COMPUTER AWARENESS-1

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Information Technology:
It refers to the creation, gathering, processing, storage, retrieval and delivery of
information and the process and devices that make all this possible.

Information: Processed data from raw data.

Data: - A collection of facts from which conclusions may be drawn; "statistical data"

Technology: It’s a science, which we can apply in any application.

The history of automatic data processing begins with Charles Babbage’s

attempt to build an automatic mechanical calculator at Cambridge, England, in 1830.
By the 1930’s punched cards were in wide use in large business and various types of
punched card handling machines were available.

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS:
.
First Generation: 1944-1959

Characteristics:
(not all first generation computers had all these characteristics)

-vacuum tube based

-punched tape input or output

-about 1,000 circuits per cubic foot

Examples:

-UNIVAC I, UNIVAC II, UNIVAC 1101

-RCA BIZMAC

-NCR CRC 102A, NCR CRC 102D

1
Second Generation: 1960-1964

-used transistors

-about 100,000 circuits per foot

Examples:

-UNIVAC 1107, UNIVAC III

-RCA 501

Third Generation: 1964-1975

Characteristics:

-large scale integrated circuits

-10 million circuits per square foot

Examples:

-IBM System/360, System 3, System 7

Fourth Generation: 1975-Current

Characteristics:

-very large scale integration

-continued miniaturization

-billions of circuits per cubic foot

Examples:

-IBM System 3090, IBM RISC 6000, IBM RT

2
Fifth Generation: Current and Future

Characteristics:

Combinations of some or all of the following technologies :

-extremely large scale integration

-parallel processing

-high speed logic and memory chips

-high performance, micro-miniaturization

-voice/data integration; knowledge-based platforms

-artificial intelligence, expert systems

-virtual reality generation

TYPES OF COMPUTERS:

ON WORKING PRINCIPLE:
An analog
Analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously-changeable aspects
of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities
to model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital computers represent varying
quantities incrementally, as their numerical values change.
Mechanical analog computers were very important in gun fire control in World War
II, The Korean War and well past the Vietnam War; they were made in significant
numbers. The development of transistors made electronic analog computers practical,
and until digital computers had developed sufficiently, they continued to be
commonly used in science and industry.

Digital Computer
A computer that stores data in terms of digits (numbers) and proceeds in discrete steps
from one state to the next. The states of a digital computer typically
involve binary digits which may take the form of the presence or absence of magnetic
markers in a storage medium (see memory), on-off switches or relays. In digital
computers, even letters, words and whole texts are represented digitally.
Unlike analog computers, digital computers can only approximate a continuum by
assigning large numbers of digits to a state description and by proceeding in
arbitrarily small steps

Hybrid Computers

3
Hybrid computers are computers that are designed to provide functions and features
that are found with both analog computers and digital computers. The idea behind this
combined or hybrid computer model is to create a working unit that offers the best of
both types of computers. With most designs, the analog components of the equipment
provide efficient processing of differential equations, while the digital aspects of
the computer address the logical operations associated with the system.

Types of Computers based on size and their performance

Super Computer:
A supercomputer is a computer that performs at or near the currently highest
operational rate for computers. A supercomputer is typically used for scientific and
engineering applications that must handle very large databases or do a great amount
of computation (or both).

At any given time, there are usually a few well-publicized supercomputers that
operate at extremely high speeds. The term is also sometimes applied to far slower
(but still impressively fast) computers. Most supercomputers are really multiple
computers that perform parallel processing. In general, there are two parallel
processing approaches: symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) and massively parallel
processing (MPP).

Mainframe Computer:
A mainframe (also known as "big iron") is a high-performance computer used for
large-scale computing purposes that require greater availability and security than a
smaller-scale machine can offer. Historically, mainframes have been associated with
centralized rather than distributed computing, although that distinction is blurring as
smaller computers become more powerful and mainframes become more multi-
purpose. Today, IBM emphasizes that their mainframes can be used to serve
distributed users and smaller servers in a computing network.

