they are still valid for existing aircraft ).

AD
For aircraft purposes, formed Perspex is supplied in two grades:
Grade One - DTD 5544, which is free from optical distortion on both flat and curved
surfaces. Used for panels where undistorted vision is essential.
Grade Two - DTD 5545, which may have slight irregularities and some optical distortion.

AC
Used for passenger windows, lamp covers etc., and authorised repairs.

Both grades have the following characteristics:

 they can be shaped or bent when heated in boiling water or glycerine at 120ºC.


they can be sawn, filed, drilled and machined. N
they will contract and expand, due to climatic changes and sunlight.
O
Minute surface cracks in transparencies, known as „Crazing‟, are often formed by contact with
TI

petrol, dope, solvents and their vapours, de-icing fluids, acetone, some hydraulic fluids and
exposure to ultra-violet light. While light surface crazing has little effect on window strength, it
IA

does reduce visibility and will eventually lead to the propagation of cracks. Certain windows may
be repaired by machining away the outer surface and will remain serviceable providing
thickness limitations are met.
AV

Stress crazing may occur if the tensile stress on a panel exceeds a critical value and consists of
multiple hairline surface cracks usually in the same direction. Stress crazing will cause a serious
loss of strength in the panel.
N

'In plane' cracks which may form in Perspex sheets parallel to the surface reduce visibility and
strength in the panel.
TA

External windows are often manufactured from stretched acrylic with improved resistance to
cracks and crazing. A polysiloxane coating also reduces the effects of crazing and is marketed
US

under the trade name Crystalvue.

ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.55

For Training Purposes Only
Elastomers
From the Greek word 'elastos' meaning elastic, elastomers are rubber like materials which may
be natural or synthetic (polymers) and have considerable elastic properties. Because they may
also be moulded into shapes, which they retain, they qualify to be included in the category of

Y
plastics.

EM
Elastomers will tolerate repeated elongation and return to their original size and shape, in a
similar way to natural rubber. Some of the more common elastomers, to be found in the
aerospace industry include:

AD
Nitrile - also known as Buna 'N'. A synthetic rubber, made (initially in Germany) by the
polymerisation of butadeine and sodium (hence BuNa), it has excellent resistance to fuels and
some oils, and is used for oil and fuel hoses, gaskets, and seals. This material also has low
'stiction' properties, when in contact with metal, and is, therefore, particularly suited to 'moving-

AC
seal' applications. Nitrile is not recommended for:
 • Phosphate ester hydraulic fluids (Skydrol etc.).
 • Ketones (MEK, acetone)
 • Automotive brake fluid.

N
Buna - 'S' relatively cheap material, also with a performance similar to natural rubber. It is often
used for tyres and tubes, but its poor resistance to fuels/oils/cleaning fluids makes it unsuitable
O
for seals.
TI

Flouro-Elastomers - these have exceptional high-temperature properties and can be used at

250ºC. They are also solvent-resistant and are mainly used for high-temperature seals. A
IA

common name for these materials is Viton. Viton is recommended for:

 Petroleum oils. Di-ester base lubricants (MIL-L-7808, MIL-L-6085).

AV

Silicate ester base lubricants (MLO 8200, MLO 8515, OS-45.)

Silicone fluids and greases.
 Selected phosphate ester fluids.

Flouro-Elastomers are not recommended for:

N

 Ketones (MEK, acetone).

TA

 Skydrol fluids.

Neoprene - has very good tensile properties and excellent elastic recovery qualities. It is also
solvent-resistant and, therefore, has a wide range of applications as fuel and oil seals and
US

gaskets. Because of its special elastic recovery properties, it is also ideally suited to
diaphragms. It is not recommended for ketones, esters and oxidising acids.
ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.56

For Training Purposes Only
Silicone Rubber - has very good high- and low-temperature properties (- 80ºC to + 200ºC). It is
often used for seals and is also used for the potting of electrical circuits, because of its ability to
retain its rubbery state, even at low temperatures. Some types will cure or 'vulcanise' at room
temperature and are supplied as sealant/adhesives in a tube. Silicones are not recommended
for:

Y
 Most petroleum fluids.

EM
 Ketones (MEK, acetone).
 Water and steam.

Ethylene-propylene rubbers - (EPM and EPDM) are valuable for their excellent resistance to

AD
heat, oxidation, ozone and weather aging due to their stable, saturated polymer backbone
structure. One of the few compounds resistant to phosphate ester hydraulic fluids such as
Skydrol.

AC
Poly-Sulphide Rubber - although it possesses relatively poor physical properties, it has
exceptionally high resistance to fuels and oils and is widely used for lining or sealing fuel tanks.
It is also used for lightly stressed seals and hoses, which come into contact with fuels or oils.
This compound can be mixed and cured in the work place and is commonly used as a sealant
known under the trade names such as PRC and Thiokol.
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.57

For Training Purposes Only
Ceramics

Ceramics are inorganic materials whose main industrial use is as an electrical insulating
material, or in high temperature applications. They include:

Y
Porcelain and Steatite, for applications where dust and moisture readily collect. These

EM
materials can be moulded into special shapes before being fired and glazed rather as crockery
is. The porcelain-type insulators on high-voltage transformer and switch gear bushings, and on
high voltage transmission and distribution overhead lines, are probably their most familiar use.

AD
Special ceramics have been used for some times for such applications as motor vehicle spark-
plug insulators and special electrical components. Advanced ceramics are under development
for use in gas turbine engines for high temperature stators and turbine blades.

AC
Glass is used for flight deck windows. Due to the high impact resistance and low erosion
requirements they are usually composed of laminations of soda-lime glass, toughened glass
and acrylic material with heating elements built in. The composition varies with type and
manufacturer.

N
Mica-glass compositions are for high temperature insulation applications.
O
Ceramic Fibres are used in heat resistant blankets and to weave fireproof cloth for engine and
pylon protection.
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.58

For Training Purposes Only
Adhesives
The adhesive bonding of aircraft metal structure began during the second world war and has
been used on an increasing scale in the aerospace industry ever since. Adhesives are used for
constructional tasks varying from aircraft fuselages components and flight control surfaces, to

Y
propellers and helicopter rotor blades.

EM
The earliest process was developed by Aero Research Ltd. and was based on a phenol-
formaldehyde resole resin coated with a polyvinyl formal powder. By February 1942, aluminium
alloy lap joints were prepared with breaking stresses of over 2000 PSI. This synthetic structural
adhesive for metals and was named „Redux‟ standing for Research at Duxford. It was first used

AD
on the deHavilland Sea Hornet fighter/bomber and subsequent on both military and civil aircraft.
Redux is still in use today and has been joined by a wide range of epoxy and other synthetic
resin adhesives.

AC
Types of bond
The adhesive bond may be achieved mechanically or chemically, but in practice, most
adhesives use both methods of bonding to form a joint.

Mechanical: here the adhesive penetrates into the surface and forms a mechanical lock,
N
by keying into surface irregularities. It also forms re-entrants, where the
adhesive penetrates behind parts of the structure, and becomes an integral
O
part of the component to be joined.
Chemical: in this method of bonding, the adhesive is spread over the surfaces to be
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joined and forms a chemical bond with the surface, it's molecules diffusing
into the substrate.
IA
AV
N
TA

Stresses on a bonded joint

US

Adhesive joints are liable to experience four main types of stress ; Tensile, Shear, Cleavage
and Peel. Tensile forces pull the bonded joint directly apart, whilst shear forces pull the upper
and lower bonded plates in opposite directions, but in the same plane. Cleavage happens when
ND

separation of the plates is attempted at one end of the joint only. Peel is very similar to cleavage
but the force is applied to one bonded plate only
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.59

For Training Purposes Only
 Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
Joint strength is at a maximum when the adhesive is in shear. Adhesives should not be used if
significant stresses are to be carried in tension or peel. The lap joint is generally favoured, as
TI

the strength of the adhesive bond is proportional to the area bonded.

IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND

Advantages and Disadvantages

The major reasons for the widespread use of adhesives are as follows:
 No weakening of the component due to the presence of holes. Also providing a smooth
finish due to lack of fastener heads
HI

 No local stress raisers, which are present with widely-pitched conventional fasteners
such as bolts and rivets

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.60

For Training Purposes Only
  Can be used to join dissimilar materials and materials of awkward shapes and of different
thickness
 Although the strength per unit area, may be inferior to a mechanical or welded joint,
adhesive bonding takes place over a greater continuous area giving comparable or
increased strength, coupled with improved stiffness

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 Adhesives provide electrical insulation and prevent dissimilar-metal corrosion between

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different materials
 Leak-proof joints can be achieved
 The elastic properties of some adhesives, gives flexibility to the joint and may help to
damp out vibrations

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 Heat-sensitive materials can be joined

The major disadvantages associated with adhesive bonding are:

 Limited heat resistance, normally below 200ºC

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 Poor electrical and thermal conductivity
 High thermal expansion
 Limited resistance to certain chemicals such as paint strippers
 Integrity difficult to check with non-destructive testing procedures

 Fail Stress: fail load within the glued area

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With regard to the strength of an adhesive bond, the three most important considerations are:

 Creep behaviour
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 Durability: its long-life capability without serious deterioration.

Types of adhesive
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There are many types and grades of adhesives, and the correct type for a particular application
will be specified in the relevant repair procedure. Great care must be taken to ensure the correct
adhesive type is used because the consequences could be fatal.
AV

The two major groups of adhesives are Flexible and Structural.

Flexible adhesives are used when some flexing, or slight relative movement of the joint, is
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essential and where high load-carrying properties are not paramount. In general, flexible
adhesives are based on flexible plastics or elastomers. They are used for internal decorative
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trim etc. Examples include Evostik and Tretobond.

Structural adhesives are primarily aimed at applications where high loads must be carried
without excessive creep. They are relatively rigid without being excessively hard or brittle.
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Structural adhesives are based on resins, (the most common ones being epoxy or polyester).
Examples include Scotch-Weld and Hysol products

Another group of adhesives is the two-polymer type, which has a reasonably even balance of
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resin and elastomer, which results in a flexible and fairly strong adhesive.
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.61

For Training Purposes Only
Adhesive Forms
Adhesives can be obtained in a variety of forms, the most common being liquid, paste and film.
Others available are those such as the special foaming types, which are used to splice
honeycomb sections together. Some require heat for curing, whilst others can be cured at room
temperature. Some require the addition of a catalyst or hardener.

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Adhesive Use

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To achieve optimum bonding, performance and life in service from adhesives it is absolutely
crucial to follow the manufacturer‟s instructions and to pay the utmost attention to quality at
every stage.

AD
As with resins, and most other chemical compounds, controlled ventilation, protective clothing,
and anti-fire/explosion practices, are absolutely essential when working with adhesives.
Although some of the adhesives in current use are supplied in film form, many are liquids or
pastes, from which toxic/flammable vapours are emitted, prior to curing. Many of the necessary

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surface preparation solvents also give off toxic/flammable vapours.

Surface preparation of the component is also crucial. Many high performance structural
applications require a complex process such as the following:

Damage removal;
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Very similar to composite repair. All damaged core material must be removed from sandwich
construction panels. All moisture must be removed from the work area. All paint must be
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removed from around the repair. Taper sanding is not required.

Cleaning/degreasing;
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Requirements are the same as for a composite repair.

AV

Repair part fabrication;

Prepare repair core and doubler parts from approved specified materials. Prepare film
adhesives and ancillary materials as required.

Surface preparation
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Before etching, the skin and repair doubler/s must be abraded with aluminium oxide pads to
produce a water-break-free surface (i.e. when saturated with water and held vertical, a
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continuous film persists for 30 seconds minimum without breaking or forming droplets).

Acid etching/anodising of existing surface;

Various acids can be used for the etch process including hydrofluoric acid and sulphuric acid.
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Apertures and crevices must be sealed prior to application.

The Phosphoric Acid Non-Tank Anodising (PANTA) process is commonly used. The prepared
area is coated with phosphoric acid gel and layers of gauze and acid gel laid on top. A stainless
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steel mesh is placed above this and coated with the gel. The work piece and mesh are
connected to a DC power source so that the skin forms the anode (+) and the mesh is the
cathode (-). A charge of 6 volts at 1-7 amps/ft2 is applied for 10-12 minutes. The area must be
cleaned with running water for 5 minutes with a maximum delay of 21/2 minutes. The area must
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then be dried for at least 30 minutes.

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.62

For Training Purposes Only
Polarised light test;
The adequacy of the anodising must be checked. This is done by observing the surface through
a polarizing filter with fluorescent or daylight at a low angle of incidence. Rotating the filter will
cause the original colour to change to a complimentary colour. If the colour change is not
observed or is patchy, the cleaning and anodising processes must be repeated.

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Epoxy priming;

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Within 2 hours of anodising, the area must be reprotected with primer. Normally an epoxy based
Adhesive Bonding Primer is specified producing a coating 0.00015 - 0.0004 thick. This should
be air dried or infrared heated to 93°C (200°F). Some primers require curing at 93°C (200°F)
and this should be done within the specified time period.

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Repair Lay-up;
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Repair assembly is similar to prepreg composite lay-up. If the primed are has become
contaminated it must be cleaned with an approved solvent. Film adhesive must be raised to
room temperature and backing papers removed as pieces are used.
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Cure;
The repair must be cured under pressure at an elevated temperature. This may be applied
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using a Hot Bonder, heater mats and air bag, or in an Autoclave.

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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.63

For Training Purposes Only
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.64

For Training Purposes Only
Jointing Compounds

Riveted and bolted joints in aircraft structures are interfaced with a jointing or sealing
compound.

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The purpose of the compound is to exclude moisture or any other undesirable matter from

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between the materials by filling any voids and forming a thin film to prevent seepage. This
reduces the risk of galvanic corrosion and prevents fretting.

Chromate Based Jointing Compounds

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These materials are sometimes known as 'yellow chromate' or 'zinc chromate' or by trade
names such as Duralac, JC5A and more recently Mastinox. They are used for the wet assembly
of metallic mating surfaces in non-pressurised areas. Available in tubes, cans and drums,
aircraft grade compounds do not dry and remain flexible throughout their working life.

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Mating surfaces should be well covered with the compound, including the interior of all bolt and
rivet holes. The compound should be applied immediately prior to assembly in order to ensure
that the film is wet on assembly. Surplus compound is squeezed out as a fillet and should be
removed with a clean cloth. Bolt shanks, underside of heads and washers should also be
coated.
O N
JC5A is primarily composed of chromium compounds and barium chromate which are irritant
and carcinogenic (cancer causing) and the volatile carrier xylene, which is toxic. It is hazardous
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by contact, ingestion and inhalation in confined spaces, and is also highly inflammable. Gloves
and goggles should be worn when applying, handling and removing excess compound.
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Note: JC5A has been found to be detrimental to some ferrous materials and has been
withdrawn from use by many organisations.
AV

Currently Mastinox 6856K is approved for use in place of JC5A. It is used in the same way and
has better performance, particularly in dissimilar metal applications. It is still chromate based,
and therefore the presents a similar hazard to the older materials.
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Non-Chromate Jointing Compounds

Due to the health and safety issues associated with chromate based jointing compounds, the
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trend is towards the use of non-chromate compounds.

Cor-Ban 27L is one of a family of anti-corrosion treatments and is replacing Mastinox 6856K in
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many applications. It is a low-solvent waxy paste that has superior properties to the chromate
products while being safer to use.

It is applied in the same manner as the older compounds and the use of gloves is still
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recommended.

Molybdenum Disulphide Paste

In some instances of bolted joints molybdenum disulphide paste is specified as a jointing
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compound. Its purpose is to prevent fretting corrosion: its absence may seriously affect the
fatigue life of the joint.

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.65

For Training Purposes Only
Hylomar
Hylomar is one of several sealants used on bolted flange joints for engine and component
assembly. It seals metal to metal joints and is resistant to water, fuel, oil, most chemicals and
combustion products. It seals surfaces with imperfections and withstands vibration, heat and
expansion.

Y
EM
Sealants
It is of the utmost importance that the pressure cabin of an aircraft be capable of sustaining the
required differential pressure at high altitude, both for the safety of the passengers and crew

AD
and for the operational efficiency of the aircraft. To this end it is essential that all sources, or
potential sources of air leakage from the cabin be carefully sealed in accordance with the
process specification laid down by the manufacturers. Similarly, integral fuel tanks must be
satisfactorily sealed against leakage.

AC
Like Jointing Compounds, sealants also prevents the accumulation of moisture between the
elements of a structure and the risk of corrosion caused by this. In critical areas fasteners are
installed with wet sealant on their shanks and the internal side of each fastener is encapsulated
with sealant.
O N
There are a number of proprietary sealants available in different grades and types and from
different manufacturers. It is important that only the particular sealant specified for a job is used.
TI

Before any sealant is applied it is important to ensure that the surfaces to which it is to be
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applied are clean and free from swarf and burrs. The sealant can be used in some cases on
faying surfaces, and in other cases to form beads and fillets over joints. Some are ready for use
in one container, others need mixing immediately before use and may be in two or three parts,
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because of these differences, it is important that, after having ascertained the correct sealant
laid down for the task from the relevant; drawing or maintenance/overhaul manual, the process
specification be checked to ensure the correct method of mixing and application.

The sealants are identified by their trade name, manufacturers part number and specification
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number. The specification number is most important, since the product may be supplied by a
number of manufacturers.
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Typical of the multi part sealants used is PR 1440. This two part polysulphide compound is
comprised of a base and an accelerator and is used for sealing integral fuel tanks, pressurised
cabins, and for faying surfaces. It is resistant to aircraft fuels, lubricating oils, and Skydrol
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Hydraulic Fluid.

PR 1440 is the ProSeal part number but the material satisfies all or part of the following
specifications; Z-16.134, MIL-S-8802 Class A (USA), BMS 5-26 Type III (Boeing), 09-001C
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(Airbus), ASNA 4157 (France) DTD 900 (UK) and others which will be quoted by the airframe or
equipment manufacturer.

PR 1440 is available as Type A - 'Brush' type sealant which is fairly fluid for brush application to
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faying surfaces, and as a thicker Type B - 'Non-brush' type for fillet seals and encapsulation. It

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.66

For Training Purposes Only
may also be available with different application times, typically 'half hour' and 'two hour' to allow
flexibility of use.

