AVISSAR • CHOI • DESAIX •

JURUKOVSKI • WISE • RYE

GENERAL
BIOLOGY
TEACHER’S MANUAL
Philippine edition by
Dr. Maria Elena Z. Basco-Tiamson

i
General Biology 2
Teacher’s Manual for Senior High School

ISBN 978-971-07-4104-5

Copyright © 2016 by Vibal Group, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in

any form or by any means—electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, or any information storage and retrieval system—without permission in
writing from the publisher and author.

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Avenue, Quezon City.

Regional Offices: 0290 Nivel Hills, Lahug, Cebu City Kalamansi St. cor. 1st Ave.,
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ii
Preface
T he General Biology 2 Teacher’s Manual is
a tool for teachers in educating senior the
high school students with advanced and engag-
students to engage in exploration and scientific
inquiry. Some of these features (as mentioned
in open source textbook) include:
ing biology concepts adapted from the Openstax • Evolution Connection, which uphold the
College’s style of strategically condensed discus- importance of evolution to all biological study;
sions that highlight biology’s essential topics. • Scientific Method Connection, which walk
This teaching guide was developed to students through actual or thought experiments
cater to the Filipino teachers and learners in that elucidate the steps of the scientific process
mind adapting the Department of Education’s as applied to the topic;
prescribed learning outcomes and field-tested • Career Connection, which features present
teaching strategies suited for the senior high information on a variety of careers in the bio-
school students. logical science and introduces students to the
Furthermore, this teacher’s manual will be educational requirements and day-to-day work
fully usable and teacher-friendly. The methodol- life of a variety of professions in the biological
ogy and teaching strategies found in this manual field;
are specifically designed to help the teacher to • Everyday Connection, which ties biological
fully discuss to the students the concepts found concepts to emerging issues and discusses sci-
in the lessons of the book. Most notably, this ence in everyday life;
manual will be very helpful in the preparation • Art Connection, which call out core figures in
of teaching materials, assessment of student each chapter for student study. Questions about
learning, and daily lesson planning. the key figures include questions that can be
The Biology 2 worktext partnered with its used in the classroom to engage the students’
teacher’s manual encompasses the following: the critical thinking and analytical abilities to ensure
introduction to biological sciences; the chemical their genuine understanding; and
foundation of life; the synthesis of biomolecules; • Links to Learning, which directs students to
the structure and function of the different parts online interactive exercises and animations to
of the cell; the basic cellular processes, includ- add a fuller context and examples to the core
ing cell division; and energy transformation, content.
including glycolysis, photosynthesis, and cellular These features, alongside the condensed
respiration. These topics are taken up for one but concise presentation of facts encourage
whole semester as part of DepEd’s Senior High students to recognize relationships among
School program. details, form generalizations based on the
This book has certain pedagogical features information discussed, ask questions to further
adapted from the open source textbook which scientific exploration, and apply what is learned
are designed to help students understand the to life situations for an enriching and enjoyable
concepts at hand. These features encourage the learning experience.

iii
Pedagogical Foundation and Features

eVOLuTiON
cONNecTiON
Multiple Alleles Confer Drug has a mortality rate of 0.1 percent.
cyclic high fevers, chills, flu-like symp-
Resistance in the Malaria Parasite toms, and severe anemia. Plasmodium However, in some parts of the

Evolution Connection
Malaria is a parasitic disease in falciparum and P. vivax are the most world, the parasite has evolved resis-
humans that is transmitted by common causative agents of malaria, tance to commonly used malaria
infected female mosquitoes, includ- and P. falciparum is the most deadly treatments, so the most effective
ing Anopheles gambiae (Figure (Figure 12.10b). When promptly and malarial treatments can vary by

Upholds the importance of evolution

12.10a), and is characterized by correctly treated, P. falciparum malaria geographic region.
Figure 12.10 The (a) Anopheles
gambiae, or African malaria mosquito,

to all biological study through

acts as a vector in the transmission to
humans of the malaria-causing parasite
(b) Plasmodium falciparum, here
visualized using false-color transmission
electron microscopy.

discussions
A B

Lethality
A large proportion of genes in an individual’s genome are essential
for survival. Occasionally, a nonfunctional allele for an essential gene
can arise by mutation and be transmitted in a population as long as

Art Connection
The name "amino acid" is derived from the fact that they contain both individuals with this allele also have a wild-type, functional copy. The
amino group and carboxyl-acid group in their basic structure. As men- wild-type allele functions at a capacity sufficient to sustain life and is
tioned, there are 20 amino acids present in proteins. Ten of these are therefore considered to be dominant over the nonfunctional allele.
considered essential amino acids in humans because the human body However, consider two heterozygous parents that have a genotype of

Calls out core figures in each chapter cannot produce them and they are obtained from the diet. For each wild-type/nonfunctional mutant for a hypothetical essential gene. In
amino acid, the R group (or side chain) is different (Figure 2.10). one quarter of their offspring, we would expect to observe individuals
art
connection that are homozygous recessive for the nonfunctional allele. Because the
gene is essential, these individuals might fail to develop past fertilization,
for student study. Questions about aMino aciD aMino aciD Figure 2.10 There are 20 common amino
COO- COO- COO- COO- COO- COO- acids commonly found in proteins, each with die in utero, or die later in life, depending on what life stage requires
a different R group (variant group) that
this gene. An inheritance pattern in which an allele is only lethal in
+ + + + + +
H3N C H H3N C H H3N C H H3N C H H3N C H H3N C H
determines its chemical nature.
Nonpolar, aliphatic R groups

Positively charged

H CH2 CH2 CH2 the homozygous form and in which the heterozygote may be normal or
key figures, including clicker
CH3 CH
CH3 CH3 CH2 CH2 C NH+ Which categories of amino acid have some altered non-lethal phenotype is referred to as recessive lethal.
R groups

Glycine Alanine Valine CH2 CH

CH2 would you expect to find on the sur- For crosses between heterozygous individuals with a recessive lethal
COO- COO- COO- C N
CH2 NH H face of a soluble protein, and which allele that causes death before birth when homozygous, only wild-type

questions that can be used in the

+ + +
H3N C H H3N C H H3N C H +
+
NH3 C = NH2 would you expect to find in the inte-
CH2 CH2 H C CH3
NH2 homozygotes and heterozygotes would be observed. The genotypic ratio
rior? What distribution of amino acids
CH CH2 CH2 Lysire Arginine Histidine would you expect to find in a protein would therefore be 2:1. In other instances, the recessive lethal allele
CH3 CH3 S CH3
might also exhibit a dominant (but not lethal) phenotype in the heterozy-

classroom, engage students’ critical

embedded in a lipid bilayer?
Negatively charged

CH3 COO COO

Leucine Methionine Isoleucine
+
H3N C H
+
H3N C H
gote. For instance, the recessive lethal Curly allele in Drosophila affects
R groups

COO- COO- COO- CH2 CH2 wing shape in the heterozygote form but is lethal in the homozygote.
+ + +
CH2

thinking and analytical abilities to

H3N C H H3N C H H3N C H COO-
CH2OH H C OH CH2 COO-
Polar, uncharged R groups

Aspartate Glutamate
CH3 SH
Serine Threonine Cysteine COO COO COO

ensure their genuine understanding

+ + +

COO- COO- COO- H3N C H H3N C H H3N C H

Nonpolar, aromatic

H + + CH2 CH2 CH2

C H3N C H H3N C H 18 General Bioloy 2
R groups

+
H2N CH2 CH2 CH2
NH
H2C CH2 C CH2
H2N O C CH
H2N O
Proline Asparagine Glutamine Phenylalanine Tyrosine Tryptophan

The sequence and the number of amino acids ultimately determine the Figure 2.11 Peptide bond formation is a
protein's shape, size, and function. Each amino acid is attached to another dehydration synthesis reaction. The carboxyl
group of one amino acid is linked to the amino
amino acid by a covalent bond, known as a peptide bond, which is formed group of the incoming amino acid. In the
by a dehydration reaction. The carboxyl group of one amino acid and the process, a molecule of water is released.
amino group of the incoming amino acid combine, releasing a molecule

Links to Learning
of water. The resulting bond is the peptide bond (Figure 2.11). H
H
O H
H
O
The products formed by such linkages are called peptides. As more N C C N C C
H OH H OH
amino acids join to this growing chain, the resulting chain is known as H H
a polypeptide. Each polypeptide has a free amino group at one end.

Directs students to online interactive

R O H R
H O
This end is called the N terminal, or the amino terminal, and the
N C C N C C
other end has a free carboxyl group, also known as the C or carboxyl H OH
H H
terminal. While the terms polypeptide and protein are sometimes used

exercises and animations to add a

Peptide Bond
interchangeably, a polypeptide is technically a polymer of amino acids,
whereas the term protein is used for a polypeptide or polypeptides that
have combined together, often have bound non-peptide prosthetic

fuller context and examples to core groups, have a distinct shape, and have a unique function. After protein
synthesis (translation), most proteins are modified. These are known as

content UNIT 2 41

iv
 EVERYDAY
CONNECTION
FIGURE 5.15 This scanning electron microbes is an important contributor begun the process of cataloging

Everyday Connection
micrograph shows Clostridium difficile, a to the development of allergies and our normal bacteria (and archaea)
Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacterium that
causes severe diarrhea. Infection commonly
some autoimmune disorders. Research so we can better understand these
occurs after the normal gut fauna is is currently underway to test whether functions.
eradicated by antibiotics. (credit: adding certain microbes to our internal A particularly fascinating example
modification of work by CDC, HHS; scale- ecosystem may help in the treatment of our normal flora relates to our

Ties biological concepts to emerging

bar data from Matt Russell) of these problems as well as in treating digestive systems. People who
some forms of autism. take high numbers of antibiotics
tend to lose many of their normal
Microbes on the Human Body

issues and discuss science in terms of

gut bacteria, allowing a naturally
The commensal bacteria that inhabit antibiotic-resistant species called
our skin and gastrointestinal tract do Clostridium difficile to overgrow
a host of good things for us. They pro- and cause severe gastric problems,

everyday life
tect us from pathogens, help us digest especially chronic diarrhea (Figure
Scientists are also discovering that our food, and produce some of our 5.15). Obviously, trying to treat
the absence of certain key microbes vitamins and other nutrients. These this problem with antibiotics only
from our intestinal tract may set activities have been known for a long makes it worse. However, it has
us up for a variety of problems. time. More recently, scientists have been successfully treated by giving
This seems to be particularly true gathered evidence that these bacte- the patients fecal transplants from
regarding the appropriate func- ria may also help regulate our moods, healthy donors to reestablish the
tioning of the immune system. influence our activity levels, and even normal intestinal microbial commu-
There are intriguing findings that help control weight by affecting our nity. Clinical trials are underway to
suggest that the absence of these food choices and absorption patterns. ensure the safety and effectiveness
The Human Microbiome Project has of this technique.

Prokaryotes and the Carbon Cycle

Carbon is one of the most important macronutrients, and prokaryotes

Career Connection
play an important role in the carbon cycle (Figure 5.16). Carbon is CAREER
CONNECTION
cycled through Earth’s major reservoirs: land, the atmosphere, aquatic
Epidemiologist of transmission. They sometimes work of a disease or to prevent its spread.
environments, sediments and rocks, and biomass. The movement of
Epidemiology
carbon is via carbon dioxide, which is removed from the atmosphere by is the study of the in close collaboration with historians Epidemiologists also conduct rapid
occurrence, distribution, and deter-
land plants and marine prokaryotes, and is returned to the atmosphere
minants of health and disease in a
via the respiration of organisms, including prokaryotes, fungi,population.
and ani- It is, therefore, part of
to try to understand the way a disease
evolved geographically and over time,
tracking the natural history of patho-
investigations in case of an outbreak
to recommend immediate measures
to control it. An epidemiologist has
Presents information on a variety of
mals. Although the largest carbon reservoir in terrestrial ecosystems is a bachelor’s degree, plus a master’s

careers in the biological sciences,

public health. An epidemiologist gens. They gather information from
in rocks and sediments, that carbon is not readily available. studies the frequency and distri- clinical records, patient interviews, degree in public health (MPH). Many
A large amount of available carbon is found in land plants. Plants,
bution of diseases within human surveillance, and any other available epidemiologists are also physicians
which are producers, use carbon dioxide from the air to synthesize car- and environments.
populations means. That information is used to (and have an M.D.), or they have a
bon compounds. Related to this, one very significant source Epidemiologists
of carbon
a particular
compounds is humus, which is a mixture of organic materials from
collect data about
dead disease and track its
spread to identify the original mode
plants and prokaryotes that have resisted decomposition. Consumers
develop strategies, such as vaccina-
tions (Figure 5.21), and design public
health policies to reduce the incidence
Ph.D. in an associated field, such as
biology or microbiology. introducing students to the
educational requirements and day-to-
FIGURE 5.21 Vaccinations can slow the
such as animals use organic compounds generated by producers and spread of communicable diseases. (credit:
release carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Then, bacteria and fungi, modification of work by Daniel Paquet)
collectively called decomposers, carry out the breakdown (decompo-

day work life of a variety of professions,

sition) of plants and animals and their organic compounds. The most
important contributor of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere is microbial
decomposition of dead material (dead animals, plants, and humus) that

such as microbiologist, ecologist,

undergo respiration.
In aqueous environments and their anoxic sediments, there is

154 General Bioloy 2

neurologist, and forensic scientist
LINK TO
LEARNING

■ Chapter 14
Watch a video (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/extremophiles) showing the Director of
the Planetary Science Division of NASA discussing the implications that the existence
extremophiles on Earth have on the possibility of finding life on other planets in our solar
system, such as Mars.
■ Chapter 15
Watch a video (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/black_death) on the modern understanding
of the Black Death—bubonic plague in Europe during the 14th century.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Chapter 14 The Structure of Prokaryotes
a. Prokaryotic Diversity
Prokaryotes existed for billions of years before plants and animals appeared. Hot springs and
hydrothermal vents may have been the environments in which life began. Microbial mats are
thought to represent the earliest forms of life on Earth, and there is fossil evidence of their presence
about 3.5 billion years ago. A microbial mat is a multi-layered sheet of prokaryotes that grows at
interfaces between different types of material, mostly on moist surfaces. During the first 2 billion
years, the atmosphere was anoxic and only anaerobic organisms were able to live. Cyanobacteria

UNIT 5 159

v
 Links to
Learning

Links to Learning ■ Chapter 9

Watch this short video (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/founder_bottle) to learn more about
the founder and bottleneck effects.