 Less powerful
 Handling all kinds of scientific and business applications
 Supports 1000, remote computers
 Large online storage
 Magnetic tapes, hard disk drive, visual display, plotters, printers,
tele terminal can attach with mainframe
 High speed cache memory
 Multiprogramming, time-sharing,

Mini Computers:

"A minicomputer, a term no longer much used, is a computer of a size intermediate

between a microcomputer and a mainframe. Typically, minicomputers have been
stand-alone computers
 Scaled-Down Maninframe as the processor and peripherals are
smaller in size.

4
  Cost lower
 Input data through Keyboard
 Most popular minicomputers are minis, Nova, DEC, PDP 11
 Languages used in minicomputers are Pascal Cobol, FORTRAN
 It is used for Business transition
 100 kbps to 500 MIPS
 Chip based
 30000 of an inch thick chip
 Primary and secondary memory are Rom, ram

Work Station:

A type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop

publishing, software development, and other types of applications that require a
moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics
capabilities.

Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, at least 64

MB (megabytes) of RAM, built-in network support, and a graphical user interface.
Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special
type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive. The
most common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT.

In terms of computing power, workstations lie between personal computers

and minicomputers, although the line is fuzzy on both ends. High-end personal
computers are equivalent to low-end workstations. And high-end workstations are
equivalent to minicomputers.

Like personal computers, most workstations are single-user computers. However,

workstations are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they
can also be used as stand-alone systems.

In networking, workstation refers to any computer connected to a local-area

network. It could be a workstation or a personal computer.
Workstation also is spelled work station or work-station.

Servers:
Meaning: Server is a computer system that provides services to other computing
systems over a network

a) Occupy a place in computing similar to that occupied by minicomputer in the

past, which they have largely replaced.

5
 b) The typical server is a computer system that operates continuously on a
network and waits for requests for services from other computers on the
network

c) Many servers are dedicated to the role but some may also may used
simultaneously for other purposes, particularly when the demand placed up on
them as servers or modest.

Ex: In a small office a large desktop computer may act as both a desktop
workstation for one person in the office and as a server is for all the other
computers in the office.
Microcomputers:

6
 A microcomputer is a computer with a
microprocessor as its central processing unit.
Another general characteristic of these
computers is that they occupy physically
small amounts of space when compared to
mainframe and minicomputers. Many
microcomputers (when equipped with a
keyboard and screen for input and output)
are also personal computers (in the generic
sense).

Advantages of Computer System

Accuracy: computers operate at a very high degree of accuracy. It does not become
exhausted easily to the extent of making mistakes.
Speed: computer is generally known for its speed. The speed of computer is measure in
millions of instruction per seconds and it increases progressively as the computer
develops.
Reliability: the computer responds to the instruction keyed into it without any alteration,
as a result of this, it gives no room for doubt over out output. Therefore, the operator
relies on it for effectiveness. Example include a program computer device to ring alarm
to alert workers of any emergency, a programmed entry and exit door used in big
companies and supermarkets, offices, etc.
Versatility: it fits into different fields of human endeavor ranging from business,
education, technology, engineering, law, commerce, agriculture, medicine, [Link] it
can perform different types of tasks provided such tasks can be stated in logical way for
the computer to execute.
Large Storage Capacity: vast quantities of data stored in paper files would become
extremely bulky and require substantial storage space.
Programmability: The computer can be programmed to do all forms of activities of
man. Programming in computer means the act of writing computers programs and this
involves the use of special set of characters, signs, symbols, to supply instruction to the
computer for execution towards achieving specific tasks (motives). This opportunity gave
room for the computer to be a versatile system.
Limitation of Computers

1. A computer cannot generate information by [Link] have to give the computer

operations, and even new instructions from time to time. Updates for example are a way
to get new information to your computer to help streamline its functionality, but you still
have to feed it that information by having an internet connection and automatic updates.

2. No IQ
Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the
user. It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to
decide what you want to do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take its own
decision as you can.

3. No Feeling
It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it does not
get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.

7
4. Overall, a computer was built by humans and new technology comes out all the time.
Hardware will eventually fade out and deteriorate. Given these properties it can be hard
for a computer to remain a primo [Link] are five limitations computers have.
There are more, but note most are based on human interaction with the computer, thus
humans are part of the limitation a computer will have.