It may be supplied in a pot with a separate container of accelerator attached, or as a 'Semkit'

cartridge with integral accelerator and mixing facility. If in pot form, it is important to ensure the

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correct accelerator is used (usually identified as part number plus Part A and Part B) and that all
of it is added to the base and mixed thoroughly using a spatula. In the Semkit a dash rod is

EM
supplied and is used to inject the accelerator into the base as the plunger containing it is
withdrawn. The plunger is then pushed in and out and twisted to mix the two parts. In both
cases it is important that the sealant is thoroughly mixed and of uniform colour. Failure to add
the correct amount of accelerator or to mix completely will a prevent proper cure and reduce the

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effectiveness of the sealant.

Sealant supplied in a can may be applied by brush or spatula, depending on type. Semkit
cartridges can be inserted into a sealant gun for controlled application.

AC
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.67

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Sealant Application

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.68

For Training Purposes Only
Application Time
This is the time that the mixed sealant remains suitable for application.

Tack Free Time

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The length of time it takes for the sealant to be no longer tacky or sticky.

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Curing Time
When the accelerator is mixed into the polysulphide base, a chemical cure takes place. When
the sealants is fully hardened it is said to be „cured‟. Time for curing depends on temperature
and relative humidity. The figures in the table are for standard conditions of 25ºC (77ºF) and

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50% relative humidity.

PR 1440 Type A1/2 Type A2

Application Time 30 min. 2 hours

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Tack Free Time <10 hours <36
Cure Time 30 hours 72 hours

Fast curing sealants are available for line repairs, but these do not usually achieve the full

Assembly Time
O N
properties of the standard sealants and may have to be replaced at the next hangar input.

All riveting/fastening must be completed within this time.

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Surface Preparation
Before application of sealant ensure that:
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• All protective treatments have been completed and are fully hardened off.
• All drilling operating completed and swarf removed.
AV

• Surface to be cleaned with oil free solvents i.e., “Genklene”.

Application
Apply an even coat of sealant to mating (faying) surfaces, ensuring sealant extends
approximately 0.25" beyond line of metal to metal joint. Thickness of sealant not to exceed
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0.030".
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Before expiration of assembly life all work must be finished and rivets drawn tight.

To ensure no leak path exists through sealant and that faying surface is completely sealed, a
small continuous fillet of sealant should be squeezed out on both sides of the overlap and
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smoothed into the joint when riveting is completed.

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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.69

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Application cont.
All fasteners should be wet assembled (sealant on shank or in hole). Fasteners in fuel tanks
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and areas prone to water contamination, such as under galleys and freight hold floors, should
be encapsulated with sealant after installation. A metal seal cap or cover is sometimes used to
protect the sealant coating and this must be fillet sealed.

Shelf Life
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All sealants have a shelf or storage life and should not be used on aircraft if life has expired.
Storage life of PR 1440 Type A is at least 9 months when stored at temperatures below 25º C in
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original unopened containers.

WARNING: ALL POLYSULPHIDE SEALANTS CONTAIN HAZARDOUS

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CONSTITUENTS, PARTICULARLY IN THE ACCELERATOR. TOXIC

COMPONENTS CAN CAUSE NAUSEA, SKIN IRRITATION AND
UNCONSCIOUSNESS. CARCINOGENIC MATERIALS CAN CAUSE
CANCER BY SKIN CONTACT, INHALATION AND INGESTION.
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UNCURED SEALANTS ARE HIGHLY INFLAMMABLE.

ENGINEERS SHOULD WEAR PROTECTIVE OVERALLS, NITRIL
GLOVES, AND GOGGLES WHEN HANDLING SEALANTS. AVOID
INHALING FUMES AND WEAR BREATHING APPARATUS IN CONFINED
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SPACES. REMOVE ANY SOURCES OF COMBUSTION. ALWAYS

CONSULT MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS. SOME SEALANTS

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.70

For Training Purposes Only
 CONTAIN ASBESTOS FIBRES. THESE MATERIALS MUST NOT BE CUT
OR SANDED WHEN CURED.

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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.71

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RTV Sealants
Another commonly used type of sealant is the Room Temperature Vulcanising (RTV) silicone
rubber. These are available in a variety of grades for use in different applications. Some give of
an acetic acid (vinegar) odour as they cure while others have a solvent content.

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Typical examples of one part RTV available in tubes are:

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White General Purpose - non-reactive adhesive/sealant for general use, safe for use with
drinking water and food stuffs
White Electrical Grade - high electrical resistance but low mechanical strength, used to
repair insulation

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Grey High Strength - used for sealing and repair where durability is required
Red High Temperature - used for joining and repairing rubber seals, pipe sleeves and
insulation on engines and APUs
Translucent - decorative, used for sealing galley and toilet compartment sinks

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and panel joints.

Other one and two part RTV silicone adhesive/sealants are used for specialist applications such
as levelling compounds, potting compounds, heat sinks, thermal barriers, foaming fillers,
release agents etc.
O N
Most one part RTV materials give off slightly irritating fumes and may irritate sensitive skin
(eyes, lips, tongue etc.) as they cure. Providing adequate care is taken, only gloves are
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normally required when handling them.

Some one part and all two part RTV materials contain solvents and toxic constituents. These
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require gloves, goggles and breathing apparatus in confined spaces. Always check the
Materials Safety Data Sheets before use.
AV
N
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ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.72

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6.3.2 Wooden Structures

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General

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From the very beginning of aviation, wood has been used in aircraft construction. Early aircraft
designers and builders often used ash or hickory. They were looking for a type of wood that was
relatively lightweight yet also very strong. Just before World War I, Sitka Spruce was discovered
by aircraft builders and found to be very well suited to their needs. The strength to weight ratio
was is very favourable for aircraft use, pound for pound it has twice the tensile strength of

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aluminium. Several other types of wood had similar strength to weight ratios but were not as
readily harvested or as plentiful. At the time, spruce proved to be the best choice, not only
because of the physical characteristics, but of equal importance was the fact that spruce was
readily available and easy to use as a building material. With these advantages, spruce became

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very widely accepted as the primary material to be used in building an aeroplane.

Although many designers and manufacturers switched to all metal construction in the 1930s,
the advent of World War II, brought spruce back to the fore. Manufacturers used the material in
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the construction of a large number of aircraft to reduce the reliance on strategic resources such
as steel and aluminium. Some aircraft were of mixed timber and metal construction while others
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such as the DeHaviland Mosquito were almost entirely wooden. The use of Sitka Spruce was
carried into post-war construction in many aircraft. During this time in aviation history spruce
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was cheaper than aluminium or steel. However, because of the high demand for aircraft
production during this period, forests of this popular wood were rapidly depleted.
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Today the cost of timber has risen greatly, but spruce and other types of wood remain popular
for in some fields of aircraft construction. Many small aircraft designers and kit manufacturers
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within the sport aviation industry use wood as a primary structure. If wood is not the primary
structure it is almost sure to be found in some component part. Although by volume, wood is not
as strong as steel or aluminium, the construction can be designed so that the necessary
strength is achieved with corresponding savings in weight. Many designers prefer to use
wooden spars in acrobatic aircraft because the wood will withstand the bending loads imposed
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during aerobatics better. Unlike metal, wood does not weaken from fatigue. This, of course, is
an advantage to the aircraft builder. Wood is used in fabricating spars, ribs, longerons and
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stringers, leading edges, etc. Sheet plywood is easily formed into shapes making it the obvious
choice for wing tip bows, fuselage and wing skins etc.

Woodworking is a skill that is easily learned by the novice who usually has a basic knowledge of
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timber construction and some of the necessary tools. Safety hazards are very evident unlike
some of the other materials used in modern aircraft construction.
ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.73

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Sitka Spruce
Sitka Spruce has long been recognized as the best type of wood to use in the construction of
aircraft. It is the standard against which all other woods are judged. It is light in weight with a
corresponding greater strength and toughness than is found in other woods. It is easily worked,

Y
uniform in texture, resistant to rotting, and has no odour. It can also be obtained in clear,
straight-grained pieces having very few defects. This is possible because of the size of a mature

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spruce tree.

The name Sitka was derived from a town located not far from Juneau, Alaska and Sitka Spruce
is found mainly along the American Pacific Northwest, particularly along the Alaskan coast.

AD
(Most of the spruce forests have been depleted along the coast of the United States and
Canada.) The trees grow best in a wet, moderate climate, typically close together and in so
doing they must grow very tall and fast in order to obtain necessary sunlight. Because of this
type of growth they usually have few, if any, branches except near the top of the tree. This

AC
facilitates the type of growth necessary to yield knot free timber suitable for aircraft use. A
spruce tree will grow to heights of 200 feet and higher with a base diameter of 8 feet or more. A
tree of this size will have taken 400 years or more to reach this dimension. A spruce tree will not
yield usable aircraft wood until it is at least 5 feet in diameter. Even with this size tree only 5% or
less of the resulting wood will be of the quality necessary for aircraft construction.
N
The use of Sitka Spruce is certainly not limited to aircraft construction, the aircraft industry uses
O
a very small percentage of the total spruce that is milled. The majority of spruce harvested is
used for ladders, house construction, masts of sailboats, barrels, cabinets, sounding boards for
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organs and pianos, and other uses. The building and restoration of sport aircraft is a very
insignificant market for the timber industry.
IA
AV
N
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.74

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Timber Conversion
Note: This section contains a mixture of Metric and Imperial values. Whilst the timber industry
and some Aviation Authorities have embraced the metric system, other Authorities,

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designers and manufacturers, notably in the USA, have retained the Imperial system
(inches and fractions or inches and decimals). Conversion between the two systems

EM
should be made with care and in accordance with any guidelines laid down by the
Competent Authority.

The process of turning a tree into and aircraft component is often referred to as Timber

AD
Conversion. The trees are harvested by lumberjacks and sent to a local sawmill. The mill in turn
will cut the trees into smaller pieces known as “cants”. These cants are usually 6-8 inches
square and anywhere from 10 to 20 feet long. These are then shipped.

AC
Before cutting to production sized pieces, the wood must be seasoned, a process which
reduces the moisture content to the point of equilibrium with the surrounding atmosphere. This
may be done by leaving the wood in an air-drying shed for a period of up to three years (or
sometimes more), or by kiln drying, the resultant wood being described as „artificially seasoned‟.
The timber can then be cut into planks and graded.
N
The Grade of the timber will depend on the results of tests for moisture content, density,
O
brittleness, splitting and growth rate. The figures given below are for Sitka Spruce but will be
similar for all aircraft grade timber.
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The Moisture Content may be measured with a Moisture Meter, or by weight. In either case the
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first six inches of the plank will be discarded as it may be drier than the rest. When testing by
weight, a sample will be cut off and weighed (W1), then dried in an oven at 100-105°c until two
successive weighings yield the same result (W2). The following formula can then be used to
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determine the moisture content as a percentage;

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a moisture content of 15% +/- 2% is normally acceptable.

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The Density of the timber is found by weighing a sample of known volume and multiplying the
result to give a figure in pounds per cubic foot or kilograms per cubic metre. Spruce generally
varies between 20lb and 36lb per cubic foot (320kg – 577kg per cubic metre). For Grade A
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spruce the density should be greater than 24lb per cubic foot at 15% moisture.

Brittleness is determined by using an Izod type impact test machine. A notched test piece of
5.25 x 0.875 inches square is placed in the machine and the blow applied tangentially to it. The
ND

test piece should resist a load of at least 5 foot-pounds (0.69 metre-kilograms). A tolerance of
0.5 foot-pounds may be allowed providing any fracture shows sufficient fibre. Alternatively a 12
x 1 inch square test piece may be tested in a weight dropping machine and should withstand 13
foot-pounds without showing signs of tension failure on the vertical sides.
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.75

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A Splitting Test is used to confirm the true grain direction and run of the timber sample. A blunt
chisel is used so that the wood is split rather than cut and the split is made away from the edge
for greater accuracy. The maximum acceptable grain slope is 1:15 .

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Growth Rate is indicated by the number of annual growth rings per inch in the timber and
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varies to some extent. Timber exhibiting less than 6 rings per inch (25mm) should be rejected.
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N
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ND

The timber is generally cut into flat planks which may be Rift-sawn or Tangentially-sawn as
shown. Shrinkage occurs at a maximum in the direction tangential to the growth ring, is
moderate in the radial direction and at a minimum longitudinally. For this reason Rift-sawn
material shrinks in only one direction and does not tend to warp, while Tangentially sawn timber
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is more prone to cupping, warping and distortion.

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.76

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Quarter sawing produces a higher proportion of Rift-sawn or near Rift sawn timber than Plain or
Through sawing, but as can be seen produces smaller boards, more waste and requires more
handling during the sawing process. Therefore Rift-sawn timber is more expensive to produce
while Tangentially-sawn timber is cheaper and can be produced in larger boards.

Y
The cut pieces of wood are then shipped to the supplier. They are typically sent in lengths of
between 10-20 feet at a nominal width of 6 inches. The boards will be planed smooth on the flat

EM
surfaces and rough cut on the edges. A board cut in this manner is termed a S2S board,
meaning it has been surfaced on 2 sides. The nominal 6-inch width is often a problem for the
aircraft builder because it may be slightly less or more than 6 inches.

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The largest single member of a timber built airframe is usually the wing spar. When the builder
needs a finished 6-inch spar for an aircraft the supplier may have difficulty providing that
dimension. The nominal 6- inch width may only finish to slightly over 5 inches when the edges
are cut smooth. Widths over 6 inches, Lengths over 14 feet, and a thickness over 1 inch is

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scarce. This is because the wood must be free from defects and typically the larger the piece of
wood the more likelihood of discovering a disqualifying defect.

O N
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.77

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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.78

For Training Purposes Only
Alternatives To Spruce
As Sitka Spruce is now expensive and difficult to obtain a number of alternatives have been
identified. Some of these grown in North America are Douglas Fir, Noble Fir, Western Hemlock,
White Pine, White Cedar, and Yellow Poplar. The most readily available are Douglas Fir, White

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Pine, and Western Hemlock.

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As noted in the comparison chart below, Douglas Fir is a very acceptable alternative for spruce.
Its strength exceeds spruce by roughly 23%. It may be used as a substitute for spruce in same
sizes or slightly reduced sizes providing the reduction in size is substantiated. Fir does have a
tendency to split making it more difficult to work. It is also about 26% heavier than spruce. As

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you are allowed to use a smaller dimension due to the increased strength some aircraft
manufacturers route out a portion of a fir spar to save weight.

White Pine is 85-96% as strong as spruce. It is fairly soft and easy to work with. A number of kit

AC
manufacturers are using White Pine successfully within their designs. However, it is low in
hardness and shock resisting capability, and cannot be used as a direct substitute for spruce
without an increase in size to compensate for the lower strength.

Western Hemlock has been used in the construction of aircraft for a number of years. The
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strength properties slightly exceed spruce and the wood may be used as a direct substitute. It is
less uniform in texture than spruce and must be carefully selected.
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Certain other timbers are also approved for aircraft use around the world. In Australia these
include Bollywood, Bunya Pine, Hoop Pine, Klinki Pine, Queensland Maple, Silver Silkwood and
Silver Quandong.
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Australian regulations state that:

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The timber shall be of uniform colour. It shall be free from obvious and incipient decay, blue
stain, knots, shakes, splits, seasoning checks, internal checks, compression failures,
compression wood, resin and bark pockets, pith streaks, callus tissue, insect attack, wane or
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want, blemishes due to handling and other injuries, but the following imperfections are
permitted:

(a) Pin-knots and/or needle traces not exceeding 0.75 mm diameter and not closer than 50
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mm;
(b) Sloping grain as determined by the splitting test: not exceeding 1 in 16;
(c) Spring: not exceeding 1 in 600 or 5 mm in 3 m;
(d) Bow: not exceeding 1 in 300 or 10 mm in 3 m;
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(e) Twist: not exceeding 7 mm in 1 m2 of face area.

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.79

For Training Purposes Only
The moisture content of each plank shall be determined by means of an approved electrical
moisture meter. Tests shall be made at points approximately 500 mm from each end at the mid-
length. The three readings shall each be between 10 and 15 per cent, and the individual
readings shall not vary by more than 2 per cent in any plank.

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In laminated assemblages the difference in average moisture content between any two
laminations shall not exceed 3 per cent.

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The density of each plank shall not be less than 385 kg m 3 when the moisture content,
calculated on the weight of the oven-dried wood, is 12 per cent. For each 1 per cent increase or
decrease of moisture content from 12 per cent the density value shall be increased or

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decreased respectively at the rate of 1.92 kg m3.

Each plank accepted as complying with this specification shall be ink stamped with the following
particulars:

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(a) the standard name of the timber (i.e. Klinki);
(b) the number of this specification (DCA 108.22).
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.80

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Inspecting Wood For Aircraft Use

After timber has been cut it should be examined for defects. Some of the more common defects
are outlined in the following paragraphs.

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Dote Disease. This is the worst of all defects and does much damage to the wood. It is an

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inherent disease which only occurs at the base of the living tree. When the tree is felled it is cut
at a point ten feet or more above the ground as a precaution against the possibility of dote. Cut
pieces of timber should be examined not only on the sides but also on the ends; dote will be
recognised by the presence of brownish yellow patches, somewhat similar to thin mineral oil

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spots. Dote is contagious and any infected wood should be burnt.

Decay or Rot. A defect similar to dote disease can develop after a tree has been felled if the
timber is exposed to excessive soaking and partial drying. Dry-rot fungus requires a certain

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amount of moisture to establish itself but once the disease is established it thrives on the
moisture already in the wood. The decayed wood is brown in colour and appears as though it
had been charred; the timber is rendered soft and dry, and will flake off easily.

Incorrect Grain Inclination. The limit of grain inclination for spruce is 1 in 15 for grade A, and 1
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in 12 for grade B. The inclination should be checked to ensure that the above limits are not
exceeded. The most usual method of determining the inclination of the grain is by examining the
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flower-face of the timber to find the resin ducts. It will readily be seen whether they are straight
or inclined. If the inclination exceeds the limits specified, the timber should be classified in a
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lower grade.
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Heart-Shake. This defect usually follows the course of a sap duct longitudinally, and is usually
visible on the tangential surface. The use of a small size feeler gauge will assist in finding the
depth of the shake. The defect should be cut out of the timber.
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.81

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Ring-Shake. This defect is indicated by a parting of the annular rings. Ring-shakes are usually
caused by frost, particularly after a heavy rainfall. The defect should also be cut out of the
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timber.