Directs students to online interactive

■ Chapter 11
View Earth’s Paleogeography: Continental Movements Through Time (http://openstaxcol-
lege.org/l/paleogeography) to see changes in Earth as life evolved
■ Click through this interactive site : http://openstaxcollege.org/l/bird_evolution) to see how

exercises and animations to add a island birds evolved; click to see images of each species in evolutionary increments from
five million years ago to today.

fuller context and examples to core Chapter summary

Chapter 8 History of Life on Earth
content The geological time scale is a record of the life forms and geological events in Earth’s
history. Scientists developed the time scale by studying rock layers and fossils worldwide.
Radioactive dating was used to determine the absolute divisions in the time scale. The
geological time scale gives us a picture of how changes in the Earth’s land and water forms
and its changing atmosphere has brought about the emergence, diversification and even
the death of the different species. Adaptive mechanisms which develop through time
allowed organisms to withstand the extreme changes in the environment.

Chapter 9 Mechanisms of Evolution

There are four factors that can change the allele frequencies of a population. Natural
selection works by selecting for alleles that confer beneficial traits or behaviors, while

Chapter Summary
career selecting against those for deleterious qualities. Mutations introduce new alleles into a
connection population. Genetic drift stems from the chance occurrence that some individuals have
more offspring than others and results in changes in allele frequencies that are random in
Watch these videos
direction. When individuals leave or join the population, allele frequencies can change

This offers a glance of the recently

■ http://openstaxcollege.org/l/saving_life by biologist E.O. Wilson on the importance of as a result of gene flow.
diversity.
Evolution by natural selection arises from three conditions: individuals within a spe-
■ http://openstaxcollege.org/l/symmetry to see a quick sketch of the different types of
body symmetry.
cies vary, some of those variations are heritable, and organisms have more offspring than

finished chapter. It aims to develop ■

■
http://openstaxcollege.org/l/id_sponges to identify species of sponges based on their
external form, mineral skeleton, fiber, and skeletal architecture.
http://openstaxcollege.org/l/annelid provides a close-up look at annelid anatomy.
resources can support. The consequence is that individuals with relatively advantageous
variations will be more likely to survive and have higher reproductive rates than those
individuals with different traits. The advantageous traits will be passed on to offspring in

key ways in gathering relevant

■ http://openstaxcollege.org/l/sea_star up close, watch one move across the sea floor, greater proportion. Thus, the trait will have higher representation in the next and subse-
and see it devour a mussel. quent generations leading to genetic change in the population. The modern synthesis of
■ http://openstaxcollege.org/l/chordate_evol discussing the evolution of chordates and evolutionary theory grew out of the reconciliation of Darwin’s, Wallace’s, and Mendel’s
five characteristics that they share.

information and helps you collect

thoughts on evolution and heredity. Population genetics is a theoretical framework for
■ http://openstaxcollege.org/l/diet_detective for a video about Smithsonian paleontologist
Briana Pobiner explaining the link between hominin eating of meat and evolutionary describing evolutionary change in populations through the change in allele frequencies.
trends. Population genetics defines evolution as a change in allele frequency over generations.

the essential data quickly and easier

In the absence of evolutionary forces, allele frequencies will not change in a population;
this is known as Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium principle. However, in all populations,
mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, and migration act to change allele frequencies.
chapter Summary

to understand 8.1 The Animal Kingdom

Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic organisms that ingest their food and usually
develop into motile creatures with a fixed body plan. A major characteristic unique to the animal
110 General Bioloy 2
kingdom is the presence of differentiated tissues, such as nerve, muscle, and connective tissues,
which are specialized to perform specific functions. Most animals undergo sexual reproduction,
leading to a series of developmental embryonic stages that are relatively similar across the
animal kingdom.
Organisms in the animal kingdom are classified based on their body morphology and devel-
opment. True animals are divided into those with radial versus bilateral symmetry. Generally, the
simpler and often non-motile animals display radial symmetry. Animals with radial symmetry are
also generally characterized by the development of two embryological germ layers, the endo-
derm and ectoderm, whereas animals with bilateral symmetry are generally characterized by
the development of a third embryological germ layer, the mesoderm. Animals with three germ
layers, called triploblasts, are further characterized by the presence or absence of an internal body
cavity called a coelom. The presence of a coelom affords many advantages, and animals with a
coelom may be termed true coelomates or pseudocoelomates, depending on which tissue gives
rise to the coelom. Coelomates are further divided into one of two groups called protostomes
and deuterostomes, based on a number of developmental characteristics, including differences
in zygote cleavage and method of coelom formation.

8.2 The Invertebrates

Animals included in phylum Porifera are Parazoans because they do not show the formation of
true tissues (except in class Hexactinellida). These organisms show very simple organization,
with a rudimentary endoskeleton.
Cnidarians possess outer and inner tissue layers that sandwich a noncellular mesoglea.
Cnidarians have a well-formed digestive system and carry out extracellular digestion. The cni-
docyte is a specialized cell for delivering toxins to prey as well as warning off predators. These

318 General Bioloy 2

vi
 3. Figure 9.31 Which of the following statements about the mammalian respiratory system is false?
a. When we breathe in, air travels from the pharynx to the trachea.
b. The bronchioles branch into bronchi.
c. Alveolar ducts connect to alveolar sacs.
Review Questions
d. Gas exchange between the lung and blood takes place in the alveolus.
This part allows you to assess and
REVIEW QUESTIONS
4. Which form of reproduction is thought to be best in a stable environment?
utilize the knowledge and skills you
a. asexual
b. sexual
c. budding
d. parthenogenesis have acquired from the lesson and
5. Which form of reproduction can result from damage to the original animal?
a. asexual c. budding
helps you prepare for the next chapter
b. fragmentation d. parthenogenesis

6. Genetically unique individuals are produced through ________.

a. sexual reproduction c. budding
b. parthenogenesis d. fragmentation

7. The ________ lobe contains the visual cortex.

a. frontal c. temporal
b. parietal d. occipital

Scientific Method Connection

the frequencies of alleles or genotypes deviate from the value expected
8. Activation of the sympathetic nervous system causes:
from the Hardy-Weinberg principle.
a. increased blood flow into the skin
Darwin identified a special case of natural selection that he called
b. a decreased heart rate
sexual selection. Sexual selection affects an individual’s ability to mate

Walks students through actual or

c. an increased heart rate
and thus produce offspring, and it leads to the evolution of dramatic traits
d. increased digestion
that often appear maladaptive in terms of survival but persist because they
give their owners greater reproductive success. Sexual selection occurs
9. Which endocrine glands are associated with the kidneys?
a. thyroid glands
b. pituitary glands
c. adrenal glands
d. gonads
in two ways: through male–male competition for mates and through
female selection of mates. Male–male competition takes the form of
conflicts between males, which are often ritualized, but may also pose
thought experiments that elucidate the
10. Plasma is the ________.
a. fibers in blood c. cell that phagocytizes bacteria
significant threats to a male’s survival. Sometimes the competition is
for territory, with females more likely to mate with males with higher
quality territories. Female choice occurs when females choose a male
steps of the scientific process as applied
b. matrix of blood d. cell fragment found in the tissue

to the topic
based on a particular trait, such as feather colors, the performance of a
mating dance, or the building of an elaborate structure. In some cases
11. The respiratory system ________.
male–male competition and female choice combine in the mating
a. provides body tissues with oxygen
process. In each of these cases, the traits selected for, such as fighting
b. provides body tissues with oxygen and carbon dioxide
ability or feather color and length, become enhanced in the males.
c. establishes how many breaths are taken per minute
In general, it is thought that sexual selection can proceed to a point
d. provides the body with carbon dioxide
at which natural selection against a character’s further enhancement
prevents its further evolution because it negatively impacts the male’s
ability to survive. For example, colorful feathers or an elaborate display
make the male more obvious to predators.
Scientific
382 General Bioloy 2 method
connection

Testing the Bottleneck Effect the original population using different contain the same number of differ-
Question: How do natural disasters colored beads. For example, red, blue, ent colored beads, or do they vary?
affect the genetic structure of a and yellow beads might represent Remember, these populations all
population? red, blue, and yellow individuals. After came from the same exact parent
Background: When much of a pop- recording the number of each individ- population.
ulation is suddenly wiped out by ual in the original population, place Form a conclusion: Most likely,
an earthquake or hurricane, the them all in a bottle with a narrow neck the five resulting populations will
individuals that survive the event that will only allow a few beads out at differ quite dramatically. This is
are usually a random sampling of a time. Then, pour 1/3 of the bottle’s because natural disasters are not
the original group. As a result, the contents into a bowl. This represents selective—they kill and spare
genetic makeup of the popula- the surviving individuals after a natural individuals at random. Now think
tion can change dramatically. This disaster kills a majority of the popula- about how this might affect a real
phenomenon is known as the bot- tion. Count the number of the different population. What happens when a
tleneck effect. colored beads in the bowl, and record hurricane hits the Mississippi Gulf
Hypothesis: Repeated natural disas- it. Then, place all of the beads back in Coast? How do the seabirds that live
ters will yield different population the bottle and repeat the experiment on the beach fare?
genetic structures; therefore, each four more times.
time this experiment is run, the Analyze the data: Compare the five
results will vary. populations that resulted from the
Test the hypothesis: Count out experiment. Do the populations all

94 General Bioloy 2

vii
 Table of
Contents
Unit I Genetics••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 2
Chapter 1 Patterns of Inheritance ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 2

Unit II Central Dogma of Molecular Biology • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 9

Chapter 2.1 Basic Structures: DNA, RNA, and Protein ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 9
Chapter 2.2 DNA Replication ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 12
Chapter 2.3 Transcription • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 14
Chapter 2.4 Translation ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 18

Unit III Evolution and Origin of Biodiversity •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 23

Chapter 3 History of Life on Earth •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 23
Chapter 4 Mechanism of Evolution ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 26
Chapter 5 Evidences of Evolution ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 29
Chapter 6 Speciation •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 32

Unit IV Systematics •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 35

Chapter 7 The Phylogenetic Tree and Basic Taxonomic Concepts • ••••••••••••••••• 35
Chapter 8 Perspectives on the Phylogenetic Tree • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 40

Unit V Prokaryotes and their Diversity •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 42

Chapter 9 The Structure of Prokaryotes • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 42
Chapter 10 Prokaryotes, Diseases and the Environment ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 45

Unit VI Eukaryotic Origins, Prostists, and Fungi •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 48

Chapter 11 Eukaryotic Origins ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 48
Chapter 12 Protists ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 50
Chapter 13 Fungi ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 54

viii
Unit VII Diversity of Plants •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 58
Chapter 14.1 The Plant Kingdom •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 58
Chapter 14.2 Seedless Plants ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 60
Chapter 14.3 Seed Plants ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 63

Unit VIII Diversity of Animals ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 68

Chapter 15.1 The Animal Kingdom ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 68
Chapter 15.2 The Invertebrates • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 70
Chapter 15.3 The Vertebrates •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 81
Chapter 15.4 Evolution of Humans • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 87

Unit IX Organismal Biology •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 91

Chapter 16.1 Structure and Function of Animals •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 91
Chapter 16.2 Structure and Function of Plants ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 101
Chapter 16.3 Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanism •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 106

ix
2
2

x
GENERAL
BIOLOGY
TEACHER’S MANUAL
Unit I Genetics, p.2

Chapter 1 Patterns of Inheritance, p.3

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ Explain the scientific reasons for the success of Mendel’s experimental work
■ Describe the expected outcomes of monohybrid crosses involving dominant and recessive alleles

Lesson 1 CONCEPTS OF MENDELIAN GENETICS, p.4

Lesson Overview
The theory of how traits are acquired from the parents of an organism was published by Gregor
Mendel from his experiments with the results of breeding pea plants. From this, several ‘laws of
inheritance’ were formulated, serving as the basis for Mendelian genetics of inherited traits.

Objectives
To list important events in the history of genetics
To define the characteristics of Mendelian genetics based on the laws of inheritance
To define and differentiate the dominant and recessive alleles
To apply the Punnett square for dihybrid crosses

Motivation
Ask the learners to examine each other for certain human traits, such as curly/straight hair, free/
attached earlobes, and others. Ask them to report on the frequency of the traits they encounter in the
people around them.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Refer to textbook (p. 4-14)
Describe the history of Mendel’s experiments
Define and differentiate the terms:
— Phenotype and genotype
— Dominant and recessive alleles
— Homozygote and heterozygote
Discuss the Punnett square and how it is used
— Have some test ratios ready for analysis
Discuss the different laws of inheritance.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Since Mendelian genetics is dependent on the random assortment
of alleles, the observed frequency of phenotypes and alleles may not reflect their dominant status.
The frequency of alleles is another thing to consider. For example, even though the allele for type O
blood is recessive, majority of Filipinos have blood type O due to high frequency of the recessive allele.

2
Strategies for Differentiated Instruction
Simulate a monohybrid cross by tossing a pair of coins multiple times. Since both coins have two
sides (one head, one tail), these represent the heterozygous state (each side representing an allele). The
two coins represent the two parents and the outcome of the paired toss (e.g. two heads, one head and one
tail, two tails) represent the genotype of an offspring. Multiple paired tosses the generation of multiple
offspring. identify the ‘genotypes’ of each of the offspring and determine the genotypic ratio (it is better
to perform pedigree analysis after sex linkage concept has been discussed so the learners can compare
and contrast the modes of inheritance).

Deepening
Why are alleles only applicable to diploid organisms?
Answer: alleles are alternate variants of the same gene, which can only occur if there are two copies
of each chromosome available in the organism.

Integration
GENETIC COUNSELING: Some serious diseases, such as Huntington’s disease, are inherited in a
Mendelian fashion. Thus, it is important that soon-to-be parents are informed on the possible outcomes
of bearing offspring (such as the likelihood that the child will get the disease) so they can make informal
choices. Genetic counseling is performed in some clinics and hospitals based on the medical history of
the parents.

Remediation
Ask the learners to research on human traits that follow mendelian pattern of inheritance. Ask them
to identify and list down some of their traits that follow mendelian pattern of inheritance.

Reinforcement
Perform and answer the Scientific Method Connection activity (p. 13-14).
Ask the learners to list down and observe dominant and recessive traits in animals such as cats and dogs.

Processing and Generalizing

What is the difference between the inheritance of dominant and recessive alleles?
How is the Punnett square constructed from parent organisms of certain genotypes?
What are the laws and assumptions in Mendelian genetics?

Reflection
I understand the history of Mendelian genetics.
I can now predict the ratios of phenotypes and genotypes among offspring given the genotypes of
the parent.

3
Lesson 2 MODIFICATIONS TO MENDEL’S CLASSIC RATIOS, p.15
Lesson Overview
In this lesson, situations that do not conform to basic Mendelian genetics will be explained

Objectives
To demonstrate inheritance patterns of incomplete dominance, codominance, the presence of mul-
tiple alleles, and lethal alleles

Motivation
Ask the learners: What is your blood type? What are the blood types of your parents and your other
relatives?

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Refer to textbook (p. 15-19)
Discuss and differentiate the outcomes of crosses for traits governed by:
— Incomplete dominance
— Codominance
— Multiple alleles
— Lethality
Discuss the examples in text.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: The blood types A and B in the ABO blood groups are co-dominant
with each other. Inheriting one allele of each will lead to blood type AB.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Have them construct a pedigree map of the blood types in the immediate family tree.