Computer Components : Computer Components The Computer System has two main
components which when both combined makes a computer system. These are Hardware
Software
: Hardware Hardware means the physical structure of a computer, i.e., the parts that can
be touched by us. All the components attached to the computer like Keyboard, Mouse,
Monitor, Printers are hardware.
: Software Hardware is just a box with electronic parts in it. It cannot do any work by
itself. It needs certain programs to do some work. Software is a general term used to
describe a collection of computer programs, procedures and documentation that perform
some tasks on a computer system. Software includes websites, programs, video games
etc.
The Difference Between Hardware and Software : The Difference Between Hardware
and Software Computer hardwareis the physical components that make up the computer
system. Hardware is useless without software to run on it. Software is instructions that
tell computer hardware what to do. Software is useless unless there is hardware to run it
on. For a computer system to be useful it has to consist of both hardware and software.
Hardware is the actual components that your computer is made of: ram, rom,
motherboard, modem, wireless chip etc. Software is any program that you load onto a
computer: the operating system (Windows, Linux) games or applications.

Hardware Components : Hardware Components We can categorize hardware

components in three broad categories: Input Devices CPU, the Central Processing Unit,
and Output Devices [Backing] Storage Devices or Secondary Memory

Input Devices : Input Devices Input devices are used to put data and instructions into a
computer. Most common input devices are keyboard and mouse.

Central Processing Unit : Central Processing Unit CPU stands for Central Processing
[Link] is a small chip inside the computer. It does all decisions, calculations. It also
controls other parts of a computer. CPU consists of several section: Control Unit (CU)
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) Main Memory Each of the section has its own
function. They work together with other Peripherals to form a computer.

1. Control Unit : 1. Control Unit Control Unit controls operations of other parts of CPU
as well as all parts of computer by sending a control signal, e.g. control sequence of
instruction to be executed control flow of data among all parts of computer interpret
instructions regulate timing of procressor send control single to and recieve control single
from peripheral devices

2. Arithmetic and Logic Unit : 2. Arithmetic and Logic Unit Arithmetic and Logic Unit
consists of a complicated set of logic circuit and accumulator. It is mainly responsible for
Calculation Logical comparison and decision

3. Main Memory : 3. Main Memory The main memory holds the program instructions
and data. It contains two types of memory chip, called ROM and RAM. Random Access
Memory (RAM) is the part of the computer that temporarily stores the instructions that
the computer is running, and the data it is processing. RAM is a volatile storage device.
When a computer is in use, its RAM will contain… The operating system software The
application software currently being used Any data that is being processed Read-Only
Memory (ROM) is used in most computers to hold a small, special piece of software: the
'boot up' program. This software runs when the computer is switched on or 'boots up'.
The software checks the computer’s hardware and then loads the operating system. ROM
is non-volatile storage.
Output Devices : Output Devices Output devices are used to get the result of the
processing done by the computer. Most common output devices include monitor and
printer.

Storage Devices : Storage Devices Secondary or backing storage is used to store

programs and data when they are not being used i.e. used to store permanently.
Secondary storage is non-volatile, so data that is stored on these devices remains there
safely. A hard drive, a CD-ROM, a floppy disc and a USB memory stick are all examples
of secondary storage devices.

Features of Central Processing Unit:

a. Clock Speed: Clock speed is the rate at which a processor can complete a processing
cycle. It is typically measured in mega hertz or gigahertz. One megahertz is equal to
one million cycles per second, while one gigahertz equals one billion cycles per
second. Higher the clock speed, faster the Processor , the better the system
performance.

b. Cache Memory: A small amount (normally less than 1MB) of high-speed memory
residing on or close to the CPU. Cache memory supplies the processor with the most
frequently requested data and instructions. Level 1 cache (primary cache) is the cache
closest to the processor. Level 2 cache (secondary cache) is the cache and is usually
on the motherboard.

c. Architecture: CPU architecture is the layout of the CPU it is its design -- where the
cores, caches, etc are placed inside the CPU

d. Mother Board: A motherboard (sometimes alternatively known as

he mainboard, system board, planar board or, on logic board is the centralprinted circuit
board in many modern computers and holds many of the crucial components of the
system, providing connectors for other peripherals.
Motherboard specifically refers to a printed circuit board with expansion capability. The
term mainboard is applied to devices with a single board and no additional expansions or
capability.