Knots. There are several kinds of knots which may be encountered when examining cut timber;
among these are the dead-knot, the budknot and the pin-knot. The presence of any of these
knots can have a detrimental effect. Generally they should not be more than a quarter of an inch
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in diameter but no hard and fast rules can be specified; each case must be decided on its
merits. Timber with clusters of pin-knots in it should be rejected.
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Pitch Holes. There are two kinds of pitch holes, one being the horizontal type which usually
appears at the base of a knot, and the other the vertical type which is sometimes referred to as
a gum pocket. Gum pockets may be either “alive” (the gum seam has not dried out) or “dead”,
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and in the case of the latter, the timber should be rejected. Tests on “live” gum pockets indicate
that the timber in the region of the gum pocket usually gives a better result than the remainder
of the timber.
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Blue Stain. This defect only occurs in sapwood which should not be used in aircraft parts.
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.82

For Training Purposes Only
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Plywood
Aircraft grade plywood is normally made of birch wood veneers bonded together. The harvested
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birch log is cut to length, dressed to a circular cross section and steamed or hot water soaked to
soften it. It is then mounted in a lathe and a stationary knife the same length as the log is used
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to peel a continuous veneer of predetermined thickness as the log rotates. In this way up to
95% of the log can be used.
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The veneers are dried to about 6% moisture content then cut to size and inspected. Aircraft
grade (GL 1) plywood must be free from all technical defects and the veneers which make it up
are selected accordingly. Joints are allowed if the face veneers are matched in structure and
colour.
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The veneers are laid up with grain directions normally alternating at 90°, which, in 3 ply material,
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gives greater rigidity in the direction of the grain on the face veneers. A 45° offset is sometimes
used which gives greater rigidity in all directions and is slightly stronger, but more expensive to
produce. A controlled amount Phenolic resin glue is applied to each veneer and the assembly is
then placed in a hydraulic press and heated under pressure to cure the glue.
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.83

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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.84

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The resultant plywood boards are available in panels 0.8 to 12mm thick and up to 1550 x 1550
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mm in size. They are stronger than an equivalent thickness solid wooden board because of the
cross grain assembly although slightly heavier. The Phenolic resin glue, while adding to the
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weight of the panel, offers a high degree of resistance to moisture and other environmental
factors.
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Other types of timber have been used and sometimes birch with a mahogany face ply is
specified for skins because of its resilience and finish properties. Thicker panels with a light
weight core such as balsa wood have been made for various specialist applications.
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.85

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With the careful application of moisture, heat and pressure, plywood can be moulded to fairly
complex shapes and is thus used for wing and fuselage skin panels. The World War 2
deHavilland Mosquito high performance bomber was built almost entirely of wood and the
fuselage was constructed in the following manner:

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The light, strong, very streamlined structure was formed by sandwiching 9.5 mm (three-eighths
inch) Ecuadorian balsa wood between Canadian birch plywood skins that varied in thickness

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from 4.5 mm to 6 mm (about ¼ inch). The plywood/balsa/plywood sandwich was formed inside
concrete moulds of each fuselage half. Each side also held seven birch plywood formers
(frames) reinforced with spruce blocks, plus bulkheads, floors, and other structural members. As
the glue cured, heated metal clamps held the skin layers tight to the mould. Technicians

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finished the edge of each half of the fuselage with male and female wedge joints as fitters
attached wiring and other equipment to the inner walls. Final fuselage assembly was
reminiscent of a typical plastic model airplane kit as the two halves were glued and screwed
together.

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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.86

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Fabrication
All parts made for aircraft construction or repair must be fabricated in accordance with an
approved drawing. The type, size and grain direction of the timber should be clearly stated. Any
substitution of materials used must be made with the relative properties clearly understood. All

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material must be carefully inspected prior to use to ensure that there has been no deterioration
during transit and storage.

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Simple flat parts may be made from board, strip or sheet material and cut with a fine toothed
saw. A bench saw may be used for more substantial parts while a band saw is useful for
complex shapes but a good quality edge finish is essential. Parts may be planed to contour but

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sanding solid wood should be avoided to prevent the build-up of dust.

Pieces with more complex cross sections will be machined from plank or strip wood to provide
consistency.

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Curved parts like wing rib caps are made by soaking or steaming the strip material then
clamping it in a jig to set the bend. The curve set by the jig will normally be more pronounced
than the desired finished shape as the wood will always spring back slightly when removed.
This must be determined by experimentation. It may take several days for the wood to dry and
the shape to be set permanently.
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Wing spars may be produced an several ways. Solid wood spars have a high degree of strength
but are limited in size by timber availability and by weight in smaller applications. Where a
stronger wood such as Douglas Fir is substituted for spruce, the timber may be routed out on
both sides to produce an “I” beam. A 'solid' spar can also be produced by laminating several
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thinner pieces together with glue.

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.87

For Training Purposes Only
Box spars and built-up I beam spars can be fabricated to greater sizes, using smaller
component pieces. Box spars are often composed of solid or laminated transverse members
(Spar Booms or Caps) joined by plywood webs. Alternatively, two solid members can be routed
and bonded together to form and internally routed box spar. Built-up I beams usually consist of
a solid web with strips bonded to either side to form the spar cap.

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Wooden propellers are normally fabricated by lamination. Among the types of wood that can be
used are pine, beech, spruce, walnut and mahogany. The timber must be carefully selected due
to the extreme loads applied to it in service.
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The technique used will depend on the size of the propeller, number of blades required and the
facilities available. If the propeller is to be machine cut using a blade duplicator rough blanks of
adequate size may be cut, cleaned and bonded together under pressure using a resorcinol type
glue. If it is to be hand cut, each laminate may be pre-shaped to reduce the amount of work
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required in obtaining the final contour.

The central boss is the datum from which the form of the propeller is developed. Once this
position has been determined all measurements must be made from this point.
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.88

For Training Purposes Only
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When using a blade duplicating machine, the propeller blank will be bolted into the frame by its
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boss hole, adjacent to a blade pattern. Once set to suitable data the machine's stylus is used to
trace the pattern and it simultaneously cuts the blank to shape using a router. The blank is then
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turned through 180° about the boss and the second blade cut to shape (identical to the first).
Both blade blank and pattern can then be inverted and the reverse side of the blades cut in the
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same manner.
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When the propeller is to be hand cut, the blank is marked for leading and trailing edge contours
and predetermined cutting planes, carefully slot sawn and chiselled to shape. Great care must
be taken to ensure that each blade is accurate and identical.
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If the propeller is composed of three or more blades each one must be manufactured
separately. Again, it is of vital importance that all blades are identical. They are either bonded
together or attached to a hub, depending on the design.
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.89

For Training Purposes Only
Upon completion, the assembled propeller must be sanded smooth. Any metal inserts such as
the boss and attachment hole bushes must be bonded in to the hub. It can then be varnished,
but may instead be skinned with fibre glass, carbon fibre or sometimes aluminium for added
durability.

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The finished blade must then be statically and dynamically balanced before use.
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.90

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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.91

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Intentionally Blank
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.92

For Training Purposes Only
Glue

General

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While woodscrews and bolts are used for critical joints in a timber airframe the vast majority of
joints are made with glue.

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Various glues have been used over the years and these include;

Casein – A powdered glue derived from milk protein, it deteriorates with moisture and

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temperature variations and is susceptible to fungal attack. It is therefore obsolete for aircraft use
but is still employed elsewhere. It leaves an alkaline residue which must be carefully removed
before a joint is re-glued with a more modern alternative.

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Plastic Resin Glues– Urea-Formaldehyde glues such as Aerolite were developed in the 1930s
and are still widely used. The glue powder contains urea, formaldehyde and a thickening filler
and is mixed with water for use. It must be used in conjunction with an acid catalyst/ hardener.
Normally the glue is applied to one surface and the hardener to the other, the two being
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immediately brought together and clamped. When mixed to a working consistency of thick
cream the glue has a pot life of 4-5 hours and when assembled with hardener, a setting time of
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1.5 - 4 hours. The joint attains maximum strength 3-5 days depending on temperature and
humidity. It has good gap bridging qualities and when cured has good resistance to moisture,
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temperature extremes and fuel. There is some question of the reliability of these glues in a
tropical environment and their use has been banned for primary structure in Australia, however
they are still approved for use in the USA and Europe.
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Resorcinol Glues - Two part Resorcinol-Formaldehyde glue such as Aerodux. Comprised of a

resin and a hardener which are mixed prior to use, it has a pot life of 3-4 hours and a setting
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time of 8 hours. The joint reaches full mechanical strength after approximately 1 week. The
resin often contains a filler such as ground nut shell which gives some gap bridging properties.
When cured it has high resistance to temperatures and chemical attack, and is waterproof.
When sanded, the dust may cause a severe allergic reaction.
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Epoxy Resin – Various high strength two part resin systems and structural adhesives are
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available. With a pot life ranging from 3-4 minutes to several hours, and cure times from under 1
hour at room temperature, Epoxy glues are very versatile. Waterproof and chemical resistant,
there is, however, some question over the long-term durability of these resins exposed to high
temperatures. Epoxy resin softens at elevated temperatures and, although it regains its original
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strength when cooled, any unusual load applied in its softened state may weaken the joint.
Uncured components can cause allergic reaction.

Other glues which may be encountered include Phenol-Formaldehyde, aliphatic resin and
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Polyurethane resin.

The maximum time allowed between applying the glue and joining the parts together is called
the Open Assembly Time. The maximum time between joining the parts and applying pressure
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and heat is the Closed Assembly Time. Handling or Setting time is the period after which the
joint can be unclamped and moved. Cure time is the time taken for the full chemical reaction to

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.93

For Training Purposes Only
occur and maximum strength to be achieved, it may be the same as the setting time but is often
considerably longer. All these times vary with temperature and humidity so it is important to
consult the manufacturers data sheets.

It is important to use only glues approved for aircraft construction and follow the constructors

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recommendations. The glue manufacturers preparation and mixing instructions must also be
closely adhered to, to obtain the optimum properties of the product. For example the pot life of

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Aerolite may be extended by adding more water to the mix, but the resultant joints in softwood
will be weaker because the thinner glue soaks into the wood, away from the glue line. The cure
time of most glues can be accelerated with the application of heat but excessive heating
disrupts the chemical reaction and weakens the bond.

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When properly used the glue should be stronger than the wood it is joining. When home
building from a kit or from plans an inspector may ask for a test piece from each batch of glue
used. This will be tested to destruction to ensure the wood fails before the glue and prove the

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integrity of the glue mix and joining technique.

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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.94

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Glued Joints
When manufacturing or repairing aircraft structure, the grain orientation of the wood used is of
great importance. Generally the designers plans or repair scheme will indicate the grain
direction to be used, but if it is not specified it must be remembered that the direction with the

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greatest strength is along the grain. Consideration of the purpose of the joint and the likely loads
on it will indicate the grain direction to be used for optimum strength.

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Most joints in a wooden aircraft structure are butt joints where two or more components meet or
cross. The strength of end grain joints is limited and will usually depend on the surface area in
contact so it is often necessary to add corner blocks, gussets or splice plates to increase the

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contact area and distribute loads.

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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.95

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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.96

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Longitudinal members are joined by scarf joints, where both parts are tapered and the taper
faces are bonded together. For maximum strength the material should be tapered at between
12:1 and 15:1, a greater taper reduces the strength because the wood becomes too thin at the
ends of the joint, while a smaller taper reduces the contact area.

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Repair parts can sometimes be spliced in using a scarf joint without need of doublers, thus
retaining the original contour and thickness. Primary structural members usually require

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doublers on both sides of the joint, staggered as shown below to transfer the loads across the
joint.

Plywood skins are also joined by scarfing but a high degree of accuracy is required when

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preparing the joint to ensure a good bond and smooth joint.

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Joint preparation is of paramount importance. It should be remembered that the properties of

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both the timber and the glue are affected by temperature and humidity so pieces of wood that
are to be joined should be kept in the same environment for at least 12 hours.

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.97

For Training Purposes Only
The surfaces to be joined must be planed flat and smooth to ensure intimate contact. Do not
use sandpaper on new timber as this fills the pores in the wood with minute dust particles and
reduces adhesion. It is permissible to lightly sand old, polished or hard surfaces and plywood,
but not to the extent that the flatness is altered. Any irregularities such as chips or damaged
grain will weaken the joint despite the gap bridging properties of most glues. The joint area

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should be thoroughly cleaned with a vacuum cleaner immediately prior to gluing.

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The surfaces must be clean and dry, free from any grease, wax, varnish, dope or old glue. A
Wetting Test may be used to check for contamination. A drop of water is placed on the surface
and observed. If it spreads rapidly (in seconds or minutes) it is an indication that the surface
may be bonded successfully. The surface must be thoroughly dried before any glue is applied.

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Glue should be applied thinly and evenly to the surfaces to be bonded in the manner specified
by the manufacturer. The parts must then be brought together as quickly as possible (within the
Open Assembly Time) to prevent ingress of contaminants and to allow any small adjustments in

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position or alignment before hardening starts (within the Closed Assembly Time). Pressure must
be applied evenly, especially where large contact areas are involved. This excludes air pockets
and produces a thin, continuous film of glue (the Glue or Bond Line) ensuring maximum
mechanical strength. Excess glue should be removed around the joint while still wet, and heat
applied as necessary.
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Assembly
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Small screws, nails or staples may be used to apply pressure to the parts during the setting
process but these are usually removed when the joint is fully cured. Care must be taken that the
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metal fastener does not split small parts or cause excessive grain damage, the head should be
seated on the surface without crushing the fibres. Because pressure must be even, multiple
rows of nails may be needed. The nails should be 1 inch apart in rows ½ inch apart staggered
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so that each one is no more than ¾ inch from the next. They should penetrate the lower
member of the joint by at least 3/8 inch but must not protrude through it. On small joints, thin
plywood nailing strips may be used to spread the load.

When applying varnish to protect the finished structure you must ensure all nail holes are
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properly sealed to prevent the ingress of moisture. Screw holes may need to be sealed with a
proprietary filler before varnishing.
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Where possible screw clamps, spring clamps and hydraulic or electric presses are the preferred
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method of applying pressure to the joints as they do not damage the fabric of the timber. The
pressure required varies depending on the type of timber and the glue to be used. Softwood

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.98

For Training Purposes Only
joined by a Resorcinol-Formaldehyde resin type glue will typically require 125-150 pounds per
square inch while hardwood will need 150-200 pounds per square inch. Always consult the glue
manufacturer‟s instructions.

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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.99

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Protection
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After assembly of a structure or repair, the timber and joints must be thoroughly protected to
prevent the wood from drying out and becoming brittle, or rotting due to excess moisture. This is
done by the application of an approved varnish or lacquer to all surfaces of the structure.

The varnishes normally used nowadays are two part Epoxy resins which provide excellent
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protection and do not react with the solvents and dopes used for fabric coverings as
polyurethane varnishes are prone to.
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ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.100

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Inspection
There is no reason why aircraft constructed in these materials should not have a satisfactory life
provided they are protected from the adverse effects of extreme temperature and humidity and
are kept in suitable hangars when not in use. It must be remembered that the controlled

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moisture content in seasoned wood is essential for its strength. Long-term storage in hot, dry
conditions can be as detrimental as cold damp ones.

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Glued Structures
Provided that protective varnish was applied to all exposed wood surfaces after gluing and

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satisfactorily maintained during the life of an aircraft, rapid deterioration of timber and glued
joints would be unlikely. However, access to internal structure is often difficult or even
impossible and deterioration takes place for a variety of reasons.

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Some of the main factors which may cause deterioration are:

 Chemical reactions of the glue itself due to ageing or moisture, to extremes of

temperature or to a combination of these factors.



Mechanical forces due mainly to timber shrinkage.
Development of mycological growths (i.e. fungus).
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Oil percolating from the engine installation.
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 Fuel contamination due to system leaks or spillage in the tank bays.
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 Blockage of water drainage holes.

Aircraft which are exposed to large cyclic changes of temperature and humidity are especially
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prone to timber shrinkage which in turn may lead to glue deterioration. The amount of
movement of timber members due to these changes varies with the volume of each member,
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the rate of growth of the tree from which the timber was cut and the way in which the timber was
converted. Thus, two major members in an aircraft structure, secured to each other by glue, are
unlikely to have identical characteristics and differential loads will, therefore, be transmitted
across the glue film with changes of humidity. This will impose stresses in the glued joint which,
in temperate zones, can normally be accommodated when the aircraft is new and for some
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years afterwards. However, with age the glue tends to deteriorate, even when the aircraft is
maintained under ideal conditions and stresses at the glued joint, due to changes in
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atmospheric conditions, may cause failure of the joint.

In most wooden aircraft the main spars are of box formation consisting of long top and bottom
transverse members (i.e. spar booms) joined by plywood webs. The spar booms may be built
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up from laminations glued together and at intervals vertical wooden blocks are positioned
between the two booms to add support to the plywood sides. The main spars carry most of the
loads in flight and are, at times, subject to flexing. The glued joints should, therefore, be free
from deterioration but, unless the spar is dismantled or holes cut in the webs, internal inspection
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may be virtually impossible.

Long exposure to inclement weather or strong sunlight will tend to destroy the weatherproofing
qualities of fabric coverings and of surface finishes generally. If fabric-covered ply structures are
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.101

For Training Purposes Only
neglected under these conditions the surface finish will crack, allowing moisture to penetrate to
the wooden structure and resulting in considerable deterioration through water soakage.

Structural Survey

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Before commencing a detailed examination of an aircraft structure, the aircraft should be

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inspected externally for signs of gross deformation, such as warped wing structures, tail
surfaces out of alignment or evidence of obvious structural failure. In some cases of advanced
deterioration this assessment may be sufficient to pronounce the aircraft beyond economical
repair and thus avoid further work.

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Whenever possible the aircraft should be housed in a dry, well ventilated hangar and all
inspection panels, covers and hatches removed before continuing with the survey. The aircraft
should be thoroughly dried out before examining glued joints or carrying out repairs.
Immediately after opening the inspection panels, etc., each component should be checked for

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smell. A musty smell indicates fungal growth or dampness and, if present, necessitates further
examination to establish which areas are affected.