Deepening
What are the conditions that cause the transmission of lethal alleles? (Note: Lethal alleles cause death
among organisms. How can these alleles be transmitted if the organisms possessing them are killed?)

Integration
PATERNITY / MATERNITY TESTING: With the knowledge of Mendelian inheritance, it is possible
to make some judgment on a person’s parental lineage. For example, having a blood type that cannot
be explained by the above theory (relative to parents) may necessitate more extensive DNA analysis to
confirm parenthood.

Remediation
Ask the learners to research on either (a) human conditions or (b) observable animal or plant traits
having one of the discussed modifications to Mendel’s ratios.

4
 From the Motivation part, ask the learners to try and find out the genotypes of each person in the
pedigree analysis. Note the following:
— Three types of ABO alleles exist, one for each of the following: A antigen, B antigen, and O (no
surface antigen present).
— A person possesses only two alleles. The combination of alleles will determine the bloodtype.
— A person with blood type A can have genotypes AA or AO, and a person with blood type B can
be BB or BO; genotypes AB for blood type AB and OO for blood type O.

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to research on dominant and recessive traits in human and in some common animals.

Processing and Generalizing

What are the different ways that the phenotype can be expressed apart from the dominant/recessive
model?

Reflection
I can now apply the concept of genotypes and phenotypes to a wider variety of inheritance patterns.

Lesson 3 SEX LINKAGE, p.20

Lesson Overview
Some traits are linked to a sex chromosome. In diploid organisms with one pair of sex chromosomes,
one sex has only one copy of each sex chromosomes. While the other sex has two copies of only one
of the two sex chromosomes.

Objectives
Explain sex linkage and its importance Identify X-linked traits and disorders

Motivation
Ask the learners to research about hemophilia. Do they have a relative that has the disease? How
frequent is the disease observed in the Philippines? What are its symptoms and how is it transmitted?
Discuss about famous historical people who had the disease.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Refer to textbook (pp. 20-22).
Define sex linkage. What makes an allele sex-linked?
Discuss examples of human sex-linked disorders.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Show the learners different pedigrees and ask them if the traits illustrated are autosomal dominant,
autosomal recessive, X-linked dominant, X-linked recessive, o X-linked.

5
Deepening
Have the learners summarize the differences between autosomal recessive and sex-linked traits.

Integration
GENETIC COUNSELLING: For x-linked recessive traits, males are more likely than females to
be affected. Furthermore, if a female is affected, all her male children would also be affected. These are
things to be considered for genetic counseling.

Remediation
In birds, males have ZZ sex-determining chromosomes and the females have ZW sex-determining
chromosomes. How will the inheritance of sex-linked, particularly those linked to the Z-chromosome,
traits differ in humans and birds?
— Answer: Female birds who have the allele for the trait will automatically be affected. male birds
will be affected if they have two copies of the allele, if the trait is recessive. If the trait is dominant,
males would need only one copy of the allele to manifest the trait.

Reinforcement
Color blindness is a more frequently observed (and a less serious) sex-linked trait. Ask the learners
about it and if they have or know a relative who has the disease. Ask them to explain (if possible) how
they are living with it.
Ask the learners to form groups and make reports on human sex-linked diseases, such as color
blindness, hemophilia, X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy, and others.

Processing and Generalizing

How does sex-linked alleles differ from autosomal dominant and recessive alleles in terms of patterns
of inheritance?

Reflection
I can now understand the mechanism of sex linkage.

Lesson 4 GENETIC LINKAGE AND EPISTASIS, p. 23

Lesson Overview
Some genes are linked or located close to each other such that alleles in the same chromosome are
more likely to assort together in the same gamete. Thus, assortment is not dependent.
Some genes are dependent on other genes for their expression. This means that some traits depend
on the interaction of two or more genes (epistasis) in order for it to manifest.

Objectives
Explain the effect of linkage and recombination on gamete genotypes
Explain the phenotypic outcomes of epistatic effects between genes

6
Motivation
Ask the learners to examine the color of eachother's eyes. Have them tally the data for the class.
Ask them to compare their eye color to that of their parents. Let them research online on the in heritance
of eye color

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Refer to textbook (p.23-27).
Recall Mendel’s laws of inheritance. What are its assumptions?
Discuss genetic linkage and the physical reason for it.
— Recall that crossing-over is necessary (during meiosis) for genetic recombination of different
alleles.
— The centimorgan is a unit of measure for genetic linkage.
Discuss epistasis and its examples and causes.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Present the Punnett square Figure 1.17 to the learners. Have them attempt to explain the outcomes
of the square and how it differs from that of a standard Punnett square obeying Mendel’s laws.

Deepening
What is the difference between genetic linkage and sex linkage?

Integration
PLANT BREEDING: There are several studied traits involving genetic linkage and epistasis in
plants. Plant breeders take it into account in selecting desirable traits and crossing certain varieties.

Remediation
Ask the learners to make a report on the examples of genetic linkage and epistasis human or in
common animal

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to relate the phenotype to genotype in traits governed by epistasis.

Processing and Generalizing

What are the mechanisms of genetic linkage and epistasis?
How do these phenomena present in the phenotypic ratios in a dihybrid cross?

Reflection
I can now understand the different mechanisms that cause some genes to deviate from Mendel’s laws.

7
Chapter 1 Diagnostic Test
The instructions that encode for all life on Earth reside in the DNA. The genome of an organism is
stored in pieces of DNA called _______(1)_______. Gregor Mendel discovered that diploid organisms
inherit variants of genes called _______(2)_______, and the inheritance follows definite rules. Since
diploid organisms contain two copies of each gene, the same allele may be present in both chromosomes
in a _______(3)_______ individual, or different alleles in each chromosome in a _______(4)_______
individual. A _______(5)_______ allele is expressed even if an individual is heterozygous for it. Some-
times, traits can be controlled by _______(6)_______ alleles, which allow for more than two alleles in
different genes. Other traits are _______(7)_______, meaning they are located in the sex chromosomes.
The inheritance of alleles from different gene loci is thought to be a product of random assortment during
_______(8)_______; however, some genes are inherited together due to their physical proximity in the
chromosome. This is called _______(9)_______
1. Chromosomes 6. Multiple
2. Alleles 7. Sex-linked
3. Homozygous 8. Meitosis
4. Heterozygous 9. Genetic Linkage
5. Dominator

8
Unit II Central Dogma of Molecular Biology, p.32

Chapter 2.1 Basic Structures: DNA, RNA, and Protein,

p.33
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ Sketch the schematic diagram of a DNA, RNA and protein
■ Differentiate DNA, RNA and protein by identifying the components of each.
■ Discuss the principle and applications of recombinant DNA technology

Lesson 1 NUCLEIC ACIDS, p.34

Lesson Overview
Nucleic acids form the basis of the storage of biological information. This lesson explores the
structure and function of nucleic acids.

Objectives
To recap the structure and cellular function of nucleic acids, especially with respect to the Central
Dogma of Molecular Biology

Motivation
(This lesson is a review of Biology I topics for their application in the Central Dogma.)

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Refer to textbook (pp. 34-37).
Review the different terms discussed in Biology I:
— Differences between DNA and RNA
— Cellular location of DNA and RNA
— Structure of DNA and RNA

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

As this is a review, ask the learners what they recall from the previous lessons on DNA and RNA.

Deepening
Ask the learners to list down the characteristics of DNA and RNA and their function.

9
Integration
Ask the learners to differentiate the structure of DNA and RNA. Which is more stable? How does
the stability relate to its function?

Remediation
To check understanding of structure and function of nucleic acids, ask the learners to illustrate a
DNA or RNA molecule.

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to make an artwork that represents a DNA molecule

Processing and Generalizing

What are the structures and functions of DNA and RNA?

Reflection
I can recall the structure and function of nucleic acids.

Lesson2 PROTEINS, p.38

Lesson Overview
Proteins serve as the machinery of the cell, behaving in different roles such as structural, transport,
and enzymatic (and many more). This lesson serves as a recap for the discussion of Central Dogma of
Molecular Biology.

Objectives
To identify the different levels of protein structure

Motivation
(This lesson is a review of Biology I topics for their application in the Central Dogma.)
Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Refer to textbook (pp. 38-39)

Discuss the different levels of protein structure, especially the primary structure.
Discuss the side-chain behaviors of different amino acids.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

As this is a review, ask the learners what they recall from the previous lessons on the different levels
of protein structure.

10
Deepening
Ask the learners to list down the definitions and examples of the levels of protein structure.
Ask the learners what amino acids they can recall.

Integration
SICKLE CELL ANEMIA. This is a disease caused by a single amino acid substitute in the primary
structure of hemoglobin. This leads to a deformed shape of some of the red blood cells. This example
shows that even slight changes in the primary protein structure can have significant affects in the sec-
ondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.

Remediation
DOODLE IT: To check their understanding of structure and function of nucleic acids, ask the learners
to illustrate the different levels of protein structure.

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to make an artwork of protien structure.

Processing and Generalizing

What is a polypeptide? How do you describe its primary structure?

Reflection
I can recall the structure and function of proteins.

11
Chapter 2.2 DNA Replication, p.40
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ Describe and diagram the major events during DNA replication
■ Differentiate DNA replication between eukaryotes and prokaryotes

Lesson 1 DNA REPLICATION IN PROKARYOTES, p.42

Lesson 2 DNA REPLICATION IN EUKARYOTES, p.45
Lesson Overview
DNA must be replicated in order for it to be transferred to the daughter cells during cell division.
DNA replication may also occur without cell division (as discussed in Biology I). This lesson will
describe the processes involved in DNA replication in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Objectives
To describe the events and machinery responsible for prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA replication

Motivation
Ask the learners if they have been tasked to copy one text to another. Have you ever been asked by
the teacher to copy what is written on the board? How complex is the process of copying?
— In cellular processes, the replication or copying of DNA is critical to the health of the cell and
its offspring. Any mistake in replication can result in deleterious mutations.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Refer to textbook (pp. 42-44, 45-47).
Discuss the objectives and the general process of replication.
What is the replication fork? Discuss its components and its movement relative to the chromosome.
Differentiate between the leading and the lagging strand.
Discuss the protein machinery involved in the process of replication. What are the roles of:
— DNA polymerase (I, II, and III)
— Topoisomerase
— Helicase
— Ligase
— Primase
Compare and contrast between eukaryotic and prokaryotic replication.
— What are the mechanisms unique to prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
Discuss the role of telomeres in eukaryotic replication.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: DNA replication follows the rule that bases can only be added to
the 3’-OH, thus causing the replication to follow the 5’-3’ direction

12
Strategies for Differentiated Instruction
Ask the learners to research and report on the mechanisms of prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA
replication.

Deepening
How does the replication differ in circular and linear DNA? How does the shape of DNA define
and/or limit the process of replication?

Integration
SCIENCE OF AGING: The telomeres in eukaryotic DNA are portions of the DNA that do not encode
particular genes. Whenever DNA in somatic cells replicates, a part of the telomere in the lagging strand
is lost. Thus, DNA shortens each time it is replicated. This imposes a theoretical limit to the number of
times a cell can divide, and this is implicated as one of the causes of aging.

Remediation
DOODLE IT: Ask the learners to illustrate the replication fork and the differences between prokar-
yotes and eukaryotes.

Reinforcement
Given one strand of DNA sequence as template for replication, ask the learners to determine the
sequence of the newly synthesised strand.

Processing and Generalizing

What are the different proteins and enzymes required for DNA replication?
What are the conditions that must be met for new nucleotides to be inserted to the growing DNA
strand?
How does the process of replication differ in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

Reflection
I am now familiar with the processes involved in DNA replication.
I can delineate the similarities and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic replication.

13
Chapter 2.3 Transcription, p.48
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ List the different steps in prokaryotic transcription
■ Discuss the role of promoters in prokaryotic transcription
■ Describe how and when transcription is terminated

Lesson 1 PROKARYOTIC TRANSCRIPTION, p.49

Lesson 2 EUKARYOTIC TRANSCRIPTION, p.53
Lesson Overview
Transcription is the process of transferring the DNA sequence in a gene to a messenger RNA. This
makes the expression of multiple copies of a single gene possible in the form of RNA (If there is only
one copy of a gene in the DNA, multiple mRNA copies can be transcribed from it). The mRNA serves
as the basis for the final step in the Central Dogma – translation of the nucleotide sequence into protein.
Major differences exist in the transcription of eukaryotes and prokaryotes, but the underlying prin-
ciple remains the same.

Objectives
To describe the purpose of transcription
To discuss the processes and enzymes involved in transcription
To differentiate prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription

Motivation
ANALOGY: Making a copy to preserve the original
— Sometimes when we are asked to give an official document, we instead give a copy of it. This
is to protect the original in case it is needed again. Examples would be: a copy of your ID, birth
certificate, contract, land title, etc.
— The idea is similar to transcription: If the DNA is used directly as a template for protein synthesis,
(1) protein synthesis can occur one or two at a time (due to two copies of a gene in a diploid
organism) and (2) the DNA may be exposed to damage.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Refer to textbook (pp. 48-57).
Discuss the purpose of transcription. Why is transcription necessary? What is the end product of
transcription?
Transcription follows the same elongation and base-pairing rules of DNA synthesis, with the
exception of replacing the base thymine with uracil.

14
 Define the function of a promoter sequence. What is a promoter?
Discuss the initiation step as it happens in eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
— What RNA polymerase/s is/are found in eukaryotes and prokaryotes?
— Are there differences in the prokaryotic and eukaryotic promoters?
Discuss the elongation step as it happens in eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
Discuss the termination step as it happens in eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
— Discuss the rho-based termination and hairpin-based termination steps
What are introns and exons? Discuss the splicing of exons in eukaryotic transcription. (It will be
discussed also in the following lesson)

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Transcription of RNA has been discussed in brief in the Biology I course. Ask the learners to
transcribe a particular DNA sequence. However, challenge them with the questions:
— How does RNA polymerase know when to start (or when a gene starts)?
— How does RNA polymerase know when to end transcription?

Deepening
Ask the learners to illustrate the process of transcription or the steps involved in it, including:
— The binding of transcription factors or the subunits of RNA polymerase
— Elongation of transcript
— Termination and release

Integration
TOXIN: As exemplified in Table 2.3.1, some toxins are able to shut down RNA transcription with
devastating effects on the cell. An example of this is α-amanitin, from Amanita phalloides, whose con-
sumption may lead to fatal mushroom poisoning. The learners may be asked to research on the particular
mushroom species.

Remediation
Ask the learners to explain the process of eukaryotic transcription using metaphor and analogy.

Reinforcement
Compare and contrast the process of transcription and replication. Indicate similarities and differences.

Processing and Generalizing

Why is it necessary to transcribe genes during gene expression?
How is transcription performed in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
How does RNA polymerase know when to start and end (in prokaryotes and eukaryotes)?

15
Reflection
I can now understand the process of transcription.
I can differentiate prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription.
I am familiar with the different parts of the transcription machinery.