[Link]: Sockets or Slots are used to fit different processor to fit on the Mother board.
There are two main types of slots for connecting to the Mother Board.

Socket 7: Socket 7 is a physical and electrical specification for an x86-style CPU socket
on a personal computer motherboard. The socket supersedes the earlier Socket 5, and
accepts P5 Pentium microprocessors manufactured by Intel, as well as compatibles made
by Cyrix/IBM, AMD, IDT and others.
Socket 7 was the only socket that supported a wide range of CPUs from different
manufacturers and a wide range of speeds.

Processors that used Socket 7 are the AMD K5 and K6, the Cyrix 6x86 and 6x86MX, the
IDT WinChip, the Intel P5 Pentium (2.5–3.5 V, 75–200 MHz), the Pentium MMX (166–
233 MHz), and the Rise Technology mP6. Current AMD Geode LX and Geode GX still
use Socket 7.
Socket 7 typically uses a 321-pin (arranged as 19 by 19 pins) SPGA ZIF socket or the
very rare 296-pin (arranged as 37 by 37 pins) SPGA LIF socket.

Slot 1: The Slot 1 package replaces the Socket 7 and Socket 8 form factors used by
previous Pentium processors. Slot 1 is a 242-contact daughtercard slot that accepts a
microprocessor packaged as a Single Edge Contact (SEC) cartridge. A motherboard can
have one or two Slot 1s.
Density: A CPU is made up of millions of small transistors. CPU performs all the
calculation and manipulation operations by synchronizing between the transistors. Hence,
shorter distance between two transistors on a CPU will increase the performance
MMX: Multimedia Extensisons- They are a set of instruction built into the CPU to
improve the performance of Multimedia or Graphic Applications

BIOS:

Short for Basic Input/Output System, the BIOS, ROM BIOS, or System BIOS is a chip
located on all motherboards that contain instructions and setup for how our system should
boot and how it operates. In the picture to the right, is an example of what a BIOS chip
may look like on your computer motherboard.

The BIOS includes instructions on how to load basic computer hardware and includes a
test referred to as a POST (Power On Self Test) that helps verify the computer meets
requirements to boot up properly. If the computer does not pass the POST,we will receive
a combination of beeps indicating what is malfunctioning within the computer.

In most PCs, the BIOS has 4 main functions as mentioned below.

1. POST - Test the computer hardware and make no errors exist before loading the
operating system. Additional information on the POST can be found on our POST
and Beep Codes page.
2. Bootstrap Loader - Locate the operating system. If a capable operating system is
located, the BIOS will pass control to it.
3. BIOS drivers - Low level drivers that give the computer basic operational control
over your computer's hardware.
4. BIOS or CMOS Setup - Configuration program that allows you to configure
hardware settings including system settings such as computer passwords, time,
and date.
CMOS:

Complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) is a type of semi-conductor chip

that holds data without requiring an external power source. In a personal computer (PC),
CMOS holds the basic instructions the computer needs to initialize its hardware
components and boot up. These settings are known as the basic input output settings
(BIOS), also referred to as CMOS settings.
CMOS controls a variety of functions, including the Power On Self Test (POST). When
the computer’s power supply fires up, CMOS runs a series of checks to make sure the
system is functioning properly. One of these checks includes counting up random access
memory (RAM). This delays boot time, so some people disable this feature in the CMOS
settings, opting for a quick boot. If installing new RAM it is better to enable the feature
until the RAM has been checked.