Where the wings, fuselage or tail unit are designed as integral stressed structures, such as
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inner and outer ply skins glued and screwed to structural members (Double Skin Structure,
below left) no appreciable departure from the original contour or shape is acceptable.
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Where single skin plywood structures are concerned, some slight sectional undulation or
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panting between panels may be permissible provided the timber and glue is sound. However,
where such conditions exist, a careful check must be made of the attachment of the ply to its
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supporting structure and moderate pressure with the hand, to push the ply from the structure,
should be used. A typical example of a distorted Single Skin Structure is illustrated below right.
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The contours and alignment of leading and trailing edges are of particular importance and a
careful check should be made for deformities. Any distortion of these light ply and spruce
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structures indicates deterioration and a careful internal inspection should be made for security
of these parts to the main wing structure. If a general deterioration is found in these components
the main wing structure may also be affected.
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.102

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Where there are access panels or inspection covers on the top surfaces of wings or tailplane,
care is necessary to ensure that water has not entered at these points where it can remain
trapped to attack the surrounding structure.

Splits in the proofed fabric covering on plywood surfaces should be investigated by removing

Y
the defective fabric in order to ascertain whether the ply skin beneath is serviceable. It is
common for a split in the ply skin to be the cause of a similar defect in the protective fabric

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covering.

Fabric having age cracks and thick with repeated dopings, may indicate that the structure
underneath has not been critically examined for a considerable time. Insertion patches in the

AD
fabric could also indicate that structural repairs have been made at that point.

Whilst a preliminary survey of the external structure may be useful in roughly assessing the
general condition of the aircraft, it should be noted that timber and glue deterioration often takes

AC
place inside a structure without any external indications. Where moisture can enter a structure,
it will tend to find the lowest point, where it will stagnate and promote rapid deterioration. Other
causes of glue deterioration are listed above.

Timber And Glued Joints

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Assessment of the integrity of glued joints in aircraft structures presents considerable difficulties
since there is no positive non-destructive method of examination which will give a clear
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indication of the condition of the glue and timber inside a joint. The position is made more
difficult by the lack of accessibility for visual inspection.
IA

The inspection of a complete aircraft for glue or wood deterioration will necessitate checks on
remote parts of the structure which may be known, or suspected trouble spots and, in many
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instances, are boxed in or otherwise inaccessible. In such instances, considerable dismantling

is required and it may be necessary to cut access holes in ply structures to facilitate the
inspection; such work must be done only in accordance with approved drawings or the repair
manual for the aircraft concerned and, after the inspection has been completed, the structure
must be made good and protected in an approved manner.
N

NOTE: Where access is required and no approved scheme exists, a scheme should be
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obtained from the aircraft manufacturer or an Organisation appropriately approved by the

Authorities for such work.
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Access Holes
In general, access holes are circular in shape and should be cut with a sharp trepanning tool to
avoid jagged edges. It is essential to avoid applying undue pressure to the tool, especially
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towards the end of the cut, otherwise damage may be caused to the inner face of the panel by
stripping off the edge fibres or the ply laminations.

Where rectangular access holes are prescribed care is necessary to ensure that they are
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correctly located and that corner radii are in accordance with drawing requirements.

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.103

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The edges of all access holes must be smoothed with fine glass paper, preferably before
inspection is commenced, since contact with the rough edges may cause wood fibres to be
pulled away.

It is important that the whole of the aircraft structure, including its components, e.g. tailplane,

Y
elevators, etc., is inspected in detail before any decision is reached regarding general condition.
It is possible for the main airframe to be in good condition but for a marked deterioration to have

EM
occurred in, for example, a control surface.

Glue Line

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When checking a glue line (i.e. the edge of the glued joint) for condition, all protective coatings
of paint should be removed by careful scraping; it is important to ensure that the wood is not
damaged during the scraping operation and scraping should cease immediately the wood is
revealed in its natural state and the glue line is clearly discernible.

AC
The inspection of the glue line is often facilitated by the use of a magnifying glass. Where the
glue line tends to part or where the presence of glue cannot be detected or is suspect, then,
providing the wood is dry, the glue line should be probed with a thin feeler gauge and, if any
O N
penetration is possible, the joint should be regarded as defective.

NOTE: It is important to ensure that the surrounding wood is dry, otherwise a false impression
of the glue line would be obtained due to closing of the joint by swelling. In instances where
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pressure is exerted on a joint, either by the surrounding structure or by metal attachment

devices such as bolts or screws, a false impression of the glue condition could be obtained
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unless the joint is relieved of this pressure before the glue line inspection is carried out.

The choice of feeler gauge thickness will vary with the type of structure, but a rough guide is
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that the thinnest possible gauge should be used. The diagrams opposite indicate the points
where checks with a feeler gauge should be made.
N
TA
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ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.104

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O N
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Timber Condition
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Dry rot and wood decay are not usually difficult to detect. Dry rot is indicated by small patches
of crumbling wood, whilst a dark discolouration of the wood surface or grey streaks of stain
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running along the grain are indicative of water penetration. Where such discolouration cannot
be removed by light scraping the part should be rejected, but local staining of the wood by the
dye from a synthetic adhesive hardener can, of course, be disregarded.
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Compression-Shake
When wood has been subjected to compression overload along the wood grains, the grains
ND

exhibit microscopic slip planes and creases (also known as failures). If a large section of wood
is subjected to compression overload a well-defined visible wrinkle across the face of the wood,
known as a compression shake, may be present. The presence of either microscopic
compression failures or visible shakes seriously reduces the load bearing capacity of the wood.
HI

However, experience indicates that even the visible compression shakes may be difficult to
detect. The evidence of a shake is usually associated with a sudden change of a member's

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.105

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cross-section, which is often directly at the side of a doubler. Shakes could be extremely subtle
and hidden by paintwork or other surface features that hinder their detection.

A compression shake may result from abnormal bending overloads often experienced during
relatively innocuous situations such as a heavy landing or a landing gear collapse. Unlike a

Y
crack in metal, a compression shake in wood does not progress during the aircraft‟s normal
utilisation. However, once the wood is subjected to a load in excess of its reduced load bearing

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capacity, it may catastrophically fail without any warning.

AD
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IA

Water Penetration of Structure

In some instances where water penetration is suspected, the removal of a few screws from the
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area in question will reveal, by their degree of corrosion, the condition of the surrounding joint
(see opposite left).

 Slight corrosion of the screw due to the adhesive will occur following the original
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construction, therefore, the condition of the screw should be compared with that of a
similar screw, removed from another part of the structure known to be free from water
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soakage.

NOTE: Plain brass screws are normally used for reinforcing glued wooden members, although
zinc coated brass is sometimes used. Where hard woods such as mahogany or ash are
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concerned, steel screws are sometimes used. Unless otherwise specified by the aircraft
constructor, it is usual to replace screws with new screws of identical length but one size larger.

 Another means of ascertaining if water penetration has taken place is to remove the bolts
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holding fittings at spar root-end joints, aileron hinge brackets, etc (opposite right).
Primary joints may have bushed holes and the bushes should also be withdrawn.
Corrosion on the surface of these bolts and bushes and timber discolouration, will
provide a useful indication of any water penetration which has taken place. Bolts and
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bushes should be smeared with an approved protective treatment before being refitted
through wooden members.

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.106

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 NOTE: When refitting bolts it is important to ensure that the same number of
shrinkage washers are fitted as were fitted originally.

 Experience of a particular aircraft will indicate those portions of the structure most prone

Y
to water penetration and moisture entrapment (e.g. at window rails or the bottom lower
structure of entry doors), but it must be borne in mind that this is not necessarily

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indicative of the condition of the complete aircraft.

 Where drain holes have become blocked, water soakage will invariably be found. Drain
holes should be cleared during routine maintenance.

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N
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Water Penetration of Top Surfaces

As indicated above, the condition of the proofed-fabric covering on ply surfaces is of great
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importance. If any doubt exists regarding its proofing qualities or if there are any signs of poor
adhesion, cracks, or other damage, it should be peeled back to reveal the ply skin.

 The condition of the exposed ply surface should be examined and if water penetration
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has occurred, this will be shown by dark grey streaks along the grain and a dark
discolouration at ply joints or screw countersunk holes, together with patches of
discolouration. If these marks cannot be removed by light scraping or, in the case of
advanced deterioration, where there are small surface cracks or separation of the ply
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laminations, then the ply should be rejected. Where evidence of water penetration is
found, sufficient of the surfaces should be stripped to determine its extent.

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.107

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  Providing good care is taken of the protective covering from the beginning, much
deterioration can be avoided.

Miscellaneous Defects

Y
During the inspection of the aircraft, the structure should be examined for other defects of a
more mechanical nature. Guidance on such defects is given in the following paragraphs.

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 Shrinkage. Shrinkage of timber, as well as inducing stresses in glued joints, can cause
looseness of metal fittings or bolts and, if fluctuating loads are present, can result in
damage to the wood fibres at the edges of the fittings or around the bolt holes. Shrinkage

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can be detected by removing any paint or varnish as described previously and attempting
to insert a thin feeler gauge between the timber and the fitting or bolt head.

 Elongated Bolt Holes. Where bolts secure fittings which take load carrying members, or

AC
where the bolts are subject to landing or shear loads, the bolt holes should be examined
for elongation or surface crushing of the wood fibres. The bolts should be removed to
facilitate the examination and, in some cases, the bolt itself may be found to be strained.
Rectification of elongated bolt holes must be carried out in accordance with the approved


O N
Repair Manual, the usual method being to open out the holes and fit steel bushes.

Bruising and Crushing. A check should be made for evidence of damage such as
bruises or crushing of structural members, which can be caused, for example, by over
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tightening bolts. Repair schemes for such damage are governed by the extent and depth
of the defect.
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 Previous Repairs. When examining a structure for signs of the defects mentioned
above, particular attention should be paid to the integrity of repairs which may have been
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carried out previously.

N
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ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.108

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Joint Failure
A glued joint may fail in service as a result of an accident or due to excessive mechanical loads
having been imposed upon it, either in tension or in shear. It is often difficult to decide the
nature of the load which caused the failure, but it should be borne in mind that glued joints are

Y
generally designed to take shear loads.

EM
If a joint is designed to take tension loads, it will be secured by a number of bolts or screws (or
both) fairly closely pitched in the area of tension loading. If a failure occurs in this area, it is
usually very difficult to form an opinion of the actual reasons for it, due to the considerable
break-up of the timber occurring in close proximity with the fasteners.

AD
In all cases of glued joint failure, whatever the direction of loading, there should be a fine layer
of wood fibres adhering to the glue, whether or not the glue has come away completely from
one section of the wood member. If there is no evidence of fibre adhesion, this may indicate

AC
glue deterioration, but if the imprint of wood grain is visible in the glue this is generally due to
„case hardening‟ of the glue during construction of the joint and the joint has always been below
strength. If the glue exhibits a certain amount of crazing or star shaped patterns, this indicates
too rapid setting, or the pot life of the glue having been exceeded. In these cases, the other
glued joints in the aircraft should be considered suspect.
O N
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N
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ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.109

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Damage caused by a heavy landing may be found some distance away from the landing gear
attachment points. Secondary damage can be introduced by transmission of shock from one
end of a strut or bracing to its opposite end, causing damage well away from the point of impact.
A thorough inspection of the existing paint or varnish at suspected primary or secondary impact
points may reveal, by cracks or flaking, whether damage has actually occurred.

Y
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AD
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O N
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IA
AV
N
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ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.110

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6.3.3 Fabric Covering

Y
General

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In the very early days of aviation an aeroplane consisted of a wooden framework braced with
wires, and a fabric covering on the wings, stabilisers and control surfaces for aerodynamic
purposes. It soon became apparent that covering the fuselage not only reduced the drag
generated by the structure and improved the aircraft‟s efficiency but also offered the pilot some
protection from the elements!

AD
AC
O N
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IA
AV
N
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ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.111

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Although metal and plywood were used for engine cowls and cockpit walls, fabric continued to
be the main form of airframe covering through to the mid 1930s despite the changes in
framework material to steel tube and aluminium. By World War II stressed metal skinned
semimonocoque airframes allowed far greater performance to be achieved and the full
advantages of the gas turbine engine to be realised. However, fabric covering was still

Y
employed in less demanding environments such as low performance aircraft and the control
surfaces of large aircraft. In fact, because of the weight advantages, fabric covered rudders,

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ailerons and elevators were used on some large aircraft through to the 1950s. Since then only
light aircraft have been fabric covered.

AD
AC
O N
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IA
AV
N
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ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.112

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Before the 1960‟s the majority fabric covered aircraft used organic mediums such as Cotton or
Linen. This was treated with dope which tightened the fabric and protected it from moisture and
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sunlight. Since the 60‟s synthetic, or man-made, fabrics such as polyester and glass fibre have
rapidly become the norm.
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The natural fabric covering materials and processes have shortcomings not associated with
synthetic fabrics. Their greater flammability, degeneration due to exposure to mildew and
fungus, difficulty in application and greater susceptibility to the ultraviolet (UV) light, all combine
to dictate a fabric replacement interval of 10 to 15 years. Because of this many older aircraft
have been re-covered using the new synthetic materials.
N

However, synthetic fabrics also have an inherent maintenance shortcoming. Since their
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resilience can lead to replacement intervals far greater than those of natural fabrics, up to 25
years, this causes greater intervals between airframe structural inspection opportunities.
Structural deterioration can go undetected for many years causing a slow decline of the
aircraft‟s structural integrity. Timely inspection of airframe structures is of equal importance to
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wooden or composite airframes as it is to metal structures. Extensive examination of any

structure requires the complete removal of the fabric for adequate and comprehensive
inspection.
ND

Regardless of the fabric used, it must be fitted tightly to the airframe to maintain the
aerodynamic contours, and securely attached to transfer air loads to the structure and prevent
fretting and distortion . The methods of tightening and attachment vary depending on the fabric
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type used.

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.113

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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.114

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Materials

Fabrics

Y
Aircraft fabrics are woven either from threads or „yarns‟ of spun natural fibres or from manmade
monofilaments. Natural fibre fabrics like cotton and linen have a „nap‟, a soft surface of loose

EM
fibre ends, while monofilaments such as polyester and glass extend to the ends of the fabric
unbroken. Threads running lengthwise are termed the „warp‟ and those running crosswise are
termed the „weft‟ (or „woof‟ or „fill‟ in the United States). The number of yarns per inch varies with
different weights of fabric and is not necessarily the same in both warp and weft. The non-

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fraying edge of the fabric is termed the „selvedge‟. The woven fabric is supplied as a roll or 'bolt'.

Tapes

AC
Cloth tapes compatible with each of the fabric types are available in various widths for covering
leading edges, trailing edges and ribs, and for repair work. The materials are often supplied with
serrated or „pinked' edges and sometimes self-adhesive versions are available. Special anti-
chafe tape is generally used on those members where chafing may occur between the structure
N
and the fabric and also externally to protect the fabric against damage by the stringing cord.
O
Thread
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Compatible threads for sewing are used for both manufacture and repair. For hand sewing
thread of 7 - 16lb breaking strength is used single or double as required. For machine sewing
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thread of 10 lb breaking strength is normally used.

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Stringing cord
Flax or Nylon Stringing or Lacing cord of around 60 lb breaking strength is normally used.
N
TA
US
ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.115

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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.116

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Cotton and Linen Fabrics

General

Y
Cotton fabrics are produced in a range of weaves and weights, each having different properties.
They are made from spun threads of mercerised cotton fibre (Mercerisation is a chemical

EM
process which increases the tensile strength of the fibre and its absorption characteristics)
which are selected and woven into a cloth to meet the required specification. Normally plain
weave – one over, one under – is used.

AD
When new, Grade A Cotton fabric has a tensile strength of 80 lbs per inch, a tearing strength of
5 lbs and a thread count of 80-84 threads per inch. It is used on aircraft with a wing loading of
more than 9 lb/square foot or a never exceed speed (Velocity-never exceed - Vne) above 160
mph including large, aerobatic and agricultural aeroplanes. Medium weight Cotton has a tensile

AC
strength of 65 lbs per inch, a tearing strength of 4 lbs and a thread count of 80-94 threads per
inch. It is used on aircraft with a wing loading of less than 9 lb/square foot or Vne below 160
mph such as standard light aeroplanes. Light weight Cotton has a tensile strength of 50 lbs per
inch, a tearing strength of 3 lbs and a thread count of up to 110 threads per inch. It is used on

and gliders.
O N
aircraft with a wing loading of less than 8 lb/square foot or Vne below 135 mph like microlights

Madapolam is a bleached cotton fabric with a soft finish used for covering wooden surfaces
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such as plywood skins.

Linen is made from Flax fibres, each 2 – 3 times stronger than cotton, spun into yarn and woven
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in the same manner. It is darker in colour than cotton and is recognisable by its irregular thread
size and spacing. Used mainly by the British aircraft industry, it is approved for repairs to old
aircraft.
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Both cotton and linen fabric are normally attached to the airframe by stringing or stitching and
tensioned using tautening cellulose nitrate (“nitrate”) or cellulose acetate butyrate (“butyrate” or
“CAB”) dope.
N

Being organic, both cotton and linen fabrics have a tendency to absorb moisture and are prone
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to damage from fungal attack such as mildew and rot. They are a tempting food source for
insects and vermin and they also deteriorate when exposed to ultra-violet radiation. They are
flammable and combustion is accelerated by certain types of dope. It is, therefore, vital that
protective finishes such as dope and paint are kept in good condition and the aircraft is stored in
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a safe and suitable environment.

ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.117

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Glass Fibre Fabric
Glass Fibre is produced as a monofilament and it's fabrics are generally stronger than cotton or
polyester. They are not susceptible to moisture, fuel, oil or ultraviolet but will deteriorate if
exposed to acid rain. Often used to cover wings, tail planes and flying control surfaces, Glass

Y
fibre does not shrink with heat and tightens only slightly with tautening dope and so must be
tensioned when fitted.

EM
Glass fibres do not burn, however dopes and paints used with it may support combustion.

The cloth may be pre-treated to make it compatible with butyrate dope and is sometimes

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supplied coated with dope to prevent weave distortion. Nitrate dopes are not used with glass
cloth.

Polyester Fabric

AC
Polyester fabric is a durable man made polymer which is resistant to moisture, acids, alkalis,
fuel and oils. It is susceptible to deterioration when exposed to ultraviolet radiation and must
therefore be completely covered by protective coatings in service.