Lesson 3 RNA PROCESSING IN EUKARYOTES, p.58

Lesson Overview
This lesson will cover the processing steps performed on eukaryotic mRNA. These processes are
unique to eukaryotes especially due to the presence of non-coding regions in the mRNA transcript called
introns.

Objectives
To describe the different stops in mRNA processing and to discuss the mechanisms involved in
generating the mature mRNA

Motivation
ANALOGY: mRNA processing is like editing a report – when a teacher makes some corrections to
a student’s report or research paper, some areas of text may need to be removed, replaced. Sometimes,
a proper conclusion or introduction needs to be written. A similar thing happens in mRNA. How does
the cell know how to perform RNA editing?

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Refer to textbook (pp. 58-60).
Discuss the chronological order of mRNA processing:
— 5’-capping during transcription
— Addition of poly-A tail after elongation
— Splicing of mRNA to remove introns
Discuss the processing of other transcribed RNAs such as rRNA and tRNA.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Consider a given paragraphs as a primary transcript. ask the learners to remove words and phrases
such that the remaining words would form meaningful statements.

Deepening
What might be the effect if introns are not completely removed from the mRNA sequence? Would
a functional protein result?

16
Integration
ALTERNATIVE SPLICING: Some proteins in our body are based on the same mRNA transcript, but
the mRNA processing results in alternative splices, or versions of the sequence. In alternative splicing,
this is a completely normal process, which results in two or more protein variants being encoded by a
single gene.

Remediation
Challenge the learners to transcribe a given DNA sequence, given the following:
— The promoter sequence
— Start of transcription (+1)
— Several introns and exons
— Terminating hairpin loop

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to write the final transcript which should include the 5’ cap and the 3’ poly-A tail.
(no need to write 200 A’s).

Processing and Generalizing

How is the mRNA and other RNA molecules processed after transcription?

Reflection
I can now understand eukaryotic RNA processing that results in mature RNA.

17
Chapter 2.4 Translation, p.61
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ Explain the characteristics of the genetic code
■ Describe and diagram the major events during protein synthesis

Lesson 1 THE GENETIC CODE IS DEGENERATE AND UNIVERSAL, p.62

Lesson Overview
In this lesson, the genetic code, which translates the three-letter codons of mRNA into the amino
acids, is revealed.

Objectives
Apply the genetic code (Fig. 2.4.3) in predicting the amino acid sequence to be translated.

Motivation
Ask the learners if they have ever sent encoded messages so other people wouldn’t find out. If they
are willing, they can share to the class how encoding was done. When the teacher was young, did the
teacher encode messages as well?

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Refer to textbook (pp. 62-63).
Briefly discuss the process scientists used to decode the genetic code.
Introduce and discuss how the genetic code is used. Given a codon (which has 3 letters), we will
begin with the first letter in the left hand side, followed by the second letter in the top row, and the third
letter (in the boxes provided).
Give example of codons.
Discuss the severity of frameshift mutations in terms of the changes in the encoded protein.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Introduce the genetic code first, then ask the learners to decode long sequences of mRNA (which
do not necessarily start with the START – AUG – codon).

Deepening
Ask the learners to illustrate the effects of a frameshift mutation and compare it with the effects of
a missense mutation (a nucleotide was replaced by a different one). Which of the cases will result in a
large difference in the translated protein?

18
Integration
BIOINFORMATICS: Bioinformatics is a field that deals with the cataloguing and processing of genetic
information. This includes the evaluation of all DNA, RNA, and protein sequences. With knowledge of the
genetic code, it is possible to get the theoretical protein output given the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA.

Remediation
Ask the learners to determine the start codon, stop codon, and intervening sequence from a given
mRNA sequence. Similar to the previous lesson’s challenge, you may include the promoter sequence,
termination sequence, and introns.

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to determine the amino acid sequence translated

Processing and Generalizing

How is the genetic code used and read?

Reflection
I can now determine the polypeptide sequence given the sequence of nucleotides.

Lesson 2 THE PROTEIN SYNTHESIS MACHINERY, p.64

Lesson 3 THE MECHANISM OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS, p.66
Lesson Overview
The translation of the nucleotide sequence from mRNA to the polypeptide sequence in the protein is
governed by the ribosome – a large RNA-protein complex present in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
In these lessons, the elements of protein synthesis and the various processes involved in the trans-
lation process are discussed.

Objectives
To describe the protein synthesis machinery such as:
— Ribosomes
— Transfer RNA
— Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase
To describe the mechanisms of translation including:
— Initiation
— Elongation and termination
— Protein folding, posttranslational modification, and protein targeting

19
Motivation
ANALOGY: In a computer, several output devices translate binary data into human-readable data.
These include audio speakers, the monitor, and the printer. The analogy works better in a printer due to
the following:
— The printer, like the other output devices, follows certain rules in the programming that convert
digital data into a pattern of dots on the paper. This is like the conversion of mRNA sequence
into polypeptide sequence in the ribosomes.
— The printer consumes ink in the process. In color printers, there are 4 colors of ink to be used,
and the combination results in a virtually unlimited palette and patterns of colors. This is similar
to the use of aminoacyl tRNAs by the ribosomal machinery to ‘print out’ proteins in the cell.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Introduce the protein synthesis machinery (Lesson 2). Refer to textbook (pp. 64-64).
— Define the ribosomes, tRNA, and the aminoacyl tRNA synthetases. How do the prokaryote
versions differ from eukaryotic versions?
Discuss the mechanisms of protein synthesis. (Lesson 3). Refer to textbook (pp. 66-68)
Discuss the process of initiation:
— How is the mRNA guided into the ribosome (for prokaryotes and eukaryotes)?
— How does the ribosome identify the location of the first codon?
Discuss the process of elongation:
— Refer to Fig. 2.4.4 for the sequence of events in elongation. There are animations online that
may help visualizing this process to the students.
— How is the appropriate amino acid in the sequence ‘selected’ from the pool of amino acids?
— What serves as the energy source for the elongation?
— How does the elongation process stop?
Discuss the processes of protein targeting:
— How is the protein fold ensured to be in the correct conformation?
— What does a signal sequence do?
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
— Ribosomes bound to the rough endoplasmic reticulum are targeted there by a signal sequence
found in the polypeptide chain. A translation process happening on the surface of the rough ER
will lead to the formation of a protein inside a membrane-bound vesicle, which may be secreted
by the cell.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Ask the learners to search for and view an animation for protein translation. Such animations may
be available in Youtube and in Wikimedia Commons.

Deepening
Ask the learners: how is the translation process different between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

20
Integration
ANTIBIOTICS: Since the ribosomal subunits of prokaryotes and eukaryotes are structurally dif-
ferent (but functionally equivalent), the bacterial ribosome is a good target for antibiotics. An example
is streptomycin, which binds to the small subunit and prevents protein synthesis, eventually resulting
in the death of the cell.

Remediation
DOODLE IT: Ask the learners to draw the protein translation in action. To be included are:
— The ribosome
— The mRNA (show directionality)
— The location of the E, P, and A sites and the binding of aminoacyl tRNAs

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to analyse and discuss what would happen if there is a change in one base position
of the mRNA.
Ask the learners to analyze and discuss what would happen if there is a change in one base position
of the anticodon of the tRNA.

Processing and Generalizing

— What are the cellular machineries involved in protein translation?
— What is the source of information to be translated in this process?
— How does a ribosome convert the nucleic acid sequence into a protein sequence?

Reflection
I can outline the sequence of events in protein translation.
I understand the importance of ribosomes and tRNA in the process of translation.

Chapter 2 Diagnostic Test

A – The central dogma of molecular biology states that the information flow begins with the genetic code
of the organism that is stored in the _______(1)_______. The information in the DNA is transferred to
messenger RNA in the process of _______(2)_______. Finally, the mRNA transcripts are converted
into proteins by ribosomes in a process called _______(3)_______.
1. DNA
2. Transcription
3. Translation

21
B – In order for DNA to be passed on to the offspring of a dividing cell, the DNA must first be replicated.
Replication proceeds in a _______(1)_______ manner: the double-stranded DNA is unwound and
separated in a replication bubble. _______(2)_______ is an enzyme that adds new nucleotide bases
into the unwound DNA, forming the new DNA strands. In prokaryotes, the DNA replication begins
at a designated _______(3)_______ of replication, while eukaryotes have multiple sites where
replication begins. Eukaryotic replication has leading and _______(4)_______ strands due to the
directionality of DNA replication: new nucleotide bases can only be added to the growing 3’ end of
the DNA molecules.
1. Semi conservative 3. Origin
2. DNA polymerse 4. Lagging

C – In order to be expressed, the genes in the DNA need to be transcribed to mRNA. _______(1)_______
is the enzyme that facilitates mRNA transcription. In eukaryotes, many genes have sequences that are
not expressed, called _______(2)_______; these have to be removed by mRNA _______(3)_______.
The remaining parts of mRNA that are expressed into protein are called _______(4)_______. Ad-
ditionally, mRNA is modified after transcription, with a 5’ cap and a 3’ polyadenosine tail added to
add stability and prevent premature _______(5)_______.
1. RNA polymerse 4. Exons
2. Introns 5. Degradation
3. Splicing

D – The mRNA soon encounters a _______(1)_______. The mRNA is sandwiched between the two
ribosomal subunits, which then scan the mRNA until it finds the _______(2)_______ codon. Fol-
lowing the 3-nucleotide codons, the ribosome facilitates the pairing of the _______(3)_______ with
the correct anticodons into the mRNA. These RNA molecules have an _______(4)_______ loaded
at one end. The sequence of _______(5)_______ in the mRNA dictate the sequence at which the
tRNA molecules move in and transfer their specific amino acid into the growing polypeptide chain.
Thus, the mRNA sequence is translated into a polypeptide sequence.
1. Ribosome 4. Amino acid
2. Start 5. Codons
3. Transfer
E – _______(1)_______ is a technique of mixing DNA from two different sources. Here a
_______(2)_______ is typically used as a vector. A _______(3)_______ is used to cut the DNA at
specific sites. The gene of interest from a donor organism is isolated and inserted into the vector.
The cell divides multiple times to produce a large number of identical cells, all having the gene of
interest. The gene copies are isolated and inserted into another organism, which is now referred to
as _______(4)_______.
1. Recombinant DNA technology
2. Bacterial plasmid
3. Restriction enzyme
4. Transgenic

22
Unit III Evolution and Origin of Biodiversity, p.74

Chapter 3 History of Life on Earth, p.75

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ Describe the timeline of plant and animal evolution
■ Describe the features that characterized the earliest animals and when they appeared on Earth
■ Explain the significance of the Cambrian period for animal evolution and the changes in animal
diversity that took place during that time
■ Discuss the implications of mass animal extinctions that have occurred in evolutionary history

Lesson1 THE GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE, p.76

Lesson Overview
The history of life on Earth stretches back to 4 billion years ago, as measured by many different
methods of geological dating. The calendar of the Earth is divided into different segments of time ac-
cording to several geological and biological characteristics.

Objectives
To introduce the geologic time scale and the different eons, eras, and periods
To define the beginning and end of notable periods of geologic time

Motivation
Ask the learners if they have watched the movies:
— Ice Age
— Jurassic Park
— The Land Before Time (an old cartoon)
Ask them to tell the summary of each film and what periods of geologic time are the films referring to.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Refer to textbook (pp. 76-83).
Discuss the different segments of geologic time. Refer to Figure 3.1.
Students may ask about the evidence of the age the Earth, or evidence on the ages of fossils and
other relics from that time. It is highly advisable for the Instructor to read on the following topics ahead:
— Radiocarbon dating
— Radiometric dating methods (e.g. potassium-argon dating, uranium-lead dating)
— Plate tectonics
— Banded iron formations (indicates atmospheric oxygen levels)
— The processes of fossilization
Discuss the different eons and eras of geologic time. What defined the end of those periods?
Discuss the Cambrian explosion and the periods following the Cambrian period.

23
 — It may be worthy to note the origins of the names of the periods. These are based on the location
of the geologic finds attributed to that period.
Discuss the lifeforms that evolved during those times.
Illustrate the estimated continental formations showing ancient landmasses.
Discuss the occurrence of mass extinctions delineating the ends of different periods and eras.
— ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Mass extinctions do not happen overnight. Rather, mass ex-
tinctions happen over thousands or millions of years. Scientists detect mass extinctions whenever
they stop seeing fossil species in younger rock strata.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

DOODLE IT: Ask the learners to sketch a snapshot of the Earth as it would have looked like at a
certain period specified by the Instructor.

Deepening
Ask the learners: what events could cause worldwide mass extinctions? Give some examples and
explain.

Integration
DINOSAURS AND ENTERTAINMENT: Dinosaurs are a popular theme in TV shows and film due
to their large size and imposing appearance. Dinosaur fossils do not only belong to the Jurassic period
– many in the film Jurassic park actually belong to the Cretaceous.

Remediation
Ask the learners to construct a timeline of the geologic time scale, showing the appearance of im-
portant flora and fauna, and mass extinctions as defined by the instructor.

Reinforcement
Identify important flora and fawn that emerged at different portions of the geologic time scale.
Identify the timeless of the different mass extinction events.

Processing and Generalizing

How is the geologic time scale divided?
What is the basis for the divisions in the geologic time scale?

Reflection
I can imagine what life is like millions of years ago.
I know the different ways which scientists measured the age of fossils and rocks.
I know how the age of the Earth is divided into different sections.

24
Chapter 3 Diagnostic Test
Earth is about 4.5 billion years old. In order to characterize the events that happened in this very
long time scale, scientists have developed the geologic time scale. Here, the age of the Earth is divided
into _______(1)_______, which in turn are divided into _______(2)_______, and are further subdivided
into _______(3)_______. The geologic time scale is so-called since the different subdivisions are based
on the fossil record.
During the _______(4)_______ times, Earth’s biota were believed to be relatively simple, slow-me-
tabolizing life. However, suddenly during the _______(5)_______ period, there was a large proliferation
of fossils showing the increase in diversity of life. Scientists think that rising _______(6)_______ levels
caused the diversification event.
The eon comprising the Cambrian period up to the present is called the _______(7)_______ eon.
It is divided into three eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. In the Paleozoic era, first _______
(8)_______ appeared. The Mesozoic era is popularly known as the age where _______(9)_______ and
other reptiles dominated the Earth. Finally, the Cenozoic era is where _______(10)_______ flourished,
lasting up to this day.
The ends of many eras and periods in the geologic time scale are characterized by
_______(11)_______. These events are triggered by different causes, but all are observed by the dis-
appearance of _______(12)_______ species in the succeeding rock strata.

1. eons 7. Phanerozoic
2. eras 8. Land plants
3. epochs 9. Dinosaurs
4. Precambrian 10. mammals
5. Cambrian 11. mass extinction
6. Oxygen 12. fossil

25
Chapter 4 Mechanism of Evolution, p.84
Due to their relatedness, Lessons 1 and 2 may be merged to provide additional insights and avenues
for comparison.