Various slots on Mother Board:

a)SIMM/DIMM slots: SIMM = single in line memory module

DIMM = dual in line memory module

They are used to house RAM modules.

b)PCI slots: Peripheral Component Interconnect- Typical PCI cards used in PCs
include: network cards, sound cards, modems, extra ports such as USB or serial, TV tuner
cards and disk controller
c)AGP Slots: Stands for "Accelerated Graphics Port." AGP is a type of expansion slot
designed specifically for graphics cards. It was developed in 1996 as an alternative to
the PCI standard. Since the AGP interface provides a dedicated bus for graphics data,
AGP cards are able to render graphics faster than comparable PCI graphics cards.
Like PCI slots, AGP slots are built into a computer's motherboard. They have a similar
form factor to PCI slots, but can only be used for graphics cards.

d)SCSI: Small Computer System Interface is a set of standards for physically connecting
and transferring data between computers andperipheral devices. The SCSI standards
define commands, protocols, and electrical and optical interfaces. SCSI is most
commonly used for hard disks and tape drives, but it can connect a wide range of other
devices, including scanners and CD drives, although not all controllers can handle all
devices:

Sound Card: A sound card (also known as an audio card) is an

internal computer expansion card that facilitates the input and output of audio signals to
and from a computer under control of computer programs. The term sound card is also
applied to external audio interfaces that use software to generate sound, as opposed to
using hardware inside the PC. Typical uses of sound cards include providing the audio
component for multimedia applications such as music composition, editing video or
audio, presentation, education and entertainment (games) and video projection.
Most sound cards use a digital-to-analog converter (DAC), which converts recorded or
generated digital data into ananalog format. The output signal is connected to an
amplifier, headphones, or external device using standard interconnects.

Video Card: A video card (also called a display card, graphics card, graphics
board, display adapter or graphics adapter) is an expansion card which generates a feed of
output images to a display. Most video cards offer various functions such as accelerated
rendering of 3D scenes and 2D graphics, MPEG-2/MPEG-4 decoding, TV output, or the
ability to connect multiple monitors (multi-monitor).

Network Card: A network card is a piece of hardware that allows a computer to connect
to a computer network. Sometimes the network card is integrated on the motherboard.
Each network card has a unique number; this is used for addressing. It is called the MAC
address. MAC addresses can be used to obtain an IP address (in those network cards that
use IP).

Computer Ports: : In computer , the term port can refer to either physical or virtual
connection points.

Physical network ports allow connecting cables to computers, routers, modems and other
peripheral devices. Several different types of physical ports available on computer
network hardware include:

Types of Ports:

A parallel port is a type of interface found on computers (personal and otherwise) for
connecting various peripherals. In computing, a parallel port is a parallel
communication physical interface. It is also known as a printer port or Centronics port.
The IEEE 1284 standard defines the bi-directional version of the port, which allows the
transmission and reception of data bits at the same time.

A serial Port: a serial port is a serial communication physical interface through which
information transfers in or out one bit at a time (in contrast to a parallel port).
 Throughout most of the history of personal computers, data transfer through serial ports
connected the computer to devices such as terminals and various peripherals.

Types of Connectors:

Integrated Drive Electronics(IDE)Drive Connector: IDE interface on the Motherboard

is used to communicate with the IDI controller on the disk drive, using standardized set
of IDE commands.

Floppy Drive Connectors: connects the floppy disk drive to the Motherboard for
facilitating data exchange.

USB(Universal Serial Bus): An external bus standard that supports data transfer rates of
12 Mbps. A single USB port can be used to connect up to 127peripheral devices, such
as mice, modems, and keyboards. USB also supports Plug-and-Play installation and hot
plugging.
Starting in 1996, a few computer manufacturers started including USB support in their
new machines. . It is expected to completely replace serial and parallel ports.

Types of Bus: In computer architecture, a bus is a path that transfers data between
components inside a computer, or between computers.

A data bus carries data. Most processors have internal data buses that carry information
inside the processor and external data buses that carry information back and forth
between the processor and memory.

An address bus carries address information. In most processors, memory is connected to

the processor with separate address and data buses.

An Address Bus gives the memory instructions on where to place the actual data that it
will stored or read. Basically a map location. The Data Bus carries the information that is
going to be stored or read using the location that the Address Bus gave to the memory.
Address bus is unidirectional while data bus is bi directional