N
The material is produced by polymerisation of selected acids and alcohols, extruded in its
molten state to form filaments. The filaments are then heat stretched to the desired denier (or
O
diameter) of fibre prior to weaving. The heat stretching imparts a “memory” into the fibre,
enabling it to shrink back when sufficient heat is applied, however, overheating will cancel the
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memory and cause the fabric to stretch and become thinner. Excessive heat will cause the
material to melt and burn.
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Polyester fabric comes in different weights and strengths. The most common fabrics are light
weight, medium weight, and heavy-duty. Light weight fabric weighs 1.7 ounces per square yard.
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That equates to a total fabric weight of about 9 pounds on a typical light aircraft. Medium weight
fabric weighs 2.7 ounces per square yard bringing the total weight of fabric only to about 14
pounds for a light aircraft. Heavy-duty fabric weighs in at 3.4 ounces per square yard bringing
the weight up to about 18 pounds. Typically, the coatings – dope and paint - will add 30-40
additional pounds to the overall weight. This is dependent upon the process applied.
N

The strength of fabrics varies from a breaking strength of about 70 pounds per square inch for
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light weight fabric up to about 130 pounds per square inch for heavy-duty. Selection of fabric for
an aircraft should always be in accordance with the manufacturers or designers instructions.
Typically an ultralight, glider, or an airplane with a small horsepower engine (below 65 HP) can
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safely use light weight fabric. For an aerobatic aircraft, large bi-plane, vintage warplane or
agricultural crop duster, in short any high wing loading aircraft operating under severe
conditions, use heavy-duty fabric. All other aeroplanes (this constitutes the majority) should use
the medium weight fabric. If in doubt, err on the side of caution, problems are much more likely
ND

to occur if a lighter weight fabric than the one recommended is used.

The fabric may be attached to the structure by stringing or by use of fabric adhesive. As
Polyester shrinks with the application of moderate heat, a domestic iron can be used to tighten it
HI

onto an aircraft structure. If a tautening dope is used after heat shrinking the fabric may become
over tensioned, causing damage to the structure. It is, therefore, important to use only the dope

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.118

For Training Purposes Only
specified by the cloth or covering system manufacturer. These may be of the non-tautening
nitrate and butyrate types, or more modern polyurethane or vinyl dopes.

Y
EM
AD
AC
N
Note: Poly-Fiber, Ceconite, HIPEC and Superflite use the same fabric but the dopes and
O
techniques used with each make them distinctive processes, covered by different
Supplemental Type Certificates (STC‟s). Mixing of materials and chemicals, including
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processes and application methods, voids the STC, making the repair un-approved.
IA
AV
N
TA
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ND
HI

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.119

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Intentionally Blank
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.120

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Aircraft Dope
Dope is primarily used to protect the fabric covering of an aircraft from damage by
environmental factors such as moisture, sunlight and pollution. It also prevents the passage of
air through the fabric and reduces friction, which improves the efficiency of the airframe. Certain

Y
dopes have the property that they shrink when drying and tighten the fabric. Most dopes can be
used to stick fabric patches onto the covering for repairs and access holes and, sometimes, to

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stick the fabric to the structure.

To obtain an even coating over large areas it is normal to spray the dope using an air pressure
spray gun. The initial coat, and dope applied to small areas and repairs may be brushed on but

AD
care must be taken to ensure the coat is even and not to thick.

The type of dope used depends on a number of factors including the type of fabric, the type of
varnish used on wooden structure, the environment in which the aircraft will be stored and

AC
operated, the performance requirements of the aeroplane and it‟s covering, and the availability
of the materials.

The main types in use are;



cellulose nitrate – „nitrate‟
cellulose acetate butyrate – „butyrate‟ or „CAB‟
O N
 polyurethane
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 vinyl

Dopes are principally comprised of Resins or 'Film Formers' to provide the base, Plasticizers to
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ensure flexibility and prevent brittleness, Pigments to exclude light and add colour, and Solvents
to thin the solution to a working consistency. A Retarder or Anti-Blush thinner is sometimes
used, this contains slow drying solvents which prevent the temperature drop and consequent
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condensation which cause blushing in a dope finish. A fungicide may be included in the
formulation or added to the first coat for additional fabric protection.

Among the pigments used are Red (iron) Oxide, sometimes added to clear dope to improve its
N

durability and adhesion, and aluminium powder or paste is added to light-proof the coating.
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.121

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Intentionally Blank
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.122

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Covering

General

Y
The structure to be covered should be inspected for foreign objects and adequacy of protective
treatments. All comers or edges and any projections such as bolts or screw heads likely to

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contact the fabric must be covered with anti-chafe tape. Where serious chafing may occur and a
strong reinforcement is required, a canvas or leather patch may be sewn to a fabric patch, then
doped into position.

AD
In order to prevent dope from reacting with any protective treatment and to prevent fabric from
adhering to wooden structure, all aerofoil members which will be in contact with the fabric are
normally covered with adhesive cellulose or aluminium tape, or painted with dope-resistant
white paint.

AC
Where stringing is likely to be chafed by parts of the structure, protection should be provided by
wrapping such parts with cotton tape. Before the tape is applied the structure should be treated
with varnish to protect it from corrosion should the tape become wet.
O N
An aircraft fabric may be fitted with the warp or weft running at 45° to the slipstream, or in line
with the slipstream. The former (bias) method is generally considered to be stronger and more
resistant to tearing, but the latter method is used on most light aircraft. The method used in a
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particular instance should follow that of the original manufacture unless otherwise approved.

Prefabricated Envelopes
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A number of manufacturers produce fabric envelopes for re-covering various models of aircraft.
Separate envelopes are made up from patterns for the mainplanes, fuselage, tailplane. fin and
flying control surfaces and greatly simplify the task of re-covering. The envelopes are made
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loose enough to facilitate slipping them over the structure and to achieve the proper tautness
after doping.

Mainplanes. The envelope is drawn over the wing tip and gradually worked down over the
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mainplane, generally keeping the spanwise seam in line with the trailing edge. When the cover
is located it is secured (by stitching, cementing, or retaining strip) to the inboard end of the
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mainplane, any necessary openings for cables, struts, tank caps, etc., are cut and stringing is
applied as necessary.

Fuselage. The fin and fuselage envelopes are often supplied separately and in some cases the
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fuselage envelope is open, or partially open, at the bottom, to simplify fitting. The fin envelope is
usually fitted first, then the fuselage envelope is stretched forwards over the fuselage and
secured in the same way as the original fabric. The cover is usually cemented or doped to the
fuselage formers.
ND

Control Surfaces. Control surface envelopes are usually left open at the hinge line, where they
are secured by cementing, doping or stitching.
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.123

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―Blanket‖ Method of Covering
With this method a bolt of fabric is used and covers are made-up on the site. Lengths of fabric,
or a number of lengths joined side-by-side, being used to cover the aircraft structure.

Mainplanes and Tailplanes. The cover is normally made-up from lengths of fabric machine-

Y
stitched together side-by-side. This is laid round the surface, starting and finishing at the trailing
edge and joined by hand stitching. On some aircraft with light alloy structure, hand stitching is

EM
dispensed with, the cover edges being wrapped round the tip and trailing edge and doped into
position. The cover is then attached to the ribs by stringing.

Fuselage. A number of different methods are used to attach fabric to the fuselage. The fabric is

AD
not normally attached in one piece, but usually consists of several pieces (e.g. sides, top and
bottom, which are doped separately onto the frame, or sewn together at their edges. Joins or
seams are covered with doped-on tape. Since the air loads on the fuselage are not as great as
on the mainplanes, it is not usual to employ stringing, although it may be specified in some

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instances.

Control Surfaces. These are covered in a similar way to the mainplanes and usually require
stringing. The fabric is normally folded round the hinge line, since this is usually straight and
sewn together round the remaining contour of the surface.

Seams, Stitches and Stringing

O N
The seams in the fabric covering should be either parallel to the fore-and-aft line of the aircraft
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or on a bias, depending on the covering method used. With the exception of trailing edge or
leading edge joints (where such action cannot be avoided) seams should never be made at
right angles to the direction of airflow. Two types of machined seams are employed, the balloon
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seam and the lap seam.

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The Balloon Seam. The balloon seam, sometimes referred to as the „French Fell‟, is normally
specified for all fabric joints and is illustrated below. To make the seam, the edges of the fabric
are folded back 0.625 in (16 mm) and are then fitted into each other as shown, tacked together
and then machine sewn with nine stitches per inch (four stitches per centimetre) in two parallel
lines 0.375 in (9 mm) apart and 0.125 in (3 mm) from either edge. After completion, the seam
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should be examined over a strong electric light (preferably a light-box) to ensure that the inside
edges of the fabric have not been missed during sewing.
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The Lap Seam. The lap seam, illustrated below, should only be used when specified by the
manufacturer. Unless the selvedges are present, the edges of the fabric should be serrated with
„pinking‟ shears. The edges should overlap each other by 1.25 in (31 mm) and should be
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machine sewn with nine stitches per inch (four stitches per centimetre), the stitch lines being 0.5
in (12 mm) apart and 0.375 in (9 mm) from the edges. After stitching, a 3 in (75 mm) wide
serrated-edge fabric strip should be doped in position.
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Hand Sewing. Apart from the herring-bone stitch and the boot stitch, which are used for repair
work and are described later, the only other stitches used are the overhand stitch (sometimes
referred to as the „trailing-edge‟ stitch) and the lock stitch. The overhand stitch is used for
trailing edges, wing tips, wing root ends and wherever a sudden change of section occurs.
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.124

For Training Purposes Only
Overhand Stitch. Sufficient excess fabric should be allowed for turning under before sewing is
commenced; a 0.5 in (12 mm) turn-under is usually sufficient. An even gap of about 0.25 in (6
mm) (usually) should be allowed for pulling up the two edges to obtain the correct fabric tension,
but this figure can only be determined finally by experience of the work in hand.

Y
The sewing should follow the contour of the component evenly to ensure a good finish after
doping. The number of stitches should be eight per inch (three per centimetre), a lock stitch

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being included approximately every 2 in (50 mm). Overhand stitching is illustrated below, the
lock stitch being shown as the last stitch before the stitching is pulled tight.

All natural fibre threads used for hand sewing and all cord used for stringing (when not pre-

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waxed), should be given a liberal coating of beeswax. This protects the thread, facilitates
sewing and reduces the likelihood of damaging the fabric or enlarging the stitch holes.

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ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.125

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Stringing
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Nylon or Flax cord is normally used for stringing purposes and is generally applied in single
strands as shown. As an alternative, but only when approved by the manufacturer, doubled No.
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18 thread may be used during repair work.

When the fabric covering of the component has been completed, cotton tape should be
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stretched centrally over each rib, top and bottom and stitched into position at the trailing edge.

Using a stringing needle and commencing at the top surface, the stringing cord should be
passed through the tape and fabric as close to the rib as possible, out through the bottom fabric
and tape, round the lower rib boom and back up through both surfaces again. A double knot
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should be used to secure the first and last stringing loops and after each 18 in (450mm). In
between, single knots may be used.
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The stringing pitch is normally 3 in (75mm) but in the slipstream area or on aircraft of more than
2000 Ib (910kg) weight, the pitch is often reduced to 1.5 in (37 mm). Variations from these
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pitches will be stipulated in the relevant aircraft manuals and it may be necessary to vary the
pitch in order to avoid internal structure or control runs.

When the stringing has been completed a strip of serrated tape, 1.5 in (37 mm) wide, should be
ND

doped over the stringing line on both surfaces, care being taken to ensure that no air is trapped
under the tape and that the tape is securely attached to the main cover.

NOTE: The knots depicted are typical but a different type of knot may be specified by the
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manufacturer.

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.126

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Boom Stringing. This type of stringing is used on deep aerofoil sections. The procedure is
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similar to that described above, except that the cord is passed round the rib boom instead of
round the entire rib. Top and bottom surfaces are therefore attached separately and the inside
of each boom must be taped to prevent chafing of the stringing cord. Alternate rib and boom
stringing is sometimes used on aerofoils of medium depth, i.e. between 6 and 12 in (150 and
300 mm).
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Stringing Tension. Care must be taken to ensure that all stringing is maintained at a
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satisfactory tension and that it is not so tight as to cause distortion of the ribs.

Slipstream Area. For stringing purposes, the slipstream area is considered to be the diameter
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of the propeller plus one rib on either side. In the case of multi-engined aircraft, the entire gap
between the slipstreams, regardless of its width, is also considered to be slipstream area.
ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.127

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Miscellaneous Methods Of Fabric Attachment
O N
In addition to the standard methods of fabric attachment described above, other methods are
sometimes employed. The most commonly used are outlined below.
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Adhesives. On many aircraft, particularly those covered with polyester fabric, stringing is
dispensed with on the wing and tail surfaces and the fabric is attached to the structure by
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means of a proprietary adhesive. This method produces a much smoother surface on the
components and saves time during construction and repair.
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Attachment by Strip. Attachment of the fabric by wrapping it around a light alloy strip or rod
which is then secured in a channel or groove is sometimes used with metal structures.

Special Stringing. A variation of the Attachment by Strip method, used for attaching fabric to
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metal ribs and known as „special stringing‟.

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Attachment or Fabric to Plywood. Dope is generally used for the attachment of fabric to
plywood, but before the fabric is applied, the wood surface should be smoothed with fine glass
paper and any cavities, such as those caused by the countersinking for screw heads, filled and
allowed to set. The wooden surface should then be treated with two coats of tautening dope.
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After the second coat has dried, the fabric should be spread over the wood and stretched
evenly to avoid wrinkling. A coat of tautening dope should then be brushed into the fabric
sufficiently to ensure good penetration.
ND

Attachment of Fabric to Metal Surfaces. Where a light alloy is used as part of the structure of
a mainplane (such as to form the leading edge profile) the fabric is generally doped into
position. Alternatively, a thermoplastic adhesive may be used and guidance on the use of this
material may be obtained from the relevant aircraft manuals. To ensure satisfactory adhesion of
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the fabric, the metal surfaces should be thoroughly cleaned and primed with an etch primer.

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.128

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ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.129

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Intentionally Blank
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ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.130

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Doping

Environment

Y
Dopes are highly flammable due to their volatile solvents and the low flash point, heavy vapour
they produce. Because of this they must be stored in a manner described by various

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government regulations and acts of parliament and used in a carefully controlled environment.

Apart from the normal sources of ignition – cigarettes, naked flames etc., the main risk is posed
by static electricity discharge. The process of sanding dried dope between coats will generate a

AD
static charge which, if discharged rapidly to earth, may cause a spark to ignite residual solvent
vapour in and around the structure. The action of spraying dope will cause the build-up of a
static charge at the spray gun while a floor contaminated with dried dope may also pick up a
charge when swept. It is therefore important that the structure being doped, the equipment and

AC
the operator are all bonded to earth. The operator should wear overalls made of cotton and
leather soled boots.

Electrical equipment may also produce sparks, so any used in the doping area must be

recommended.
O N
explosion-proof and approved as such. The use of pneumatic power tools is strongly

The vapours produced by the dope and the solvents used to clean the equipment are also
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hazardous to health. The operator must be protected from the fumes in the manner described
by the dope manufacturer in their technical literature. Any instance of skin, eye or throat
irritation, difficulty in breathing or a dry cough must be treated by immediate removal from the
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area and medical advice should be sought.

In order to accomplish a proper dope job with a good finish it is important to control the
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temperature and humidity of the spray shop. Adequate ventilation with a through flow of fresh
air to remove the solvent vapours and atomised dope is also required.

Ventilation should be provided by an explosion proof fan at floor level as the vapours are
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heavier than air. The rate of flow is dictated by the size of the spray shop and is governed by
national regulations. The inlet should be positioned to prevent draughts, preferably in a separate
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room. This will also allow the air to be pre-heated and prevent cooling in the spray area.

Many of the problems associated with doping are caused by incorrect temperature of the dope,
the structure or the air. If the temperature is too low, the evaporation of the solvents in the dope
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will cool the surface being doped and cause moisture to condense and be trapped in the finish.
If it is too high, drying will be too rapid and pin holes or blisters may form in the surface. For best
results the dope and the structure or components should be kept in the spray shop and the
environment maintained at 21-26°C prior to and during the spray process. Humidity must also
ND

be controlled. The desired range is 45 to 50%, but doping can be satisfactory between 20 and
70% humidity depending on airflow and temperature.

All spray equipment, brushes and mixing containers must be kept scrupulously clean. Thinners
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should be used before the dope has dried and Methyl-Ethyl-Ketone (MEK), or a similar solvent,

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.131

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used on dried dope. Rubber seals in spray guns should be removed before immersion in MEK
to clear blockages.

The spray shop must be kept clean, free of dust and dried overspray.

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Procedures

EM
The fabric covered structure or components must be inspected to ensure that:

 the underlying structure has been protected with dope proof paint or tape as required,

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 fabric attachment is correct and secure,
 the correct tension has been applied prior to use of tautening dope (if too slack no
amount of doping will tighten it, if too tight structural damage or distortion may occur),
 all dust has been removed from the surface,

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 plastic and metal components have been adequately protected.

The best looking and most durable film is produced by using several coats of dope that are low
in solids. The Dope Scheme is a schedule listing the coats required to achieve the desired
finish. The following is a description of the doping process for nitrate and butyrate doping of
cotton fabric.
O N
The Priming coats are the first ones applied to the raw fabric, encapsulating the fibres and
forming the mechanical attachment. The first coat is normally thinned by 25-50% and applied by
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brush to ensure good penetration, but must not be allowed to form drips or runs on the opposite
surface. When doping wings, the top and bottom areas behind the spar are treated first and
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allowed to shrink, before the leading edge is doped. This ensures even tightening and prevents
wrinkles forming on the leading edge cap.
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Any drainage eyelets, grommets inspection rings are attached at this stage and tapes laid using
a heavy coat of dope where required, carefully brushed to remove air pockets.

A coat of thicker dope may now be applied by spray. This should be lightly sanded to remove
the fibre ends and produce a smooth finish. The surface is rinsed with water and thoroughly
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dried after sanding.

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Filling coats are sprayed on next as cross coats. One light coat is sprayed moving the gun in
one direction, then a second applied at moving right angles to the first before it dries. This may
be repeated several times to satisfy the scheme. The final filling coat should be wet sanded to
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produce a smooth finish and the surface rinsed with water and dried again. At this stage the
structure should be tested by placing a light inside and checking the fabric is light proof.

A number of pigmented and/or clear Finishing coats are now applied. There should not be less
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than three of these and each should be lightly sanded before application of the next.