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

■ Describe how the present-day theory of evolution was developed
■ Define adaptation
■ Describe the basic mechanisms of evolution: natural selection, mutation, genetic drift, and gene
flow/migration
■ Describe the effects of evolution on the diversity of the population

Lesson 1 BASIC MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION, p.85

Lesson 2 MODERN SYNTHESIS AND THE APPLICATION OF EVOLUTIONARY FORCES
TO POPULATION GENETICS, p.91
Lesson Overview
The process of evolution is responsible for the wide variety of life on Earth. Mutation brings about
variation among individuals. By natural selection, individuals that are more adapted to the current
environment survive, reproduce and pass on their traits to succeeding generations.
The evolution of a new species does not happen at an individual level; rather, entire populations
evolve when subjected to evolutionary forces.

Objectives
To describe the mechanisms of evolution, including:
— How changes happen to the genotypes and phenotypes
— How these changes are carried to the next generation via natural selection
To discuss the evolution of populations into distinct species

Motivation
Ask the learners: Have you watched or played Pokémon? Can you describe the process of evolution
in Pokémon? (other games or popular media featuring evolution may also be taken into account)
— Note: The process of evolution in Pokémon and in most other media is different (or rather in-
correct) compared to what actually happens in real life.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss the basic mechanisms of evolution. Refer to textbook (pp. 85-90).
Who is Charles Darwin and what did he observe from his expeditions?
— Discuss his term ‘descent with modification’.
— What is so special with Darwin’s finches?
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Darwin did not recant his findings or his Theory before his death.
Define the terms mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, and recombination.

26
 — ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: In sexually reproducing species, only mutations present on
germline (reproductive) cells will be passed on to future generations.
— What is the ‘bottleneck effect’ on genetic drift?
Discuss the application of evolution to population genetics. Refer to textbook (pp. 91-94).
— Define microevolution and macroevolution.
— Discuss Figure 4.7. (Y-axis represents number or frequency of individuals; X-axis is an arbitrary
scale for phenotypic and genotypic difference)
What is the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?
— How is it affected by evolutionary forces?
— Discuss nonrandom mating and sexual selection.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Ask the learners to read about the evolution of populations and differentiate the mechanisms with
that of Pokémon (where an individual evolves, not an entire population).

Deepening
Ask the learner: “If a species evolves, wouldn’t the first individual who has evolved have nobody
to mate with?”
— Answer: A popular misconception in evolution is the assumption that when a new species evolves,
the new individual will have nobody to mate with (since they’re different species now. Evolu-
tion happens among populations – wherein groups of interbreeding individuals may become
reproductively isolated from the rest of the population. Thus, when mutation causes a new trait
to emerge in those grousps, the new trait may become increasingly frequent in the succeeding
generations, if natural selection allows for it.
Evolution occurs in long timescales over many generations, and occurs in populations – not
individuals. Evolution, although driven by random mutation, is guided by nonrandom natural
and sexual selection.
Evolution can be observed happening right now in populations of antibiotic-resistant bacteria,
and in vegetables and crops developed by artificial (or human) selection.

Integration
THE DEBATE OF SCIENCE AND RELIGION: Discuss religous beliefs concerning evolution
such as young earth creationism, day-age, gap, intelligent design, and theistic evolution. Clarify any
misconceptions in the process. (Note that some misconceptions will be addressed next chapter).

Remediation
Enumerate traits in human that are likely to be in Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium.
Enumerate traits in human that are not likely to be in Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium.

27
Reinforcement
Do the human standards of beauty and attractiveness influence the evolution of the human
population? What do you look for in your partner? Would that constitute nonrandom mating and sexual
selection? Discuss.

Processing and Generalizing

How does evolution occur?
— What is the source of variation within individuals in a species?
— How is the variation spread and promoted within populations?

Reflection
I can now understand how populations evolve.
I can fully grasp the mechanisms responsible for evolution.

Chapter 4 Diagnostic Test

The diversity of life is explained by the theory of evolution. Living things on Earth evolve by
_______(1)_______; that is, the selective survival of individuals of a species possessing a trait that
increases their _______(2)_______. Natural selection relies on the natural variations in a population of a
species caused by _______(3)_______. Alternatively, selection may be performed during mating, where
mating is done after a selection process of one of the sexes. The surviving individuals are able to pass
on their _______(4)_______ to the next generation. When these variations are sustained over a long
time and the population changes so that it can no longer _______(5)_______ with the parent population,
a new species is said to have evolved. Alternatively, the frequency of a certain trait in a population can
be altered by a random process called _______(6)_______, such as when a natural disaster wipes out
a large portion of the population.
1. natural selection 4. traits
2. fitness 5. interbreed
3. random mating 6. genetic drift

28
Chapter 5 Evidences of Evolution, p.95
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ Explain sources of evidence for evolution
■ Define homologous and vestigial structures

Lesson 1 SOURCES OF EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION, p.96

Lesson Overview
When the theory of evolution was conceived, it become a controversial subject due to staunch crit-
icisms from various religous groups. Much of the criticisms have been abated in recent decades due to
a large body of evidence in support of the theory of evolution.

Objectives
To discuss the different sources of evidence of evolution

Motivation
Ask the learners if they have ever wondered:
— Why humans have an appendix even though it does not serve a digestive function?
— How fossils were uncovered and why some of these bear striking similarity to modern-day extant
(living) animals and plants?
— Why we have wisdom teeth – these do not serve their function, typically appearing during late
adolescence, and sometimes have to be removed in order to prevent dangerous infections?

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Refer to textbook (pp. 96-101).
Fossils are remnants or imprints of ancient life preserved in rocks, sediments, or other biological
matter (such as amber). Discuss the importance of fossils and the fossil record (as in the previous lesson,
the Geological Time Scale) in formulating evolutionary theories.
The theory of evolution states that modern species arose from ancestral species through evolution
and speciation. Modern species retain certain structures that arose from the ancestors such as:
— Vestigial structures – those that lost their original function, such as the human appendix and
wisdom teeth
— Homologous structures – structures that have the same place in the body plan (and even
embryonic origin) across different species. An example can be seen in Fig. 5.3.
— Embryology – during early stages of development, all vertebrate embryos look more or less the
same. (Image comparisons of different embryos may be found online)
Discuss biogeography, or the findings of the original geologic distribution of extinct and extant
living things. An example in Fig. 5.6 is the distribution of Banksia species across different continents,
separated today but joined a long time ago.

29
 Discuss the role of molecular biology in searching for descent with modification. From the Central
Dogma of Molecular Biology, the DNA sequence may be expressed into a phenotype. Changes in the
DNA sequence can lead to heritable changes in the phenotype that will be selected via natural selection.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Ask the learners to search online for the arguments against evolution. Many of these arguments may
be addressed with previous explanations and items discussed in the previous lessons.
— Note: absence of fossil record (such as missing links) do not constitute a total failure of the
theory of evolution, as the finding of well-preserved fossils is very rare.

Deepening
SUMMARY: ask the learners to briefly summarize the different sources of evolutionary evidence
in their own words.

Integration
BIOINFORMATICS: Relics in the DNA – many human genes are found to be vestigial, that is,
these genes have essentially complete sequences but are rendered nonfunctional due to some mutations
(such as removal of a promoter sequence, or an early Stop codon). Several viruses have been found to
be integrated into the human genome.
The rate of mutation in several genes have been used as a ‘molecular clock’ that gives an estimate
on how long since two species have diverged.

Remediation
If dissection has already been performed in an earlier class, or the Biology classroom is equipped
with skeletal models of animals, ask the learners to draw or match homologous structures between birds,
fish, and mammals. Ask the learners to do a pairwise comparison.

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to discuss how to differentiate homology from analogy given some representative
specimen.

Processing and Generalizing

How do the fossil records, anatomy of living and extinct organisms, geographic distribution, and
DNA analysis provide evidence for evolution?

Reflection
I can now explain the significance of the different evidences for evolution.

30
Chapter 5 Diagnostic Test
The theory of evolution is supported by a large body of evidence. First is the occurrence of
_______(1)_______ found in geologic strata. These are remains of ancient life that once inhabited the
region, and in reconstructing these remains, we can determine similarities to modern species. Looking
at the present, the evolutionary relationships between extant species can be seen in the presence of
body parts sharing a common basic design. These structures, called _______(2)_______ structures, are
descended from a common ancestor. Sometimes, structures which no longer serve their original function
are found in modern species. These _______(3)_______ structures are remnants of what was once
useful to the ancestors of the species. Furthermore, we can infer from the distribution of related species
across the Earth the connections between ancient landmasses. Finally, through _______(4)_______
evidence found in the DNA, we have observed conserved genes and traceable mutations that tell us
the phylogenetic relationships of life on Earth.
1. Fossils
2. Homologous
3. Vestigial
4. Molecular

31
Chapter 6 Speciation, p.102
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ Describe the definition of species and how species are identified as different
■ Explain allopatric and sympatric speciation
■ Describe adaptive radiation

Lesson 1 ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION, p.103

Lesson 2 SYMPATRIC SPECIATION, p.107
Lesson Overview
Speciation is the process of evolution into distinct species. Being the basic unit of taxonomy, a
species refers to distinct populations that are reproductively isolated and therefore cannot interbreed.
The formation of new lineages of populations into distinct species may be divided across separate geo-
graphical regions (allopatric speciation) or within a single region (sympatric speciation). The following
lessons will discuss the mechanisms behind both types of speciation.
— Note: We are using the biological species concept to define species in these lessons.

Objectives
To explain the mechanisms behind speciation
To differentiate between allopatric and sympatric speciation
To cite examples of instances of allopatric and sympatric speciation

Motivation
Building up from the previous lesson, give the learners this hypothetical situation:
— There are many breeds of dogs and cats. Show photos of different dog and cat breeds (or ask the
learners to bring photographs of those breeds). Are these breeds belonging to the same species?
— What if someone breeds a population of cat so different from the rest, so that its individuals
refuse to mate with any cat other than its own kind? Does this constitute the formation of new
species through artificial selection?

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Define allopatric speciation. Refer to textbook (pp. 103-106).
Discuss the different instances where a population can be geographically or spatially isolated. Show
and explain examples in Fig. 6.2 and 6.3.
— These may include the formation of geological barriers, such as plate tectonics (and the splitting
of continents), the rise and fall of land bridges during the Ice Ages, human activity (fragmentation
of natural habitats, human-aided dispersal), and others.
Define adaptive radiation. Adaptive radiation simultaneously gives rise to numerous species, each
adapted to their own niche.

32
 Define sympatric speciation. Refer to textbook (pp. 107-109).
Discuss the mechanisms behind sympatric speciation. These include:
— Availability of different niches in the same area. Animals may ‘discover’ certain feeding habits
or locations that behaviorally isolate them from another population residing in the same area.
— Polyploidy in plants. Since many plants can self-pollinate, several generations of polyploidy
individuals may persist until these plants can interbreed.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Animal breeds are commonly traded in the Philippines, either for pet use or for agriculture and con-
sumption (such as chickens, pigs, etc.). If it is possible to ask the learners to visit a pet store or a farm,
let the learners make observations on possible population isolations taking place.

Deepening
Recently, different subspecies of Asian Rhinoceros have been declared extinct. If these were still
living to this day, are these subspecies in the process of evolving into different species? Why or why
not? (Ask the learners to research on the geographical distribution and behavior of these rhinoceroses.)

Integration
CONSERVATION: It is important to protect habitats and the different extant populations of the same
species for the sake of protecting diversity. Healthy habitats hold a variety of species and niches; habitat
destruction results in a decreased ability of the ecosystem to adapt to environmental changes (especially
brought about by climate change).

Remediation
How would a scientifically-accurate depiction of evolution in Pokémon look like?

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to make a parody version of the Pokémon game mechanics.

Processing and Generalizing

How can geographic isolation cause species to evolve?
How can species evolve from populations remaining in a single area?

Reflection
I can now understand the different ways a species can emerge from reproductively-isolated populations.

33
Chapter 6 Diagnostic Test
Speciation – the evolution of new species from a population – is caused by the fragmentation of
the original population followed by the events of natural selection. In order to preserve and amplify the
traits of the new populations, there must be a cessation of _______(1)_______ between them. Such
populations are reproductively _______(2)_______.
A type of speciation occurs in populations that have been spread across different geographical
regions. Such is called _______(3)_______ speciation. Sometimes, the migration of landmasses, for-
mation and disappearance of land bridges, and glaciation, will geographically divide a population. In
other cases, _______(4)_______ occurs when one population spreads and colonizes many unoccupied
_______(5)_______ throughout an area.
Another kind of speciation occurs when populations are not geographically isolated, but are other-
wise reproductively isolated. This is called _______(6)_______ speciation. Animals may be behavio-
rally isolated in the same region, splitting them into populations that, for example, prefer to eat or live
in different plants. In plants, sympatric speciation can occur when the chromosomes are accidentally
doubled, called _______(7)_______. In another case, plants can produce new species when gametes
of two different species fuse and eventually result in fertile offspring after two generations. This is called
_______(8)_______.
1. Gene flow 5. Niches
2. Isolated 6. Sympatric
3. Allopatric 7. Autopolyploidy
4. adaptive radiation 8. Aalloploidy

34
Unit IV Systematics, p.116

Chapter 7 The Phylogenetic Tree and Basic Taxonomic

Concepts, p.117
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ Discuss the need for a comprehensive classification system
■ Discuss the components and purpose of a phylogenic tree
■ Discuss shared characteristics and maximum parsimony
■ List the different levels of the taxonomic classification system

Lesson 1 – THE PHYLOGENETIC TREE, p.118

Lesson 2 – BUILDING PHYLOGENETIC TREES, p.120
Lesson Overview
The evolutionary relationships of living things are depicted using phylogenetic trees. Each branch
point in a tree indicates where groups of organisms have diverged. In this lesson, the structure and the
process of building phylogenetic trees will be discussed.

Objectives
To describe the phylogenetic tree and the relationships of different branches
To enable the learners to read and build phylogenetic trees

Motivation
Recall the pedigree analysis in our genetics lesson. Have the learners been tasked to construct a
pedigree or their own family tree?
The phylogenetic tree is akin to the family tree of entire populations of organisms, forming clades
– diverging groups of common descent. Unlike a family tree showing branches coming together due to
marriage, a phylogenetic tree mostly has branches diverging.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Define the phylogenetic tree. What does it look like? Refer to textbook (pp. 118-119).
Discuss the types of taxa and the interrelationships between the branches of the tree.
Discuss how to build phylogenetic trees. Refer to textbook (pp. 120-123).
Explain how the selection of important traits matters in building phylogenetic trees.
— For example, priority is given to homologous structures. Analogous structures have little or no
phylogenetic significance (for example, insects with wings and birds – with wings also – are
not evolutionarily related).
— Identifying homologous structures is a topic in comparative anatomy, which may be distant from
the current topic unless it has been discussed in another subject.

35
 — In plants, flower, fruit and seed structure are considered important in assigning phylogenetic
relationships morphologically.
— Currently, the DNA sequence is used in assigning phylogenetic relationships. The DNA sequence
of a particular conserved gene (such as those of electron transport chain proteins) is sequenced
and compared by computer programs to that of other species, so the sample species can be
assigned its phylogenetic location.
— Refer to Fig. 7.6 for examples of “weighing” of the different morphological characteristics.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

PHYLOGENETIC ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Ask the learners to bring samples of plant material (entire
stems, leaves, and flowers if available). Prevent these from wilting by immersing the cut parts in water.
Ask the learners to draw phylogenetic trees based on how closely related they think each plant
specimen is relative to one another. Ask them to justify their selection of characteristics. (At this point,
what matters is not the factuality of their classification scheme, but the idea of building a phylogenetic
tree).
— It may be better to have several groups working on different versions of phylogenetic trees on
the same samples of plants, so each group will work independently.

Deepening
Ask the learners to find basal taxa, sister taxa, possibly branch points and polytomies in the phy-
logenetic tree they constructed.

Integration
MEDICINE: A good example of integration of this lesson with other fields of study is explained in
Evolution Connection, p. 122.

Remediation
— Why are some characteristics ‘less prioritized’ in building phylogenetic trees?
• Answer: highly variable and influenced by environment (PLIENOTYPIC PLASTICITY).
“High-priority” characteristics include homologous structures

Reinforcement
Challenge the learners with the following question:
— What makes you think the criteria you used for classification better represents the evolutionary
relationships?

Processing and Generalizing

What do the branch points in a phylogenetic tree mean? What are the relationships between the
different endpoints of the line segments in the tree?
How does one build a phylogenetic tree?

36
Reflection
I can now understand the structure of phylogenetic trees and the relationships of the organisms
depicted in that tree.
I can now build phylogenetic trees given the characteristics of different species.

Lesson3 THE LEVELS OF CLASSIFICATION, p.124

Lesson Overview
The levels of classification in taxonomy are important in phylogenetic analysis. These levels are
based on the current understanding of the branches in the phylogenetic tree.

Objectives
To identify the different levels of classification in Biology

Motivation
Ask the learners: What is the meaning of your name? Of your surname? Did you inherit the names
from your parents?
In a limited sense, the binomial name (genus and species) also suggests lineage, although it is the
genus name that is at a higher rank.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss the levels of classification as found in the textbook (pp. 124-125).
Present the levels of biological classification with other species. These are often available in the
Tree of Life Web Project (http://tolweb.org/tree/), the Encyclopedia of Life (http://www.eol.org/), the
NCBI taxonomy browser (an online search tool) (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/taxonomy-
home.html/index.cgi?chapter=resources) and in many Wikipedia pages about certain species (be sure
to cross-reference).
NOTE: philippinensis is not restricted to subspecies. For example, the almaciga tree has the binomial
name Agathis philippinensis.
The levels of classification directly reflect the position of the species relative to the phylogenetic tree
of life. For example, the family Canidae is a monophyletic group having its own branch in the Tree of Life.
In plants, Division replaces Phylum.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

ASSIGNMENT: Ask the learners to get a particular species of their own choosing. Ideally, no two
students should have the same chosen species. Ask the learners to get all the levels of classification of
the said species (kingdom, division/phylum, class, order, family, genus, species).

Deepening
Differentiate the S-kingdom scheme from the 3-domain system. what sources of evidence became
the buses for these?

37
Integration
GREEK AND LATIN: The scientific names are normally based on Greek or Latin roots. (Sometimes,
scientific names are also based on geographical location or the name of the discoverer.) It is possible to
learn Greek and Latin vocabulary by studying the etymologies of the scientific names. Some familiarity
with the root meanings can be advantageous in future biology courses – you will know the meaning of
the word just by the name.

Remediation
Ask the learners to research examples of taxonomic groups that are monophyletic and groups that
are paraphyletic.

Reinforcement
In connection with the previous lesson, pool the class data from the species assignment above and
try to construct a phylogenetic tree using only the levels of classification.
— It works this way: For example, two species share the same phylum – but diverge at the class
level – then these will be drawn on a phylogenetic tree having a common ancestor at the phylum
level.
— NOTE: Current taxonomic data are not set in stone. New data are being researched and reviewed
every day and thus it is likely that our understanding of phylogenetic trees will change.

Processing and Generalizing

What is the hierarchy of the different levels of classification?

Reflection
I can now deduce the evolutionary relationships of living things based on their taxonomic classification.

38
Chapter 7 Diagnostic Test
The evolutionary relationships of the different species are depicted in a branching _______(1)_______.
This diagram has numerous branch points indicating where groups of related organisms diverged. Groups
that branch from a single point have the species representing this point as their _______(2)_______.
Such groups are called _______(3)_______.
The inclusion of species into different groups, called _______(4)_______, in the phylogenetic tree
is judged by the amount of their shared characteristics. Depending on how early the characteristics
appeared, these groups may differ in size and number of species.
Scientists formally give names to species and give ranks to the levels in the classification system.
This science is called _______(5)_______. The most basic taxonomic rank, or taxon, that can inter-
breed with its own kind is called species. In binomial nomenclature, the scientific name is written as the
_______(6)_______name followed by the _______(7)_______ name. Life is currently arranged into
three _______(8)_______: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya.
1. phylogenetic tree 5. taxonomy
2. common ancestor 6. genus
3. monophyletic 7. species
4. clades 8. domains

39
Chapter 8 Perspectives on the Phylogenetic Tree, p.125
Lesson 1 LIMITATIONS TO THE CLASSIC MODEL, p.127
Lesson 2 OTHER PHYLOGENETIC MODELS, p.132
Lesson Overview
The phylogenetic tree is built around the assumption that genes can only be transferred from parent
to offspring – which is termed as vertical gene transfer. This way, the sole contributor of genetic diver-
sity and evolution is the mutation and natural selection experienced by populations and their offspring.
However, it was found that genes can be transferred from individuals (or populations) that are unrelated
(or not parent-to-offspring). This may be between different species, families, even phyla and kingdoms.
Such transfer is called horizontal gene transfer and is difficult to represent in the classic phylogenetic tree.

Objectives
To explain the phenomenon horizontal gene transfer
To discuss the different possible arrangements of the phylogenetic tree given the occurrence of
horizontal gene transfer

Motivation
Perhaps many of the learners would have heard remarks that they inherited the traits of their parents.
In Filipino, “minana mo sa nanay/tatay mo”. However, what if you inherited something from someone
totally unrelated? In biology, that is called horizontal gene transfer.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Refer to textbook (pp. 127-131).
Define horizontal gene transfer. Why and how does it occur?
— Explain the mechanisms of HGT in prokaryotes
— Explain the mechanisms of HGT in eukaryotes
What are the mechanisms involved in horizontal gene transfer (genome fusion) between the nuclear
DNA and the plastid DNA (such as mitochondria and chloroplast DNA) (See Endosymbiosis)
How does HGT affect the interrelationships of the different phylogenetic branches? Are there alter-
native models showing gene flow via HGT? Refer to textbook (pp. 132-133).
— Explain the role of HGT in shaping the phylogenetic tree of life into a web of life (Fig. 8.5)

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Ask the learners to illustrate a phylogenetic tree if gene transfer occurs, for example, between a
prokaryote and a eukaryote, or between two eukaryotes in separate phyla. Do this before the main lecture
on horizontal gene transfer.

Deepening
Visit websites indicated in Evolution Connection (p.133) and ask the learners to perform the indi-
cated exercises.

40
Integration
MEDICINE and GENETIC ENGINEERING:
— Horizontal gene transfer via plasmids is responsible for the acquisition of virulent traits in
non-pathogenic bacteria, or antibiotic resistance in other bacteria, making them cause serious
diseases.
— Horizontal gene transfer is utilized in several forms of genetic engineering. For example, the
bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens is able to transfer its DNA to plant cells. This bacterium
thus becomes a vector to genetically modify plants.

Remediation
Ask the learners to give ways on how horizontal gene transfer can be tracked.

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to research on the horizontal gene transfer in Rafflesia. Discuss the implications
on Rafflesia taxonomy.

Processing and Generalizing

In what ways does horizontal gene transfer occur?
If HGT is taken into account, what possible appearance/s can the phylogenetic tree of life take?

Reflection
I am now aware of gene transfer that occurs outside of the usual parent-to-offspring gene flow.
I can construct phylogenetic trees reflecting horizontal gene transfer.

Chapter 8 Diagnostic Test

The phylogenetic tree is under constant revision as more data are revealed by research. For
example, the branching nature of the tree is due to the assumption that genes flow from parent to
_______(1)_______, and in populations through interbreeding. Gene flow is not thought to happen be-
tween members of different _______(2)_______ (such as between plants and bacteria). However, recent
studies show that gene flow between distantly related clades happen. This is called _______(3)_______
gene transfer; due to this, several alternative diagrams for the phylogenetic tree have been proposed.
1. offspring
2. clades
3. horizontal

41
Unit V Prokaryotes and their Diversity, p.136

Chapter 9 The Structure of Prokaryotes, p.137

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ Describe the evolutionary history of prokaryotes
■ Discuss the distinguishing features of extremophiles
■ Describe the basic structure of a typical prokaryote
■ Describe important differences in structure between Archaea and Bacteria

Lesson 1 PROKARYOTIC DIVERSITY, p.138

Lesson 2 THE STRUCTURE OF PROKARYOTES, p.142
Lesson Overview
Prokaryotes are the most widespread of all the organisms on Earth. These were found inhabiting
almost all imaginable places – forests, deserts, oceans, inside organisms, rocks, and in environments
where no other life could survive. Even if they are unicellular, prokaryotes have remarkable adaptations
for survival.
The diversity of prokaryotic forms is immense. Prokaryotes can be classified according to
morphology, niche, and DNA sequences.

Objectives
To illustrate the diverse forms and niches of prokaryotes
To differentiate between domains Archaea and Bacteria
To give examples of key prokaryotic taxa

Motivation
Using a microscope, ask the learners to view prepared slides of bacteria (or archaea if available).
The microscope slides are preferably stained.
If slides are not available, photomicrographs of prokaryotes from online or print sources can be
shown in class.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

What are the different ecological conditions where prokaryotes can thrive? (Apart from the mild
conditions like that of human habitation) Refer to textbook (pp. 138-141).
Explain the extremophile habitats shown in Fig. 9.1.

42
 What are biofilms? Discuss their structure, stages of growth, and the advantage they confer to survival.
Discuss the complications in culturing many species of prokaryotes and the viable-but-non-cultu-
rable state.
Discuss the general prokaryote body plan. Refer to textbook (pp. 142-149).
— What do bacterial cells contain? What sets them apart from eukaryotes?
— Show the example cell morphologies and bacterial and archaeal taxa in the lesson.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

REPORTING: Ask the learners to choose a prokaryotic phylum and present a report in class. Ideally,
members of both Bacteria and Archaea should be represented.

Deepening
If looking for alien life on other planets or star systems, why is it necessary to search for prokaryotes
first?

Integration
ASTROBIOLOGY: Knowledge of the extreme environments that prokaryotes can endure can give
us insight on the possible life forms in other planets. Bacterial cells have been found to survive (but not
multiply) in trips exposed to outer space.

Remediation
Ask the learners to list all prokaryotic structures they know and their functions.

Reinforcement
MATCHING: Give the description of the prokaryotes and challenge the learners to match them to
the correct phyla.

Processing and Generalizing

What are the major differences between Eukaryotes, Bacteria, and Archaea?
What survival mechanisms are used by prokaryotes?
What are the major Archaeal and Bacterial phyla?

Reflection
I am now familiar with the different forms and phyla of prokaryotes.
I am aware of the differences between Bacteria and Archaea.

43
Chapter 9 Diagnostic Test
Prokaryotes occupy diverse niches on Earth. Practically all possible habitats – even those inaccessible
to eukaryotes – can be inhabited by specialized prokaryotic life. Prokaryotes that thrive in environments
that are too hot, too acidic, too salty, or otherwise inhospitable for life are called _______(1)_______. Many
members of the domain _______(2)_______live in these environments. On the other hand, bacteria are
ubiquitous; many are known to exist but only a few can be cultured in the laboratory. To increase their
resilience to environmental stresses, bacteria form coordinated aggregates called _______(3)_______,
where they enclose themselves in a polysaccharide matrix.
_______(4)_______ cells take many shapes and sizes, but all are characterized by their lack of
nucleus. Archaea and Bacteria differ in the composition of their cell walls and cell membranes. Bacteria
may be further subdivided into Gram-positive and Gram-negative depending on the presence of a thick
_______(5)_______ cell wall. This cell wall absorbs the Gram_______(6)_______.
1. extremophiles 4. prokaryotic
2. Archaea 5. peptidoglycan
3. biofilms 6. stain

44
Chapter 10 Prokaryotes, Diseases, and the Environment,
p.150
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ Describe the roles of prokaryotes in the carbon and nitrogen cycles
■ Identify bacterial diseases that caused historically important plagues and epidemi
■ Describe the uses of prokaryotes in food processing and bioremediation

Lesson 1 REPRODUCTION OF PROKARYOTES AND ITS PATHOGENICITY, p.151

Lesson 2 BENEFICIAL PROKARYOTES, p.153
Lesson Overview
Prokaryotes affect our lives in many ways. Some of them are known to cause diseases, ranging from
nonspecific bacterial infections, acne, and sore throat, to life-threatening conditions such as meningo-
coccemia, botulism, and the plague.
Prokaryotes are essential in the global nutrient cycling, as exemplified by their roles in the carbon
and nitrogen cycles. Prokaryotes are capable of assimilating inorganic carbon and nitrogen, and are also
capable of releasing them back to the Earth.
Humans have long used prokaryotes in many crafts and industries, such as the production of food
(cheese, yogurt, and other fermented products), in bioremediation, and as commensals and mutualists
in the human body.

Objectives
To discuss the range of pathogenic diseases caused by prokaryotes
To explain the role of prokaryotes in global nutrient cycling
To discuss the range of benefits of human-prokaryote interactions

Motivation
Ask the learners if they have ever been treated for a bacterial infection. What could they do to pre-
vent bacterial infection?
Ask the learners if they know some of the many benefits attributed to prokaryotes. Are they aware
of the direct uses of prokaryotes in their daily lives?

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Review how prokaryotes multiply (discussed in Biology I). Recall the process of binary fission.
Additionally, define the following means of horizontal gene transfer in prokaryotes:
— Transduction
— Transformation
— Conjugation

45
 Discuss the types of pathogenic bacteria. Refer to textbook (pp. 151-152). Pathogenic bacteria are
also discussed in the previous lesson.
NOTE: A more detailed explanation of transduction, transformation, and conjugation may be
available online.
Discuss the role of prokaryotes in global nutrient cycling. Refer to textbook (pp. 153-159).
Discuss the role of bacteria in the human body. What are the known benefits of healthy gut and skin
flora?
Discuss the use of prokaryotes in human food production.
Discuss the role of prokaryotes in bioremediation.
What is the antibiotic crisis? Explain the role of evolutionary selection and the careless use of anti-
biotics that give rise to deadly drug-resistant pathogens.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

REPORTING: Ask the learners to make a report about either:
— A disease caused by bacteria, or
— An application of prokaryotes that makes our lives better

Deepening
FERMENTATION: Many guides for fermentation projects are available online. Suitable experiments
in class include making yogurt and kimchi, both made with Lactobacillus. These take about 2 days on
average.