The final coat should be allowed to dry for at least one month before being polished with
rubbing compound and waxed. The surface should be waxed annually thereafter.
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.132

For Training Purposes Only
The dope scheme will require between 6 and 12 coats of dope depending on the tautness and
finish desired. A typical low tautness scheme will be comprised of:

 3-4 coats transparent tautening dope (Priming)

 2 coats aluminium finish non-tautening dope (Filling)

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 1-2 coats pigmented finish non-tautening dope (Finishing)

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and if glossy finish is required;

 1-2 coats transparent non-tautening finish dope (Finishing).

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A typical high tautness scheme will be comprised of:

 1 coat red oxide tautening dope (Priming)

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 6-7 coats transparent tautening dope (Priming/Filling)
 2 coats aluminium tautening dope (Filling)
 1-2 coats pigmented finish non-tautening dope (Finishing)

and if glossy finish is required;


O N
1-2 coats transparent non-tautening finish dope (Finishing).

The schemes used for polyester fabric are similar, but, as the threads are not fibrous, the first
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Priming coat must wet the inner surface to ensure encapsulation and good mechanical
attachment. The modern polyurethane and vinyl dopes commonly used with polyester fabric
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have additives to improve adhesion to the fabric.

Glass fibre fabric has a loose weave which makes it more difficult to dope. It is normally pre-
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treated with dope so the first coat applied must be thinned only enough to soften this treatment
and provide good adhesion. The pressure used for spraying should be the minimum required for
atomisation to prevent the dope blowing through the fabric and causing runs on the reverse
side. Subsequent coats should be progressively heavier until the weave fills and the cloth
tightens.
N
TA

Problems
Adhesion problems most commonly occurs between the fabric and the first coat and between
the aluminium and the subsequent coat, particularly if excess aluminium powder is added. Use
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of a solvent moistened „Tack Rag‟ just prior to applying each coat is recommended.

Blushing is a white or greyish cast that forms on the dope surface and is caused by moisture
condensing on the uncured dope surface resulting in the nitrocellulose precipitating out. It can
ND

be prevented by careful humidity and temperature control or using retarder in the dope. A
blushed area can be repaired by adding retarder to the next coat, which allows the solvents to
attack the surface and cause it to flow out.
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.133

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Bubbles and Blisters are caused by the surface of the dope drying before all the solvents have
evaporated. This may happen if the dope is applied to deeply, if the previous coat is not dry, or
if the temperature is too high.

Dull Finish may be caused by holding the spray gun too far from the surface so that the dope

Y
settles as a semi-dry mist. Small areas of dullness may be caused by porosity of the surface.

EM
Fisheyes are small areas which have not dried uniformly due to surface contamination with oil,
wax or silicone products. Cleanliness is essential and use of a tack rag is recommended. When
doping a repair, all wax polish should be removed from the area with solvent.

AD
Orange Peel is an effect caused by insufficient dope thinning, holding the spray gun too far
from the surface, using too high an atomising pressure or using a thinner which evaporates too
quickly. It can also be caused by a cold damp draught over the surface.

AC
Pinholes are small blisters and have the same causes. They can also be caused by water or oil
contamination in the spray gun air supply.

Roping is a condition which occurs when the dope dries as it is being brushed causing an
O N
uneven surface. It is common when the dope is cold or is over-brushed.

Rough Finish is caused by dirt and dust on the surface, insufficient sanding or low working
temperatures.
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Runs and Sag are the result of too thick a coat being applied, especially to vertical surfaces.
They are caused by incorrectly adjusted equipment or poor technique.
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ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.134

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Inspection and Testing
All components of the covering should be inspected for general condition. Loose finishing tape
and reinforcing patches; chafing under fairings; brittle, cracking, peeling, or deteriorated
coatings; fabric tears and rock damage; broken or missing rib lacing; and rodent nests are

Y
unacceptable. The entire fabric covering should be uniformly taut with no loose or wrinkled
areas, or excess tension which can warp and damage the airframe.

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Excess Tension
There are no methods or specifications for measuring acceptable fabric tension other than

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observation. Excess tension may warp critical components, such as longerons, wing rib, and
trailing edges out of position, weakening the airframe structure.

Excess tension with cotton, linen, and glass fibre fabric covering is usually caused by excessive

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dope film on a new covering, or continuous shrinking of an originally satisfactory dope film as
the plasticizers migrate from the dope with age. Heat from sun exposure accelerates plasticizer
migration.

N
Excess tension with polyester fabric, coated with dope, is usually caused by the combined
tension of the heat tautened polyester fabric and continuous shrinking of the dope film as the
plasticizers migrate from the dope with age.
O
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Loose Fabric
Fabric that flutters or ripples in the propeller slipstream, balloons, or is depressed excessively in
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flight from the static position, is unacceptable. Loose or wrinkled cotton, linen, and glass fabric
covering may be caused by inadequate dope film; poor quality dope; fabric installed with excess
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slack; or by a bent, broken, or warped structure.

Loose or wrinkled polyester fabric covering, finished with coatings other than dope, may be
caused by inadequate or excessive heat application; excess slack when the fabric was installed;
or bent or warped structure. Polyester fabric which does not meet aircraft quality specifications
N

is likely to become loose after a short period of time.

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Glass fabric covering should be tested with a large suction cup for rib lacing cord failure and
reinforcing tape failure caused by chafing on all wing ribs and other structural attachments
throughout the airframe. Particular attention should be given to the area within the propeller
slipstream. If failure is indicated by the covering lifting from the static position, the rib lacing cord
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and reinforcing tape must be reinstalled with double the number of original laces.

NOTE: Temporary wrinkles will develop in any fabric coated and finished with dope, when
moisture from rain, heavy fog, or dew is absorbed into a poor-quality dope film, causing the film
ND

to expand. Temporary wrinkles may also develop with any type of thick coatings, on any type of
fabric, when an aircraft is moved from a cold storage area to a warm hangar or parked in the
warming sunshine, causing rapid thermal expansion of the coating.
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.135

For Training Purposes Only
Coating Cracks
Fabric exposed through cracks in the coating may be initially tested for deterioration by pressing
firmly with a thumb to check the fabric‟s strength. Natural fibres deteriorate by exposure to
ultraviolet radiation, mildew, fungus from moisture, high acid-content rain, dew, fog, pollution,

Y
and age. Polyester filaments will deteriorate by exposure to UV radiation.

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Glass fabric will not deteriorate from UV exposure, but will be deteriorated by acid rain, dew
fallout, and chaffing if loose in the propeller slipstream area.

Cotton, linen, and glass fabric coverings are dependent solely on the strength and tautening

AD
characteristics of the dope film to carry the air loads. Dope coatings on heat-tautened polyester
fabric will also absorb all the air loads because the flexibility of polyester filaments is higher than
the dope film. Polyester fabric that is coated with materials other than dope, is dependent solely
on the heat tautening and low-elongation characteristics of the polyester filaments to develop

AC
tension and transmit the air loads to the airframe without excess distortion from a static position.

Cracks in coatings will allow any type of exposed fabric to deteriorate. Cracks should be closed
by sealing or removing the coatings in the immediate area and replace with new coatings, or
recover the component. O N
Fabric Identification
Cotton Fabric meeting aircraft specifications can be identified by an off-white colour and thread
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count of 80 to 94 (or up to 110 in light fabrics) in both directions .

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Aircraft linen conforming to British specifications may be identified by a slightly darker shade
than cotton fabric and irregular thread spacing. The average thread count will be about the
same as Grade A fabric (80- 84). The non-uniformity of the linen thread size is also noticeable,
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with one thread half the size of the adjacent thread. When viewed under a magnifying glass, the
ends of the cotton and linen fibre nap may be seen on the backside. The nap is also seen when
the coating is removed from the front or outside surface. A light-purple colour showing on the
back side of cotton or linen fabric indicates a fungicide was present in the dope to resist
deterioration by fungus and mildew.
N

Polyester fabric conforming to aircraft specifications is whiter in colour than cotton or linen. The
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fabric styles adapted for use as aircraft covering have a variety of thread counts, up to 94,
depending on the manufacturing source, weight, and breaking strength. Polyester is a
monofilament and will not have any nap or filament ends showing.
US

Glass fabric is white in colour and one type is pre-coated with a blue tinted dope as a primer,
and to reduce weave distortion during handling. Thread count will be approximately 36 per inch.
Glass fibres are monofilaments so the fabric will not have any nap or filament ends showing
ND

unless they are damaged.

When a small fabric sample can be removed from the aircraft and all the coatings removed, a
burn test will readily distinguish between natural fabric, polyester, and glass fabric. Cotton and
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linen will burn to a dry ash, polyester filaments will melt to a liquid and continue burning to a

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.136

For Training Purposes Only
charred ash, and glass filaments, which do not support combustion, will become incandescent
over a flame.

Coating Identification

Y
Tautening nitrate or butyrate dope must be used to develop tension on cotton, linen, and glass

EM
fabrics. When a small sample can be removed, burn tests will distinguish nitrate dope-coated
fabric from butyrate dope-coated fabric by its immediate ignition and accelerated combustion.
Butyrate dope will burn at less than one-half the rate of nitrate dope. Coating types other than
nitrate or butyrate dope may have been used as a finish over dope on cotton, linen, and glass
fibre fabric coverings.

AD
If the fabric type is determined to be polyester, coating identification should start by reviewing
the aircraft records and inspecting the inside of the wings and the fuselage for the required
fabric source identification stamps for covering materials authorised under the STC. The

AC
manual, furnished by the holder of the STC-approved fabric, should be reviewed to determine
whether the coatings are those specified by the STC.

Coating types, other than those authorised by the original STC, may have been used with prior
N
approval of the competent authority, and this would be noted in the aircraft records. The
presence of dope on polyester can be detected by a sample burn test.
O
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Strength Criteria for Aircraft Fabric

The condition of the fabric covering must be determined on every 100 hour and annual
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inspection, because the strength of the fabric is a definite factor in the airworthiness of an
aeroplane. Fabric is considered to be airworthy until it deteriorates to a breaking strength less
than 70 percent of the strength of new fabric required for the aircraft. For example, if grade-A
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cotton is used on an airplane that requires only intermediate fabric, it can deteriorate to 46
pounds per inch width (70 percent of the strength of intermediate fabric) before it must be
replaced

Fabric installed on aircraft with a wing loading less than 9 lb. per square foot (psf), and a Vne
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less than 160 mph, will be considered un-airworthy when the breaking strength has deteriorated
below 46 lb. per inch width, regardless of the fabric grade. Fabric installed on aircraft with a
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wing loading of 9 lb. per square foot and over, or a Vne of 160 mph and over, will be considered
un-airworthy when the breaking strength has deteriorated below 56 lb. per inch width.
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Fabric installed on a glider or sail-plane with a wing loading of 8 lb. per square foot and less,
and a Vne of 135 mph or less, will be considered un-airworthy when the fabric breaking strength
has deteriorated below 35 lb. per inch width, regardless of the fabric grade.
ND

Fabric Testing
Mechanical devices used to test fabric by pressing against or piercing the finished fabric are not
normally approved and are used at the discretion of the mechanic to base an opinion on the
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general fabric condition. Punch test accuracy will depend on the individual device calibration,
total coating thickness, brittleness, and types of coatings and fabric. Mechanical devices are not

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.137

For Training Purposes Only
applicable to glass fibre fabric that will easily shear and indicate a very low reading regardless
of the true breaking strength.

If the fabric test results are in the lower breaking strength range with the mechanical punch
tester or if the overall fabric cover conditions are poor, then more accurate field tests may be

Y
made. Cut a 1-1/4-inch wide by 4-inch long sample from a top exposed surface, remove all
coatings and unravel the edges to a 1-inch width. Clamp each end between suitable clamps

EM
with one end anchored to a support structure while a load is applied by adding sand in a
suitable container suspended a few inches above the floor. If the breaking strength is still in
question, a sample should be sent to a qualified testing laboratory.

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O N
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N
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ND
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.138

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Fabric Replacement

General

Y
The replacement of fabric, including covering of a flying surface, is regarded as a major repair
and should be performed by an appropriately authorised organisation or Licensed Aircraft

EM
Maintenance Engineer.

The selection of fabric type (and associated processes) can depend on many factors. These
may include;

AD
 Suitability of the materials and processes (airframe varnish/dope compatibility etc.)
 Availability of fabric and its associated chemicals, tapes, cords, threads, etc.
 Skill of the maintainer in the chosen material and process.

AC
 Type of operation the aircraft is involved in (agricultural, high speed/aerobatics, glider).
 Availability of suitably calibrated tools and equipment.

If the replacement fabric differs from the fabric detailed in the aircraft‟s Type Certificate (TC),

substitution.
O N
then a Supplemental Type Certificate (STC) or other authorisation is required to make the

Synthetic fabric manufacturers have gained STC approval for many aircraft types allowing the
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re-covering of older aircraft.

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Many aircraft maintenance manuals have limited information regarding the recovering process
required on the aircraft, with most manuals referring to stitching patterns and special covering
techniques unique to the aircraft. If recovering an aircraft using Grade A cotton, an approved
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document for application guidance, in conjunction with aircraft‟s maintenance manual, is the US
Federal Aviation Administration‟s (FAA) Advisory Circular (AC) 43.13-1B and the UK
Airworthiness leaflet 2-8. These documents outline all acceptable techniques for a range of
practices, from doping and repairs to inspection.
N

Should an alternate material be chosen to cover an aircraft, and then the materials and
procedures should be detailed in the STC. This includes, but is not limited to, items such as
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chemicals (paint and dopes), stitching threads, finishing and lacing tapes, fabric attaching
hardware (rivets, PK screws & clips), inspection rings, drain grommets and material. Failure to
comply with all aspects of the STC, including materials and methods, will void the STC, making
the repair un-approved.
US

Equipment
ND

The equipment requirements for performing fabric work are minimal. However, several items are
required to be calibrated prior to use to ensure to compliance to instructions covered in either
the STC or aircraft maintenance manual. If utilising one of the synthetic materials that require
heat for fabric shrinkage, then the heat source (generally an household iron) must be checked
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for its various temperature settings.

Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.139

For Training Purposes Only
Storage
If using an organic material such as cotton, then certain environmental conditions must be met.
This includes a room temperature of (typically) 16 to 21°C and a minimum relative humidity of
70%. Storage of fabric should be in clean dry areas away from direct sunlight. The conditions

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required for storing synthetic materials are broadly similar.

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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.140

For Training Purposes Only
Repairs to Fabric Coverings

General

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If the fabric has been damaged extensively, it is usually impractical and uneconomical to make
satisfactory repairs by sewing and patching. The extent and location of damage to the fabric

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that may be repaired will be detailed in the repair section of the aircraft manual concerned, but
extensive damage is often made good by replacing complete fabric panels. However, the
replacement of large fabric panels, particularly on one side of a component, may lead to
distortion of the structure and it may be advisable to completely re-cover the component

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Before attempting any repair to the fabric covering, the cause of the damage should be
ascertained. The internal structure should be inspected for loose objects such as stones,
remains of birds, insects, etc., and any structural damage made good. Using thinners, all dope

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should be removed from the fabric surrounding the damaged area before any stitching is carried
out, since doped fabric will tear if any tension is applied to the repair stitches.

Repair of Cuts and Tears

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Cuts and tears in fabric are sometimes caused by stones thrown up by the slipstream or
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wheels, but more generally result from accidental damage during ground movement or
servicing. Damage may also be caused by bird strikes. Any damaged structure should be made
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good and fabric repairs carried out according to the type of damage, as detailed in the following
paragraphs.
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Herring-Bone Stitch
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The herring-bone stitch (also known as the „ladder stitch‟) should be used for repairing straight
cuts or tears which have sound edges. The stitches should be made as shown, with a lock knot
every 6 in (150 mm).

There should be a minimum of four stitches to the inch (two stitches to the centimetre) and the
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stitches should be 0.25 in (6 mm) from the edge of the cut or tear.
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After the stitching has been completed, 1 in (25 mm) wide serrated tape should be doped over
the stitching. A square or rectangular fabric patch should then be doped over the whole repair,
ensuring that the edges of the patch are parallel to the warp and weft of the fabric covering and
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that they overlap the repair by 1.5 in (37 mm). The original doping scheme should then be
restored.
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.141

For Training Purposes Only
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Repairs with Woods Frames
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On some aircraft, repairs to cuts and tears with jagged edges, which cannot be stitched as
described in the previous paragraphs, can be repaired by using the Woods frame method.
Repairs of up to 2 in (50 mm) square may be made, provided they are clear of seams or
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attachments by a distance of not less than 2 in (50 mm). The affected area should be cleaned
with thinners or acetone and repaired in the following manner:
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 The Woods frame should be doped into position surrounding the damaged fabric and, if
the frame is of the square type, the edges should be parallel to the weft and warp of the
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covering. When the dope has dried, the damaged portion of the fabric should be cut out
and the aperture covered by a fabric patch.

 If Woods frames are not readily available they can be made from cellulose sheet 0.030 in
(0.8 mm) thick with minimum frame width of 1 in (25 mm); in the case of the square type
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of frame the minimum corner radii should be 0.5 in (12 mm). In some special cases,
aircraft manufacturers use 0.080 in (2 mm) plywood for the manufacture of the frames, in
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which case it is important to chamfer the outer edges of the frame to blend with the
aerofoil contour.
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.142

For Training Purposes Only
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Repair by Darning
Irregular holes or jagged tears in fabric may be repaired by darning provided the hole is not
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more than 2 in (50 mm) wide at any point. The stitches should follow the lines of the warp and
weft and should be closely spaced as shown. The whole repair should be covered with a
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serrated fabric patch in the usual way, with an overlap of 1.5 in (37 mm) from the start of the
darn.
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.143

For Training Purposes Only
Repair by Insertion
For damage over 4 in (100 mm) square, insertion repairs are generally used, either of the two
methods described below being suitable.

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Normal Insertion Repair
 The damaged area of the fabric should be cut out to form a square or rectangular hole

EM
with the edges parallel to the weft and warp. The corners of the hole should then be cut
diagonally, to allow a 0.5 in (12 mm) wide edge to be folded under the fabric and this
should be held in position with tacking or hemming stitches.

AD
 The patch should be made 1 in (25 mm) larger than the cut-out area and its edges
should be folded under for 0.5 in (12 mm) and tacked in position in a manner similar to
that described above. In this condition the size of the insertion patch should be similar to,
or slightly smaller than, that of the cut-out area.