Integration
SEWAGE TREATMENT: Septic sludge coming from human waste (such as in septic tanks, and in
sewage systems) need to be treated before the water is released back into the environment. A routine
process is letting the waste stand (such as in septic tanks) or aeration (in sewage treatment plants) in order
to promote the growth of bacteria that decompose and remove the organic contaminants in the waste.

Remediation
Ask the learners to make a concept map illustrating our interactions with prokaryotes, both positive
and negative.

Reinforcement
Extend the concept map to include examples for each interaction.

Processing and Generalizing

What diseases are caused by prokaryotes?
How can careless use of antibiotics result in antibiotic resistance?
What roles do prokaryotes play in the global carbon and nitrogen cycle?
In what ways do humans benefit from interactions with prokaryotes?

46
Reflection
I now know the positive and negative roles of prokaryotes in human life, and life on Earth in general.

Chapter 10 Diagnostic Test

In an ideal environment, prokaryotes multiply very rapidly. Although they do not have
_______(1)_______ prokaryotes can transfer DNA from one individual to another. This DNA transfer may
be aided by viruses in a process called _______(2)_______. Two cells can also use a cytoplasmic bridge
to transfer a small piece of DNA in a process called _______(3)_______. Sometimes, a prokaryotic cell
simply absorbs DNA left behind by other prokaryotes; this is called _______(4)_______.
The fast reproduction of prokaryotes, together with their ability to produce many _______(5)_______,
make them either important pathogens or helpful allies of many species. Bacteria live in the human
skin, mucous membranes, and in the digestive tract. Many of these bacteria help in breaking down food
and the absorption of nutrients. Others, however, take the chance to try and overcome our immune
system and multiply, causing bacterial _______(6)_______. Such infections are normally treated with
_______(7)_______; however, irresponsible use of antibiotics has led to _______(8)_______.
Prokaryotes are important in the biological nutrient cycling, either serving to transform inorganic
compounds (like nitrogen) to soluble or bioavailable forms, or _______(9)_______ organic matter.
Prokaryotes are used by humans in many industries, such as the production of food through fermenta-
tion, antibiotics, medicines, and the cleanup of industrial waste.
1. sexual reproduction 6. infection
2. transduction 7. antibiotics
3. conjugation 8. resistance
4. transformation 9. decomposing
5. metabolites

47
Unit VI Eukaryotic Origins, Protists, and Fungi,
p.164

Chapter 11 Eukaryotic Origins, p.165

At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:
■ Describe the endosymbiotic theory
■ Explain the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts

Lesson 1 ENDOSYMBIOSIS, p.166

Lesson Overview
Recalling the cell types discussed in Biology 1, this lesson recaps the endosymbiotic theory as the
origin of eukaryotic life.

Objectives
To review the processes that led to the formation of eukaryotic life via endosymbiosis

Motivation
This is a review of a Biology I topic discussing the origin of the plastid organelles in the eukaryotic
cells.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Refer to textbook (pp. 166-168).
Discuss and review the structure and function of the plastid organelles: mitochondria and chloroplasts.
Recall that these organelles have their own circular DNA, as well as internal structures similar to
those of bacteria.
Discuss the endosymbiotic theory (refer to diagram in the Art Connection).

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Ask the learners to draw the steps or processes that might have led to endosymbiosis,
using their prior knowledge of Biology I.

Deepening
Ask the learners to search for current instances of endosymbiosis. Are there any? Are there cells that
require the presence of other cells from other organisms to survive?
Discuss the secondary endosymbiosis found in Chlorarachniophytes (Art Connection, p. 169)

48
Integration
This lesson is part of Biology I and is highly relevant to the subject of Cell Biology.

Remediation
What currently-living organisms are most similar to mitochondria and chloroplasts?

Reinforcement
List the benefits the primitive eukaryotic cell derived from the mitochondria and chloroplasts.
Likewise, list the benefits derived by the primitive mitochondria and chloroplasts from the primitive
eukaryotic cell.

Processing and Generalizing

How did endosymbiosis take place?
What evidence do we have to support the endosymbiotic theory?

Reflection
I can recall the process of endosymbiosis and the evolutionary relics arising from it.

Chapter 11 Diagnostic Test

Eukaryotic cells are characterized by membrane-bound _______(1)_______, most especially the
nucleus. According to the _______(2)_______, eukaryotes arose when different prokaryotic cells formed
close associations, with smaller cells becoming _______(3)_______ of larger cells. Eventually, these
cells became entirely dependent on this association. This explains the origins of the ATP-producing
_______(4)_______ and the light-harvesting _______(5)_______, both of which contain their own,
circular _______(6)_______ to this day.
1. organelles 4. mitochondria
2. endosymbiotic theory 5. chloroplasts
3. endosymbiotes 6. DNA

49
Chapter 12 Protists, p.170
At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:
■ Describe the main characteristics of protist
■ Describe the important pathogenic species of protist
■ Describe the roles of protist as food resources and as decomposers

Lesson 1 CHARACTERISTICS OF PROTISTS, p.171

Lesson 2 PROTIST DIVERSITY, p.174
Lessons 1 and 2 are merged: protist diversity is best discussed with reference to cell adaptations,
and thus, cell structure.

Lesson Overview
Protists are a large group of single-celled eukaryotes. Initially, they were thought to be one kingdom;
however, recent analysis has shown major differences separating protists into different clades. This lesson
covers the morphological characteristics of protists and their classification.

Objectives
To discuss the cellular characteristics of protists, and those that define its classification into indi-
vidual supergroups
To give examples of protists in each of the supergroups

Motivation
ACTIVITY: Hay infusion
— Get pond or creek water. Avoid using chlorinated water.
— Add pieces of cut dried leaves or hay, and keep the water in the container for about a week.
— Ask the learners to place a drop of water onto a microscope slide and observe it using the microscope.
This activity should yield many different types of protists for study.
SAFETY: do not ingest the water or make unprotected contact with open wounds or mucous mem-
branes.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss the protist cell structure. Refer to textbook (pp. 170-173).
— What organelles are used by protists for locomotion? Can all protists move?
— How do protists obtain their food? For heterotrophic protists, what is their usual food source?
— Discuss the life cycles of protists as you go along with the protists supergroups and representative
species.
You may introduce the proposed phylogenetic tree of protists shown in Fig. 12.4. Refer to textbook
(pp. 174-187).
Describe the different protist supergroups.
— What are the main characteristics of these supergroups?

50
 — What are their representative species? Are the students familiar with some of these species?
— What are the life cycles of these species?

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

DOODLE IT: Ask the learners to draw what they see in the hay infusion.
Phylogenetic classification: Give the learners photographs or cutouts of different protist cells. Ask
the learners to try to classify them (without discussing the supergroups first).
What characteristics are their bases for classification?

Deepening
In connection with the previous activities, and after discussing the classifications of protists, chal-
lenge the learners to classify the observed cells from hay infusion or the classification activity into the
different supergroups.

Integration
EVOLUTION OF LIFE: Protists were once considered to be the ‘wastebasket’ taxon – any species
that does not fit the three existing eukaryote kingdoms at the time (Plants, Animals, Fungi) was classified
as protists. This was until the advent of high resolution microscopy and DNA sequencing, which was
able to detect further differences within protists.

Remediation
(inrelation to INTEGRATION) Protists are considered a paraphyletic group. Discuss why this is so.

Reinforcement
List them down: Given the different supergroups, ask the learners to:
— Give the defining characteristics of each supergroup
— Give a representative species

Processing and Generalizing

What are the usual food sources of protists?
Into what groups are protists divided into?
What are the characteristics of each group?

Reflection
I am now familiar with the overall body plan of protists.
I can classify the protists into the supergroups according to their defining characteristics.

Lesson 3 ECOLOGY OF PROTISTS, p. 188

Lesson Overview
The ecological niches of protists are highly diverse, owing to their different survival strategies. Some
are disease-causing parasites, responsible for the most important human scourges. Some are free-living;
some are photosynthetic, and some are mutualists with other lifeforms.

51
Objectives
To discuss the ecology of protists
To explain the influence of protists on human life

Motivation
Ask the learners if they have ever:
— Been sick with malaria?
— Encountered red tide or aware of red tide / paralytic shellfish poisoning news?
— Seen colorful corals (photosynthetic zooxanthellae give corals their color)?
— Eaten seaweed?
These are all due to protists – both positive and negative

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss textbook (pp. 188-191). Discuss the parasitic, mutualistic, saprobic, and free-living protists
Emphasize that there are free-living protists and photosynthetic protists as well. These were not
mentioned in this lesson in the book. Many protists eat bacteria or other protists.
Which protists cause disease? It may be a good idea to discuss the life cycle of the malaria parasite.
Red tide is caused by protists – dinoflagellates. Humans do not directly consume the protists.
Rather, the toxins from dinoflagellates accumulate in the bodies of mussels (tahong) that people consume,
leading to shellfish poisoning.
Fish kills can be caused by red tide.
A large number of seaweed species are classified as protists. Thus, many of the seaweeds we eat,
including the Japanese nori, are protists.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Ask the learners to research and list down important human interactions with protists.

Deepening
Ask the learners to research and illustrate the life cycles of:
— The malaria parasite
— A slime mold
— A red alga

Integration
MEDICINE: Malaria is one of the most important infectious diseases known to man, killing about
a million people every year. Thus, malaria research is a very active field of study in the hopes of finding
a vaccine. Malaria is treatable with antimalarial drugs, but it is slowly gaining resistance to them.

52
Remediation
Ask the learners to give examples of protists that are:
— Parasitic
— Mutualistic / symbiotic
— Saprobic
— Photosynthetic

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to classify the examples they cited into the appropriate supergroup.

Processing and Generalizing

What are the types of ecological roles that protists fulfill?

Reflection
I can understand the effect of protists on other species, including humans.

Chapter 12 diagnostic test

A. Protists are a large group of _______(1)_______ eukaryotes that are thought to be the earliest forms of
eukaryotic life. Protists are able to consume food by endocytosis or _______(2)_______; some are able
to harvest light energy through _______(3)_______. Many protists are able to move by the use of hair-like
appendages called _______(4)_______, or whip-like tails called _______(5)_______. Unlike bacteria,
many protists are able to form gametes through _______(6)_______ and thus sexually reproduce. Some
protist species can cause diseases in humans, most importantly being the _______(7)_______-causing
Plasmodium. Others live as parasites or symbionts in many different multicellular organisms.
1. unicellular 5. flagella
2. phagocytosis 6. meiosis
3. photosynthesis 7. malaria
4. cilia

B. Protists are divided into different groups depending on the presence of certain cellular structures.
Protists belonging to the supergroup _______(1)_______ contain a feeding groove; _______(2)_______
have a specialized membrane-enclosed sac, or alveolus, beneath the cell membrane; _______(3)_______
have a textured flagellum; _______(4)_______ are capable of forming pseudopodia like Amoeba;
_______(5)_______ contain chlorophyll and chloroplasts similar to modern plants; _______(6)_______
include the slime molds, notable for their lobe-like pseudopodia; and members of _______(7)_______,
where animals and fungi are thought to be most related to.
1. Excavata 5. Archaeplastida
2. Alveolates 6. Amoebozoans
3. Stramenopiles 7. Opisthokonta
4. Rhizarians

53
Chapter 13 Fungi, p.192
At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:
■ List the characteristic of fungi
■ Describe fungal parasites and pathogens of plants and infections in humans
■ Describe the importance of fungi to the environment
■ Summarize the beneficial role of fungi in the food and beverages and the pharmaceutical
industries

Lesson 1 CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI, p.193

Lesson Overview
The kingdom Fungi is populated by organisms that may be microscopic or macroscopic, and are
usually characterized by their filamentous vegetative form. Sometimes, single-celled yeast forms exist.
In this lesson, the general body plan and classification of fungi will be discussed.

Objectives
To discuss the morphology and life cycles of fungi
To discuss the different phyla of kingdom Fungi

Motivation
It may be better to present a general description of what fungi are, then proceed with this activity:
FUNGI HUNT: Provided with digging and scraping tools, a hand lens, smartphone cameras, and
pen and paper, ask the learners to go around the campus areas (with plants and soil) to look for fungi.
These may be mushrooms, molds, exposed mycelia, and lichens.
If such a place is not available, the students may be provided with a living culture of cultivated
mushrooms (such as oyster mushrooms) or any fresh mushroom available in the market.
The National Museum may have a fungi collection; kindly verify with them before having a field trip.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Refer to textbook (pp. 193-202).
Discuss the general body form of fungi. Emphasize that this body form may transition to a unicellular
yeast form in some species. Other species may exclusively have a yeast form only.
Discuss the nutritional requirements of fungi. Fungi may be saprotrophic, parasitic, or mutualistic.
Growth and reproduction may be best discussed with the fungal phyla. Explain the characteristics
of fungal phyla, their life cycle, and representative species.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Ask the learners to classify the fungi they ‘caught’, illustrated, or photographed during the fungus
hunt activity. However, a discussion of the fungal phyla is necessary before this activity.

54
Deepening
Ask the learners to summarize the characteristics of each fungal phylum into a list, with similarities
and differences.

Integration
Fungi play an important, yet mostly unseen role, in ecology and in many industries. For example
in culinary arts: mushrooms are basic ingredients, truffles are prized by top chefs, alcoholic drinks are
fermented using yeasts, cheese are made with fungi, and some sauces (such as soy sauce) are brewed
using fungi.

Remediation
Ask the learners to discuss what features of fungi are common to animals, what features are common
to plants, and what features are unique.

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to illustrate representative members of each fungal phylum. A portion of the
vegetative mycelium and the entire fruiting body will suffice.

Processing and Generalizing

What body plan is common to most members of kingdom Fungi?
What similarities and differences exist for the different phyla?

Reflection
I am now familiar with the general fungi body plan.
I can identify the basic characteristics of the different fungal phyla.

Lesson 2 PATHOGENIC AND BENEFICIAL FUNGI, p. 203

Lesson Overview
Fungi are members of many ecological niches, and some have found their way into our lives. In this
lesson, we visit the ecological importance of fungi, and the various interactions they have with human life.

Objectives
To characterize pathogenic (parasitic), predatory, and mutualistic fungi
To explain the human uses of several species of fungi

Motivation
Ask the learners if:
— They ever had a fungal infection
— They observed mushrooms growing out of a trunk of a diseased tree
— They saw food being rotted by molds or fungi
— They have eaten or tasted fungal products (cheese, alcohol, bread, soy sauce, etc.)