AC
 The insertion patch should be held in position inside the cut-out area with a few tacking
stitches and then sewn in position using a herring-bone stitch of not less than two
stitches to the centimetre (four stitches to the inch), as shown. A 1 in (25 mm) wide tape
should then be doped over the seams.


O N
For small repairs a square or rectangular cover patch, with frayed or serrated edges,
should be doped in position ensuring that the patch overlaps the edge of the tape by 1.25
in (31 mm). Where the size of the insertion patch is more than 9 in (225 mm) square, a 3
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in (75 mm) wide fabric serrated tape is often used; the tape should be mitred at the
corners and doped in position. The original finish should then be restored.
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.144

For Training Purposes Only
Alternative Insertion Repair
An alternative repair is shown diagrammatically below. This consists of cutting away the
damaged fabric as described above, but, in this case, the edges of the aperture as well as the
edges of the insertion patch are turned outwards. The insertion patch is attached to the fabric
cover by stitching along the folded-up edges as near to the contour of the component as

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practicable (i.e. about 0.0625 in (1 mm) above the surface) using the boot stitch. The edges are
then doped down and the repair covered with a doped-on fabric patch.

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Boot Stitch. Two threads should be used for the boot stitch. The stitches should be made as

(150 mm), and at the end of a seam.

O N
shown (diagrammatically) and the ends of both threads tied together in a lock knot every 6 in
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.145

For Training Purposes Only
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Rejuvenation of the Dope Film
O N
If fabric loses its strength, there is nothing to do but remove it and recover the aircraft. But if the
fabric is good and the dope is cracked, it may be treated with rejuvenator, a mixture of very
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potent solvents and plasticizers, to restore its resilience. The surface of the fabric is cleaned
and the rejuvenator sprayed on in a wet coat. The solvents soften the old finish so the
plasticizers can become part of the film. When the rejuvenator dries, the surface should be
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sprayed with two coats of aluminium-pigmented dope, then sanded and a third coat of
pigmented-pigmented dope applied, followed with the coloured dope finish. When repairing,
rejuvenating, and refinishing covering materials approved under an STC, instructions in the
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manual furnished by the material supplier should be followed.

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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.146

For Training Purposes Only
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Module 6
Licence Category
O N
A, B1, B2 and B3
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Materials and Hardware

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6.4 Corrosion
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For Training Purposes Only

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Intentionally Blank
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.2

For Training Purposes Only
Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft
Maintenance Licence

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Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1,
2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2
basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

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LEVEL 1

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 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
O N
LEVEL 2
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 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.

 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
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 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
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subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
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LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
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 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
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and specific examples.

 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
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instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.3

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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.4

For Training Purposes Only
Table of Contents

6.4 Corrosion _______________________________________________________________ 9

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Introduction ______________________________________________________________ 9

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Chemical Oxidation _______________________________________________________ 9
Chemical Reaction _______________________________________________________ 11
Types of Corrosion _______________________________________________________ 13
Galvanic Corrosion ______________________________________________________ 13

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Surface Corrosion _______________________________________________________ 16
Pitting Corrosion ________________________________________________________ 18
Crevice Corrosion _______________________________________________________ 19
Intergranular Corrosion ___________________________________________________ 21

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Laminar or Exfoliation Corrosion ____________________________________________ 23
Fretting Corrosion _______________________________________________________ 25
Stress Corrosion ________________________________________________________ 26
Filiform Corrosion________________________________________________________ 28
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Mercury Contamination ___________________________________________________ 29
Microbial Corrosion ______________________________________________________ 31
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Hydrogen Embrittlement __________________________________________________ 32
Corrosion Fatigue _______________________________________________________ 33
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Common Metals and Corrosion Products _____________________________________ 34
Acid Spillage ___________________________________________________________ 36
Alkali Spillage __________________________________________________________ 36
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Protection of Metal from Corrosion __________________________________________ 37

Anodizing ______________________________________________________________ 38
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Chemical Treatments _____________________________________________________ 43

Passivation ____________________________________________________________ 44
Metal Coating ___________________________________________________________ 45
Metal Spraying __________________________________________________________ 46
Electroplating ___________________________________________________________ 47
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Other Coatings __________________________________________________________ 52

Painting _______________________________________________________________ 53
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Finishes _______________________________________________________________ 54
Paint Stripping __________________________________________________________ 55
Paint Shop Safety _______________________________________________________ 56
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Corrosion Inhibiting Compounds ____________________________________________ 57

Protection Philosophy ____________________________________________________ 59
Corrosion Prevention _____________________________________________________ 60
Corrosion Removal and Reprotection ________________________________________ 61
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Preparation ____________________________________________________________ 61
Safety Precautions _______________________________________________________ 61
Degreasing ____________________________________________________________ 62
Paint Removal __________________________________________________________ 62
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Mechanical Removal of Corrosion Products ___________________________________ 62

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.5

For Training Purposes Only
 Hidden Corrosion ________________________________________________________ 63
Surface Smoothness _____________________________________________________ 63
Contamination __________________________________________________________ 63
Cracks ________________________________________________________________ 64
Damage _______________________________________________________________ 64

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Assessment ____________________________________________________________ 64
Abrasive Blasting Method of Corrosion Removal ________________________________ 66

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Chemical Removal of Corrosion Products _____________________________________ 68
Rectification of Corrosion _________________________________________________ 69
Clad Aluminium Alloy Sheet ________________________________________________ 69

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Aluminium Alloy Castings and Forgings, Milled Skin Panels etc. ____________________ 70
Blend of a Single Depression _______________________________________________ 71
Blending Ratios _________________________________________________________ 72
Blend of Multiple Corrosion Areas ___________________________________________ 73

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Using a Dial Type Depth Gauge ____________________________________________ 74
Rectification of Corrosion on Magnesium Alloys ________________________________ 75
Rectification on Corrosion of Steel ___________________________________________ 76
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.6

For Training Purposes Only
Module 6.4 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement

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These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of CAR 66, and the associated Knowledge
Levels as specified below:

EM
CAR 66 Licence Category
Objective
Reference A B1 B2 B3
Corrosion 6.4

AD
Chemical fundamentals; (a) 1 1 1 1
Formation by, galvanic action process,
microbiological, stress;
Types of corrosion and their identification; (b) 2 3 2 2

AC
Causes of corrosion;
Material types, susceptibility to corrosion.

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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.7

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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.8

For Training Purposes Only
6.4 Corrosion

Introduction

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Metallic elements are usually compounded with other elements, in the ground, before they are

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mined and (compared to the actual metals into which they are subsequently formed) they are
relatively stable. Corrosion is the tendency of metals to revert to the thermodynamically more
stable, oxidized, state. This occurs when they react with dry air to form metal oxides, or with
acids and alkalis to form metallic salts. Some metals, such as gold and platinum, strongly resist

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corrosion.

Reactions, between metals and their environments, can occur in either of two (often
simultaneous) ways:

AC
 chemical (oxidation)
 electrochemical (galvanic)

oxides or sulphates.
O N
In both cases, the metal is converted into metal compounds such as carbonates, hydroxides,

The corrosion process involves two concurrent changes. The metal that is attacked, suffers an
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Anodic change while the corrosive agent undergoes a Cathodic change. The result is that
material is lost from the Anode and gained by the Cathode, forming an ionic bond.
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Chemical Oxidation
In a strict chemical sense, oxidation occurs whenever a metal is converted to its ions. An ion is
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a neutral atom that has gained or lost one or more of its electrons. The term oxidation is,
however, normally used to describe the direct combination of a metal with the oxygen of the
atmosphere. The phenomenon is essentially a „dry‟ one, although water vapour, in the air, does
play a part in the oxidation of some metals. With the exception of gold and platinum, all metals,
in contact with air, form a very thin, visible oxide film.
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Chemical corrosion can be caused by direct exposure, of the metal surface, to caustic liquids or
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gaseous agents such as:

 Spilled battery acids or battery fumes. Spilled acids are less of a problem now that Nickel
Cadmium batteries are in common use.
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 Flux deposits from inadequately cleaned joints. Flux residues are hygroscopic (readily
absorb moisture).
 Entrapped caustic cleaning compounds. Caustic cleaning solutions should be kept capped
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when not in use. Many corrosion-removal solutions are, in fact, corrosive agents and
should be carefully removed after use.
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.9

For Training Purposes Only
Effect of Oxide Thickness
The oxide film that forms on metals, generally tends to protect them from further corrosive
attack. The oxidation rate normally falls sharply as the film thickness increases so that, at some
time, there is virtually no further increase in film thickness.

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EM
AD
Metals that form this type of tenacious and impervious film include pure aluminium, titanium and

AC
chromium.

Occasionally, there is a continuation of oxidation, due to the fact that oxides may react
chemically, or combine with, water to produce a film that is porous to the passage of further
oxygen through it. The oxide skin may also crack or flake and expose the metal surface to
further oxidation.
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Effect of Temperature
The effect of an increase in temperature usually results in an increase in the rate of oxidation of
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a metal.
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.10

For Training Purposes Only
Chemical Reaction
Of the first type, the powdery Rust formed on ferrous metals is probably the most familiar. Iron
(Fe) at the surface of a component undergoes a number of simple changes. Firstly,

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Fe Fen+ + n electrons,

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i.e. the iron atom can lose some electrons and become a positively charged ion. This allows it to
bond to other groups of atoms that are negatively charged.

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We know that wet steel rusts to give a variant of iron oxide so the other half of the reaction must
involve water (H2O) and oxygen (O2) something like this;
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O2 + 2H2O + 4e- 4OH

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This makes sense as we have a negatively charged material that can combine with the iron,
and the electrons, which are produced in the first reaction, are used up. We can, for clarity,
ignore the electrons and write;
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2Fe + O2 + 2H2O 2Fe(OH)2

Iron + Water with oxygen dissolved in it Iron Hydroxide
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.11

For Training Purposes Only
Oxygen dissolves quite readily in water and because there is usually an excess of it, reacts with
the iron hydroxide;

4Fe(OH)2 + O2 2H2O + 2Fe2O3H2O

Iron hydroxide + oxygen water + Hydrated iron oxide

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(brown rust)

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The appearance of this corrosion on different metals is normally as follows:

 Steel - Reddish brown (Rust)

AD
 Aluminium alloy - Whitish powder
 Magnesium alloy - Greyish white powder
 Copper and its alloys - Green coating
(Verdigris)

AC
 Cadmium and zinc White powder.

Pollutants in the environment such as acids, alkalis

and salts may alter and accelerate the reaction.
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.12

For Training Purposes Only
Types of Corrosion
Galvanic Corrosion
This may also be known as electrolytic, electro-chemical or dissimilar metal corrosion.

Y
Consider a simple electric cell. It consists of a plate of copper and a plate of zinc, both of which

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are immersed in an electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid.

If the plates are not touching each other in the solution and are not connected to each other
outside the solution then no action takes place; but as soon as they are connected, a current of

AD
electricity flows through the completed circuit. At the same time bubbles of hydrogen form at the
copper plate while the zinc plate begins to dissolve in the acid to form zinc sulphate, a salt. The
chemical potential energy of the zinc is being converted into electrical energy.

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Note that the electric current referred to here is the flow of negatively charged particles or
electrons from the zinc anode (-) to the copper cathode (+), as opposed to the convention which
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assumes that an electric current flows from positive to negative. Zinc is anodic towards copper
so that when these metals are connected and immersed in an electrolyte the zinc will dissolve
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or corrode far more quickly than if immersed in the electrolyte by itself. The electrolyte here
means any solution which will conduct electricity e.g. impure moisture.
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This will apply to any pair of dissimilar metals, one of which will always be anodic to the other.
The rate of electrolytic action will often be extremely slow and the flow of current between the
two, very small, however, over time a great deal of damage can be done.
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.13

For Training Purposes Only
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The electro-chemical series shown here includes some familiar metals. Should any two of the
metals be in contact, with an electrolyte between them, then the one which is higher in the table

AC
will be anodic to the other and will be the one which will corrode.

If a steel screw is used to secure an aluminium alloy inspection panel and impure moisture gets
between the two metals, the aluminium alloy, being the anodic metal will corrode and be eaten
away.
O N
If two sheets of dissimilar metals are riveted together, impure moisture (due to atmospheric
humidity) will be trapped between them providing an electrolyte, causing a current to flow from
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the anodic metal to the cathodic metal. As a result, corrosion will take place on the surface of
the anode and molecules of corroded metal will be deposited on the cathode. If aluminium alloy
and magnesium alloy are in contact, both will corrode.
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Similar action may take place on the surface of an alloy, the elements in the surface of the
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metal may be anodic and cathodic to one another.

Graphite deposited on aluminium alloy will cause electro-chemical corrosion. Therefore graphite
pencils should never be used to mark out aircraft material.
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.14

For Training Purposes Only
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.15

For Training Purposes Only
Surface Corrosion
This is usually due to direct chemical attack. Spillage from batteries, aircraft toilets, galleys,
drinks etc. cause direct chemical attack.

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Indirect chemical attack can be caused by chemicals present in the air. The very small amount
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dissolves in the rain forming very weak carbonic acid which
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corrodes metal. In and near large towns the atmosphere contains smoke and fumes containing
sulphur dioxide which dissolves in rain to form sulphurous acid; this is oxidised into dilute
sulphuric acid which again corrodes metal. Near the coast the salt in the atmosphere forms
hydrochloric acid and caustic soda and severe corrosion occurs in these areas. Engine Exhaust
gases contain nitric acid and moisture which may blow back over the aircraft. Cement dust and
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water on floors forms a corrosive alkaline solution.

TA

If these corrosive deposits are not removed and the surface protected against further action the
surface will become rough and the corrosion will deepen.
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.16

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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.17

For Training Purposes Only
Pitting Corrosion
Pitting corrosion is a localized form of corrosion by which cavities or “holes” are produced in the
material. Pitting is considered to be more dangerous than uniform surface corrosion damage
because it is more difficult to detect as corrosion products often cover the pits. A small, narrow

Y
pit with minimal overall metal loss can act as a stress riser and lead to the failure of an entire
engineering system.

EM
Pitting corrosion can be caused by;

 Localized chemical or mechanical damage to the protective oxide film; water chemistry

AD
factors which can cause breakdown of a passive film are acidity, low dissolved oxygen
concentrations (which tend to render a protective oxide film less stable) and high
concentrations of chloride (as in sea water)
 Localized damage to, or poor application of, a protective coating

AC
 The presence of non-uniformities in the metal structure of the component, e.g. non-
metallic inclusions.

It may be detected by the appearance of lumps of white powder or alternatively small

depressions on the surface.
N
Protection from surface corrosion is normally by painting or coating.
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.18

For Training Purposes Only
Crevice Corrosion
Crevice corrosion is the most common type found in aluminium structures. It is a localized form
of corrosion usually associated with a stagnant solution on the micro-environmental level. Such
stagnant microenvironments tend to occur in crevices (shielded areas) such as those formed

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under insulation material, fastener heads, washers, surface deposits, disbonded coatings,
threads, clamps, lap joints and corners. Crevice corrosion is initiated by changes in local

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chemistry within the crevice:

 Depletion of inhibitor in the crevice

 Depletion of oxygen in the crevice

AD
 A shift to acid conditions in the crevice
 Build-up of aggressive ion species (e.g. chloride) in the crevice

A typical scenario is that the solution will absorb oxygen from the air. The liquid near the surface

AC
will then contain more oxygen than the liquid near the bottom of the crevice. This will produce
anodic and cathodic areas in the liquid.

The anodic area is usually at the bottom of the crevice so corrosion starts there. The corrosion
products at the bottom of the crevice will increase the difference in potential in the liquid,
speeding up the corrosive action in that area.
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Crevice Corrosion can sometimes be detected in structures by the bulging or 'pillowing' of the
skin between fasteners. This is caused by the build-up of corrosion products between the plates
of lap joints or between the skin and stringers or frames, and will lead to splitting of the skin or
failure of the fasteners. By the time it is visible, the corrosion has usually progressed beyond the
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point at which it can be repaired and the material will have to be replaced.

This form of corrosion may be prevented by protecting both metal joints, and joints between
metals and non-conductors, with a coating of primer and wet jointing compound or sealant prior
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to assembly and by use of filleting or sealing compound after assembly. All enclosed regions in

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.19

For Training Purposes Only
aircraft structures should be vented and drained as adequately as possible; this also helps to
prevent the accumulation of condensation and discourages the growth of moulds and bacteria
which can also cause corrosion.

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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.20

For Training Purposes Only
Intergranular Corrosion
This is also known as intercrystalline corrosion. It is usually confined to aluminium alloys and
stainless steel.

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It is normally caused in the first place by incorrect heat treatment although it could be due to the
effects of heat in or on the aircraft itself. During solution heat treatment any delay between

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removal of the metal from the salt bath and quenching, will allow the grains of the metal to grow
in size. This enlargement of the grains may allow areas of dissimilar metals to provide efficient
anodes and cathodes for galvanic corrosion formation. The corrosion spreads along the grain
boundaries and is accelerated if fluctuating stresses are applied. This may cause a complete

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failure of the part without any external indication. Hairline cracks or small blisters on the surface
may be an indication of intergranular corrosion.

This type of corrosion is particularly dangerous because in most cases it cannot be detected: if

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it is suspected, it can only be confirmed with X-ray equipment. Any part found to have
intergranular corrosion must be scrapped

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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.21

For Training Purposes Only
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.22

For Training Purposes Only
Laminar or Exfoliation Corrosion
This is a form of intergranular corrosion that takes place in extruded or rolled metals; mostly
aluminium alloys. As the grains run in the direction of the extrusion or rolling, the corrosion will
do the same and there will be layers (laminations) of metal with corrosion between.

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This corrosion will be more obvious than normal intergranular corrosion, because the expansion
caused by the corrosion will cause lifting and flaking of the surface. As with other types of
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intergranular corrosion, by the time it is evident on the surface, the strength of the metal has
been greatly decreased.
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ND
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.23

For Training Purposes Only
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.24

For Training Purposes Only
Fretting Corrosion
This corrosion takes place between two heavily loaded surfaces where there is a very small
continuous relative movement. The rubbing movement which may be very minute removes any
natural protective film and also removes particles of metal from the surface. These form an

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abrasive which aggravates the effect of the rubbing action. This form of corrosion, which can
eventually cause cracking and fatigue failure, sometimes affects splined drives and gearwheels.

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It may be recognised by the appearance of „cocoa' powder staining on steels while on
aluminium alloys and magnesium alloys a fine dark grey to black powder is produced.

Jointing compound or sealant applied during construction will prevent fretting corrosion in

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structures. Molybdenum disulphide grease is used as an anti-fretting agent in mechanisms
when approved by the manufactures of the equipment or aircraft.

AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
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ND
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.25

For Training Purposes Only
Stress Corrosion
Stress corrosion may occur when a metal has a tensile stress applied to it and is in an
environment where corrosion is likely to occur, when neither on its own would not cause a
problem. It often occurs when an unusual load, or contaminant, is applied to a component which

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performs well in a normal situation.

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Stress on aircraft parts may be residual within the part as a result of the production process or
an externally applied operational loading. Press-fit bushings, interference fasteners and severe
metal forming are examples of the high residual tensile stresses which can lead to stress
cracking.

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Environmental contaminants may include sea water, cleaning fluids, oils and process
chemicals.

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Examples of materials and environments which do not mix under stress include:

Aluminium Hydrogen
Stainless Steel Chlorides
High Strength Steel Hydrogen
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N
TA

Cracks caused by stress corrosion lengthen rapidly because the corrosion takes place at the
end of the crack instead of along its sides and the loss of material intensifies stress at this point.
Crack may follow the grain deep into the item. This leads to the sudden and unexpected failure
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of a component.

Stress corrosion affects not only structural components but fasteners, pipe work and pressure
vessels as well.
ND
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.26

For Training Purposes Only
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.27

For Training Purposes Only
Filiform Corrosion
Filiform corrosion usually occurs under thin oil, grease or varnish films and is likely to be found
on metal surfaces which have a protective film. It appears like worm casts or thread like lines of
corrosion on aluminium and magnesium alloys. This type of corrosion often starts at rivets and

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extends along the surface of painted sheet beneath the paint.

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Filiform corrosion might also be the result of incorrect application of paint finishes especially
polyurethane paint. In order to speed up painting operations on large aircraft etch primers are
used which contain some phosphoric acid. The acid etches the surface and converts into a
phosphate film after about thirty minutes provided there is sufficient moisture present in the air

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to properly convert it. If an epoxy or zinc chromate primer or a polyurethane top coat is applied
before the etch primer has properly converted then acid will be trapped against the metal.
These finishes are not sufficiently porous to allow moisture to penetrate to complete conversion
of the acid and filiform corrosion will occur.

AC
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AV
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ND
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.28

For Training Purposes Only
Mercury Contamination
If mercury is spilled in an aircraft it will combine with aluminium alloy to form an amalgam which
has no appreciable structural strength. The mercury rapidly 'soaks' in and attacks along the
grain boundaries of the aluminium alloy particularly in moist conditions and when the metal is

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under stress. The affected component may be completely destroyed. This corrosion may be
recognised on aluminium alloys by the appearance of a greyish powder fuzzy deposit or a

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whiskery growth.

It is most important that all spilled mercury is retrieved and a thorough inspection of the
structure carried out.

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After a spill the aircraft must not be moved and no action taken which might disturb the mercury.

Protective clothing and rubber gloves must be worn. Care must be taken not to inhale or
swallow mercury and its vapour. The area must be well ventilated.

AC
The mercury can be picked up using any of the following methods:
 A vacuum cleaner incorporating a mercury trap.
 A medicine dropper or rubber battery water syringe.

contaminated area and picks up the mercury.

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 A special brush with nickel plated carbon fibre bristles. This is drawn over the

 A special foam pad pressed on to the mercury to absorb it.

 By pressing adhesive tape on to the small mercury globules. When the tape is removed,
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the mercury is removed also.

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When all the visible mercury has been collected, the area must be x-rayed to ensure that
mercury has not lodged in crevices.
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Finally a film of oil should be applied to the area.

The area should be inspected for signs of corrosion at regular intervals.

Any corrosion damage must be repaired and contaminated components replaced.

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Ensure that toxic vapour precautions are observed at all times during the following operation:
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 Do not move aircraft after finding spillage. This may prevent spreading.
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 Remove spillage carefully by one of the following mechanical methods:

 Capillary brush method (using nickel-plated carbon fibre brushes).
 Heavy-duty vacuum with collector trap.
ND

 Adhesive tape, pressed (carefully) onto globules may pick them up

 Foam collector pads (also pressed, carefully, onto globules).
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.29

For Training Purposes Only
Alternative, chemical methods, of mercury recovery entail the use of:
 Calcium polysulphide paste.
 Brushes, made from bare strands of fine copper wire

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 Neutralise the spillage area, using „Flowers of Sulphur‟.
 Try to remove evidence of corrosion.

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 The area should be further checked, using radiography, to establish that all
globules have been removed and to check extent of corrosion damage.
 Examine area for corrosion using a magnifier. Any parts found contaminated

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should be removed and replaced.

Note: Twist drills (which may be used to separate riveted panels, in an attempt to clean
contaminated surfaces) must be discarded after use.

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Further, periodic checks, using radiography, will be necessary on any airframe that has suffered
mercury contamination.
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.30

For Training Purposes Only
Microbial Corrosion
Microbial (Microbiological) corrosion occurs in the integral fuel tanks of aircraft using aviation
kerosene and is caused by fungal growths such as Hormoconis resinae (previously called
Cladosporium resinae) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The fungus spores can remain dormant

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in kerosene for extended periods and grow actively when water is present at the correct
temperature. Aviation kerosene holds more water in suspicion than gasoline and this moisture

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condenses out in low temperature conditions and collects in the bottom of the fuel tanks.

The organisms live at the water/fuel interface and feed off the hydrocarbons in the fuel. The
fungal growth becomes attached to the aircraft structure and as they grow, they form mats that

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are dark in colour and appear jelly-like. Their waste includes water, sludge, acids and other
harmful by-products which attack metal structures, protective coatings and rubber seals.
Dislodged fungus can also block filters.

AC
Water should be drained from tanks on a regular basis and aircraft which operate in a tropical
environment for prolonged periods may require an approved fungicide such as Biobor added to
their fuel. Aircraft stored in a heated hangar should have their tanks drained or treated with
biocide.
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IA
AV
N
TA
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ND
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.31

For Training Purposes Only
Hydrogen Embrittlement
Hydrogen embrittlement is a phenomena that occurs in various metals, particularly ferrous,
aluminium and titanium alloys, under sustained loads at stresses far below the actual ultimate
tensile strength. Certain stainless steels and precipitation hardened steels are not affected.

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Ferrous Alloys

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In susceptible ferrous alloys hydrogen embrittlement occurs when a component containing
small amounts of hydrogen is subjected to a sustained load. Fracture of the part can occur
under loads as low as 30% of the yield strength after only a few thousand service hours. The
hydrogen will migrate to an area of stress (such as occur at notches, corrosion pits, or other
stress risers) once it is present in the metal surface. The resulting hydrogen concentration then

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causes the initiation and propagation of a brittle crack.

Certain solvents and plating processes can introduce hydrogen into a part. Since only a very
thin surface layer will be affected, the hydrogen can be easily removed by a bake operation at

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375°F (191°C) as long as the part is unplated or plated with a porous finish such as some
cadmium plating. Hydrogen is also produced as a product of corrosion. Under certain
conditions, corrosion can occur without evidence of rusting. Any resultant pitting magnifies the
problem but embrittlement is impossible to detect. It is therefore essential that an adequate
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protective finish be maintained on all high strength steel parts.

The stresses required for an embrittlement failure may be caused by improper processing or
installation induced residual stresses rather than service induced. The susceptibility of steel
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parts to hydrogen embrittlement increases as the hardness and strength increase. Steel parts
heat treated to 200 KSI (thousands of pounds per square inch tensile strength) and above are
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highly susceptible, whereas parts heat treated to 180-200 KSI are only susceptible if they are
subjected to high sustained stresses.
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Titanium
The problems of hydrogen embrittlement in titanium occurs under the same situations as they
do in steel but the mechanism is different. The hydrogen can become chemically bonded with
the titanium and cannot be baked from the part without resorting to extremely high temperatures
in a vacuum.
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Hydrogen embrittlement of titanium can occur on contact with acids at room temperature or
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when exposed to steam, oil or other substances containing hydrogen at temperatures above
550°F ( 288°C).

When introduced into the titanium, hydrogen collects at high stress areas. If this is residual
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stress (as caused by bending, forming or welding) a stress relief operation should be done. This
is done at 975°F ( 524°C) for approximately 6 hours. The hydrogen embrittlement of titanium will
cause delayed cracking and a reduction in notch tensile and impact properties.
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Hydrogen pick-up can be avoided by using non-embrittling solutions during any wet processing
and by using protective coatings when subjecting the parts to high temperature processing in a
hydrogen containing environment.
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.32

For Training Purposes Only
Tetrachloroethylene, carbontetrachloride, and other chlorinated solvents must not be used with
titanium if the part will subsequently be exposed to either processing or service imposed
temperature in excess of 550°F (288°C).

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Corrosion Fatigue

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Corrosion fatigue is fatigue in a corrosive environment. It is the combined effect of corrosion and
fatigue, which can cause failure of a structural component far quicker than either of those
components if they were working alone. It is the mechanical degradation of a material under the
joint action of corrosion and cyclic loading. Nearly all engineering structures experience some
form of alternating stress and are exposed to harmful environments during their service life. The

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environment plays a significant role in the fatigue of high strength structural materials like steels,
aluminium alloys and titanium alloys. Materials with high specific strength are being developed
to meet the requirements of advancing technology. However, their usefulness depends to a
large extent on the extent to which they resist corrosion fatigue.

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The photo above shows a propeller blade – broken by corrosion fatigue. Evidence is the classic
„beach marks‟ of the fatigue crack propagation, and the staining of corrosion
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In normal fatigue testing of smooth specimens, about 90% of the life is spent in crack nucleation
and only the remaining 10 % in crack propagation. However, in corrosion fatigue, crack
nucleation is facilitated by corrosion and typically about 10 % of life is sufficient for this stage.
The rest, 90 % of life is spent in crack propagation. Thus it is much more informative to evaluate
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the crack propagation behaviour during corrosion fatigue.

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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.33

For Training Purposes Only
Common Metals and Corrosion Products
One of the problems involved in corrosion control, is the recognition of corrosion products
whenever they occur. The following brief descriptions are of typical corrosion products, common
to materials used in aircraft construction.

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Iron and Steel

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The most common, and easily-recognizable, form of corrosion is red rust. The initial oxide film,
formed on freshly exposed steel, is very thin and invisible. In the presence of water, or in a
damp atmosphere, especially if sulphur dioxide (industrial atmosphere) or salt (marine
environment) is present, thick layers of hydrated oxide develop. These layers vary in colour

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from brown to black. Rust promotes further corrosion by retaining salts and water. Mill scale (a
type of oxide formed at high temperatures), also promotes rusting, by forming an electrolytic cell
with the underlying steel. Heavy deposits of rust can be removed only by abrasive blasting or by
immersion in rust-removing solutions.

AC
Surface rust can develop on steel nuts, bolts and other fasteners and may not adversely affect
the operational integrity of the equipment. Its appearance is an indication that adequate
maintenance procedures have not been followed.

Aluminium Alloys N
The corrosion of aluminium and its alloys, takes a number of different forms. It may vary from
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general etching of the surface, to the localized, intergranular-attack, characteristics of some
strong alloys in certain states of heat-treatment. The corrosion products are white to grey and
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are powdery when dry. Superficial corrosion can be removed by scouring, light abrasive
blasting, or by chemical methods.
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In general, pure aluminium sheet and „Alclad‟ surfaces have good corrosion resistance, except
in marine environments. In these areas, aluminium and its alloys need protection and high-
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strength aluminium alloys are always given a substantial protective treatment.

Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium corrosion products are grey and voluminous,
compared to the base metal. When the failure of
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protective coatings on magnesium alloys occurs, the

corrosive attack tends to be severe in the exposed areas,
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and may penetrate totally through a magnesium structure

in a very short time. Any corrosion, on magnesium alloys,
therefore requires prompt attention. In contrast to high-
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strength aluminium alloys, the strong magnesium alloys,

used in aircraft, do not suffer intergranular attack.
Corrosion is readily visible on the surfaces of Magnesium
Alloys.
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Titanium
Titanium is highly corrosion-resistant, but should be insulated from other metals to avoid
dissimilar metal corrosion of the adjacent material. Titanium alloys can suffer stress corrosion at
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temperatures above 300C when in the presence of salt and fatigue cracks can develop more
quickly in a saline atmosphere.

Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.34

For Training Purposes Only
Cadmium can penetrate the surface of titanium alloys and embrittle them at all temperatures
above ambient (as can Lead, Tin and Zinc at temperatures higher than approximately 120°C)).
Embrittlement can occur if the cadmium is plated onto the titanium or if cadmium-plated steel
parts (and cadmium-contaminated spanners) are used with titanium. Great care must be taken

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to ensure that these conditions never occur if at all possible.

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Copper Alloys

Copper and its alloys are relatively resistant to corrosion.

Tarnishing has no serious consequences in most

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applications (apart from electrical resistance increase).
Long-term exposure to industrial or marine atmospheres
gives rise to the formation of the blue-green patina (aerugo
or verdigris) on copper surfaces, while brasses can suffer

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selective removal of zinc (de-zincification). In aircraft
construction, copper-based alloys are frequently cadmium-
plated, to prevent dissimilar metal corrosion.

“verdigris”
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The corrosion on copper is green in colour and often called

Cadmium and Zinc

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Cadmium and zinc are used as coatings, to protect the parts to which they are applied. Both
confer sacrificial protection on the underlying metal. Cadmium is normally chosen for use in the
aircraft industry, as it is more durable under severe corrosive conditions such as in marine and
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tropical environments. Both metals produce white corrosion products.

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Nickel and Chromium

Electroplated nickel is used as a heat-resistant coating, while chromium is used for its wear-
resistance. Both metals protect steel only by excluding the corrosive atmosphere. The degree of
protection is proportional to the thickness of the coating. Once the underlying steel is exposed
(through loss of the coating, due to abrasion or other damage), then the coatings actually
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accelerate the rusting, due to the fact that the steel is more anodic than the protective coating.
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Chromium is also highly resistant to corrosion, whilst Nickel corrodes slowly in industrial and
marine atmospheres, to give a blue-green corrosion product.
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ND
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.35

For Training Purposes Only
Acid Spillage
An acid spillage, on aircraft components, can cause severe damage. Acids will corrode most
metals used in the construction of aircraft. They will also destroy wood and most other fabrics.
Correct Health and Safety procedures must be followed when working with such spillages.

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Aircraft batteries, of the lead/acid type, give off acidic fumes and battery bays should be well

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ventilated, while surfaces in the area should be treated with anti-acid paint. Vigilance is required
of everyone working in the vicinity of batteries, to detect (as early as possible) the signs of acid
spillage. The correct procedure to be taken, in the event of an acid spillage, is as follows:
 Mop up as much of the spilled acid using wet rags or paper wipes. Try not to spread the

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acid.
 If possible, flood the area with large quantities of clean water, taking care that electrical
equipment is suitably protected from the water.

AC
 If flooding is not practical, neutralise the area with a 10% (by weight) solution of
bicarbonate of soda (sodium bicarbonate) with water.
 Wash the area using this mixture and rinse with cold water.

been cleaned up.
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Test the area, using universal indicating paper (or litmus paper),to check if acid has

 Dry the area completely and examine the area for signs of damaged paint or plated
finish and signs of corrosion, especially where the paint may have been damaged.
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 Remove corrosion, repair damage and restore surface protection as appropriate.

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Alkali Spillage
This is most likely to occur from the alternative Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) or Nickel-Iron (Ni-Fe)
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type of batteries, containing an electrolyte of Potassium Hydroxide (or Potassium Hydrate). The
compartments of these batteries should also be painted with anti-corrosive paint and adequate
ventilation is as important as with the lead/acid type of batteries. Proper Health and Safety
procedures are, again, imperative.
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Removal of the alkali spillage, and subsequent protective treatment, follows the same basic
steps as outlined in acid spillage, with the exception that the alkali is neutralised with a solution
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of 5% (by weight) of chromic acid crystals in water.

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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.36

For Training Purposes Only
Protection of Metal from Corrosion
There are three basic methods of protecting metal from corrosion:

 To convert the surface by either chemical or electrolytic methods to produce a corrosion

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resistant coating.
 To coat the surface with a metal that will not corrode or is more resistant to corrosion

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than the base metal.
 To coat or paint the surface with a non-metallic substance to produce a protective skin.

Before any protective treatment can be carried out, components or parts must be thoroughly

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cleaned and degreased. This is normally done by one of the following:

 A trichloroethylene vapour bath.

 A mixture of equal proportions of white spirit and naphtha.

AC
 An approved degreasing agent.

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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.37

For Training Purposes Only
Anodizing
Aluminium alloy fittings made by casting or forging are normally protected from corrosion by
anodising. This is known as a surface conversion treatment.

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In electrolysis a DC current is passed through an electrolyte between two plates or electrodes.
The positive plate is termed the anode and the negative plate the cathode. The chemical effect

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of the current causes oxygen to be liberated at the anode and hydrogen to be released at the
cathode.

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AC
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In the case of anodising, splitting of the electrolyte into hydrogen and oxygen is important. The
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part to be anodised is suspended in an electrolyte and made the anode of the electrical circuit
which will also have a cathode. Hydrogen forms at the cathode but the oxygen, which forms at
the anode, actually combines with the surface of the part being anodised, to form a continuous
film consisting mainly of aluminium oxide. In other words a controlled corrosion takes place on
the surface of the part and the aluminium oxide surface will have a high resistance to further
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corrosion. As the aluminium oxide is also an insulator, no current can flow between an anodised
part and a contacting surface, so galvanic corrosion is resisted.
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.38

For Training Purposes Only
 Y
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The Chromic Acid Anodising Process
Anodising conveniently divides into 3 major areas:

Chromic Acid Anodising - Produces coatings of exceptional corrosion and chemical

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resistance for its film thickness in an electrolyte, which is non-corrosive towards aluminium.
These coatings are thin, and relatively soft and generally only used in specialised applications.
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Sulphuric Acid Anodising - Embraces anything from heavy duty black dyed coatings for high-