55
Presentation of Content / Reading Materials
Refer to textbook (pp. 203-210).
Discuss the pathogenic role of fungi on other organisms. It is also possible to focus on a particular
fungal disease. Some fungi that are known to be useful to humans can also infect us if the immune
system is compromised.
NOTE: A predatory fungus will not count as pathogenic or parasitic (pp. 206-207).
Discuss the role of mycorrhizal fungi. These partnerships with plants include the majority of all
terrestrial plant species. It may not be possible to observe a live specimen but illustrations or photomi-
crographs may be available online.
Discuss lichens. Lichens are partnerships between algae and fungi. Lichens are commonly seen on
tree bark, and obtaining a sample for the class is recommended.
Discuss the role of fungi on the food and pharmaceutical industry. Fungi can be used as food or as
fermenters for food products.
— NOTE: some fungi produce deadly toxins if ingested or mistaken as edible species.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Ask the learners to research, photograph, or bring fungal products to class and explain how fungi
was used in them.

Deepening
Ask the learners to either:
— Make a report detailing an important fungal disease (of humans, plants, or animals)
— Make a report on a beneficial use of a particular fungus

Integration
The uses (and hazards) of fungi are so diverse that these can be integrated into any field including
health, culinary arts, agriculture, and industry.

Remediation
What will happen to the Earth’s ecosystems if the fungi were to become extinct? Ask the students
to formulate scenarios based on this.

Reinforcement
How are anti fungal drugs different from anti-bacterial drugs? How do these work?

Processing and Generalizing

How are fungi harmful to other species, including human?
In what ways are fungi useful to us?

Reflection
I understand the beneficial and harmful roles fungi play in the environment.

56
Chapter 13 Diagnostic Test
The kingdom Fungi are multicellular eukaryotes that are mostly filamentous in form. These filaments
are called _______(1)_______ and together, these constitute the body of a fungus. A mass of these
filaments is called a _______(2)_______. Some fungi are also known to grow in a unicellular form called
_______(3)_______.
Fungi are _______(4)_______ and thus must obtain food by consuming organic matter, forming
symbiotic relationships with autotrophs, or as parasites. Most important of these symbiotic relationships,
called _______(5)_______, involve plant roots. _______(6)_______ are a symbiotic relationship be-
tween algae and fungi. Most fungi live as _______(7)_______ by consuming dead or decaying organic
matter. In this way, they are important in global nutrient cycling. Other fungi cause disease in plants and
animals by feeding on living tissue.
Fungi reproduce both asexually and sexually. In sexual reproduction, fungi alternate between haploid
and _______(8)_______ forms, and require the combination of two mating types to produce a diploid
zygote. Fungi are classified into different phyla: the mostly aquatic _______(9)_______; the _______
(10)_______ where molds belong to; _______(11)_______ or the sac fungi; _______(12)_______,
which commonly form fruiting bodies called mushrooms; _______(13)_______, which forms beneficial
relationships with plant roots; and _______(14)_______, whose sexual life cycle is not observed.
1. hyphae 8. diploid
2. mycelium 9. Chytridiomycota
3. yeast 10. Zygomycota
4. heterotrophic 11. Ascomycota
5. mycorrhiza 12. Basidiomycota
6. lichens 13. Glomeromycota
7. saprotrophs 14. Deuteromycota

57
Unit VII Diversity of Plants, p.216

Chapter 14.1 The Plant Kingdom, p.217

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ Describe the major characteristic of the plant kingdom
■ Describe early plant life and the adaptations that allowed plants to colonize land
■ Plants are a large and varied group of organisms. There are close to 300,000 species of plants
identified.

Lesson 1 EARLY PLANT LIFE, p.218

Lesson Overview
Land plants have evolved from aquatic ancestors, carrying many adaptations necessary for life on
land. In this lesson we discuss these land adaptations and the phylogeny of the different clades of land
plants living today.

Objectives
To describe the origin of land plants
To describe the gradual adaptation of plants for terrestrial life

Motivation
GARDEN VISIT: for this unit – ask the learners to visit a nearby garden supply shop (stores selling
plants, soil, garden equipment, etc.) It may be better to perform this activity after describing the different
divisions of Kingdom Plantae.
— NOTE: The GARDEN VISIT activity can be a one-time activity that will cover all the lessons
of this unit. See the other activities included in the succeeding lessons.
— Ask the learners to identify ‘primitive’ plant life, such as mosses, green algae (in rocks, water
landscape elements, aquariums, etc.) NOTE: most of these plants are not for sale.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Refer to textbook (p. 218-221).
— What are the adaptations plants have for life on dry land?
— Discuss the major divisions of plant life

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Research: Ask the learners to read about charophytes through various sources. It is unlikely that
charophytes can be conveniently identified in the classroom and field setting without proper equipment

58
Deepening
Compare and contrast: Given a seaweed sample (NOTE: Some seaweeds may be considered plants
or members of protists) and a land plant, ask the learners to tabulate the immediate similarities and
differences in their form, support, organs, etc.

Integration
See “Art Connection” on page 221 for the topic on Paleobotany.

Remediation
Ask the learners to draw the different adaptations of plants for life on land. These may be illustrated
and labeled. Microscopes may be used to look into various plant structures in the biology classroom.

Reinforcement
Reexamine the history of life on earth and identify the time period from which each of the division
of plants emerged.

Processing and Generalizing

What are the different divisions of kingdom Plantae?
From what evolutionary lineage did plants originate from?
What adaptations are necessary for a transition from aquatic to terrestrial life?

Reflection
I am now familiar with the major divisions of plants.
I know the significance of the different plant adaptations to land.

59
Chapter 14.2 Seedless Plants, p.222
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ Describe the distinguishing traits of the three types of bryophytes
■ Describe the major classes of seedless vascular plants

Lesson 1 BRYOPHYTES, p.223

Lesson Overview
Seedless plants once dominated the terrestrial landscape. Bryophyts are seedless plant that are non
vascular. These include mosses, horn works and liver works

Objectives
To describe the bryophyte taxa, morphology, and life cycle

Motivation
From the garden visit, ask the learners to photograph specimens of mosses, liverworts, and bryophyts.
— Note: In large garden shops: lycophytes, horsetails, and bryophyts may be common. However,
most garden shop owners do not know taxonomy so you’re mostly on your own.
Some moss samples can be taken to the biology classroom and dissected. Fresh moss is recommended.
Liverworts may also be used.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss the morphology and life cycles of bryophytes. Refer to textbook (pp. 223-224).
— Supplement the lesson with life cycles of mosses and liverworts that may be sourced online
Discuss the parts of a moss plant. Which part is the gametophyte? The sporophyte? Which of them
is responsible for photosynthesis?
What plants are haplod and diploid?

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

From the Motivation activity, ask the learners to catalog the seedless vascular plants, photograph
them, and make an album classifying them into mosses and liverworts.

Deepening
Ask the learners to observe samples of ferns. These may be dissected under a microscope to observe
their inner structures.
— Ask the learners to sketch these structures and point out the differences and adaptations to land.

60
Integration
Human use of mosses beyond ornamental use is limited. Some moses may be eaten but these are
toxic in large amounts. Mosses products are used in a number of ways:
— Mosses are used in gardening. For example, Sphagnum moss can be used to line pots, and add
an absorbent top layer onto plant soil.
— Mosses are one of the first to colonize bare rock (provided with enough moisture). These may
increase the weathering to promote the growth of other plant species in ecological succession.

Remediation
Draw representative specimens of:
Bryophytes
Mosses, hornworts, liverworts

Reinforcement
Compare and contrast
Bryophytes
Mosses, hornworts, liverworts

Processing and Generalizing

What are the general growth habits of mosses and liverworts?
What are the key stages in the life cycles of mosses?

Reflection
I can now identify mosses and liverworts.

Lesson 2 SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS, p.225

Lesson Overview
Fern and fern allies are seedless vascular plants. They reproduce by dispersing spores. Unlike bry-
ophytes, ferns have vascular tissue.

Objectives
To describe the ferns and fern allies, their morphologies, and life cycle
To discuss the evolution of vascular tissue, roots, and leaves

Motivation

61
Presentation of Content / Reading Materials
Discuss the morphology and life cycles of ferns and fern allies. Refer to textbook (pp. 225-229).
Explain the evolution of vascular tissue. What is the difference between the “stems” of mosses and
those of ferns?

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

From the Motivation activity, ask the learners to catalog the seedless vascular plants, photograph
them, and make an album classifying them into ferns and lycophytes.

Deepening
Ask the learners to observe samples of ferns and mosses. These may be dissected under a microscope
to observe their inner structures.
— Ask the learners to sketch these structures and point out the differences and adaptations to land.

Integration
Human use of ferns and mosses beyond ornamental use is limited. Some ferns may be eaten but
these are toxic in large amounts. Moss and fern products are used in a number of ways:
Tree fern roots are a popular substrate for orchids as osmunda fiber.

Remediation
Draw representative specimens of:
Ferns
Ferns, lycophytes

Reinforcement
Compare and contrast:
Ferns
Ferns, lycophytes

Processing and Generalizing

What are the parts of ferns?
What are the key stages in the life cycles of ferns?
What adaptations to land did ferns and fern allies have?

Reflection
I can now identify ferns, fern allies, mosses, and liverworts.
I am familiar with the different land adaptations developed on fern evolution.

62
Chapter 14.3 Seed Plants, p.231
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ Describe the two major innovations that allowed seed plants to reproduce in the absence of
water.
■ Discuss the type of seeds produced by gymnosperms, as well as other characteristics of gym-
nosperms.
■ Explain why angiosperms are the dominant form of plant life in most ecosystems.

Lesson 1 EVOLUTION OF SEED PLANTS, p.231

Lesson 2 GYMNOSPERMS, p.232

Lesson Overview
Seedless plants still rely on the formation of a gametophyte that produces the male and female hap-
loid gametes. These gametes are water-dependent, and thus these plants still require a nearby source of
water despite the formation of vascular tissue (in ferns and fern allies).
The development of seeds, as well as the fertilization mechanisms (pollen) enable the plants to
eliminate
the dependence on water for reproduction. These plants will be discussed in the following lessons.

Objectives
To describe the process of reproduction and seed formation in gymnosperms
To discuss the gymnosperm clades and their representative species

Motivation
From the garden visit activity, ask the learners to identify and take photographs of gymnosperms.
Some gymnosperms are also available in the Philippines, such as Cycas, Juniperus, pines, and others.
— Again, do not rely on the vendor or owner of the shop for taxonomy. It is unlikely that these are
experts in botany.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Introduce the advantages of reproduction by seed. Refer to textbook (p. 231).
Discuss the different divisions of gymnosperms. Refer to textbook (pp. 232-236). What are their
general characteristics? Examples may be given through photos.
Discuss the life cycle of gymnosperms as described in Fig. 14.3.2.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Ask the learners to compile photographs, drawings, or sketches of seed plants found in garden shops.
Note the leaf arrangement, venation, flower characteristics (if angiosperm), and fruits (if any).
The Pictorial Cyclopedia of Philippine Ornamental Plants is a handy guide for common Philippine
plants by Dr. Domingo Madulid. It may be used as a reference.

63
Deepening
Ask the learners to classify the plants they encountered as gymnosperm (if it is, which of the divi-
sions does it belong to?).

Integration
Gymnosperms have indispensable roles as the major producers of most land-based ecosystems.
These are the dominant organisms in practically any biome (except tundra and deserts).
Humans depend on gymnosperms for building materials and food such as for wood, gum, resin, etc,.

Remediation
Illustrate the life cycle of gymnosperm.

Reinforcement
Compare and contrast the life cycle of seed plants and seedless plants. Which generation is more
dominant in each?

Processing and Generalizing

What are the different divisions of gymnosperms?

Reflection
I know the importance of seeds in the adaptation of plants on land
I am familiar with the different taxa within gymnosperms

Lesson3 ANGIOSPERMS, p.237

These lessons are merged to provide avenues for comparison among the gymnosperms and angio-
sperms.

Lesson Overview
Seedless plants still rely on the formation of a gametophyte that produces the male and female hap-
loid gametes. These gametes are water-dependent, and thus these plants still require a nearby source of
water despite the formation of vascular tissue (in ferns and fern allies).
The development of seeds, as well as the fertilization mechanisms (pollen) enable the plants to elim-
inate the dependence on water for reproduction. These plants will be discussed in the following lessons.

Objectives
To describe the process of reproduction and seed formation in angiosperms
To discuss the angiosperm clades and their representative species

64
Motivation
From the garden visit activity, ask the learners to identify and take photographs of angiosperms. The
majority of plant species in garden shops are angiosperms.
— Again, do not rely on the vendor or owner of the shop for taxonomy. It is unlikely that these are
experts in botany.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Introduce the angiosperms. Refer to textbook (pp. 237-243).
Discuss the life cycle of angiosperms and the process of double fertilization.
— What are the parts of a flower?
— What is a fruit?
— Differentiate basal angiosperms, monocots, and dicots.
— NOTE: In some classification schemes, Nymphaeales (water lilies) are not included in Magno-
liidae, but are also neither monocots nor dicots.
— Give examples of monocots and dicots. NOTE: Some species may appear dicots but are actually
monocots. If you have the scientific name available, online references may be used to check if it is a
monocot or a dicot (or a basal angiosperm).

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Ask the learners to compile photographs, drawings, or sketches of seed plants found in garden shops.
Note the leaf arrangement, venation, flower characteristics (if angiosperm), and fruits (if any).
The Pictorial Cyclopedia of Philippine Ornamental Plants is a handy guide for common Philippine
plants by Dr. Domingo Madulid. It may be used as a reference.

Deepening
Ask the learners to classify the plants they encountered as gymnosperm (if it is, which of the divisions
does it belong to?), or angiosperm (if it is, is it a basal angiosperm, monocot, or dicot?).

Integration
Angiosperms and gymnosperms have indispensable roles as the major producers of most land-based
ecosystems. Angiosperms are used for food, especially fruits, flower uses, wood, and etc,. These are the
dominant organisms in practically any biome (except tundra and deserts). Humans depend on gymno-
sperms and angiosperms for building materials and food.

Remediation
Illustrate the life cycle of angiosperm.

Reinforcement
Compare and contrast monocots and dicots

65
Processing and Generalizing
What are the differences between angiosperms and gymnosperms?
What are the different divisions of gymnosperms?
What subgroups comprise the angiosperms?
How do you differentiate between monocots and dicots?

Reflection
I can differentiate between angiosperms and gymnosperms
I know the importance of seeds in the adaptation of plants on land
I am familiar with the different taxa within gymnosperms and angiosperms

Lesson 4 THE ROLE OF SEED PLANTS, p.244

Lesson Overview
The dominant autotrophs on land and the major component of the base of the food chain are the seed
plants. Thus, entire ecosystems are based on seed plants as the energy source. This lesson emphasizes
our dependence on plants for survival.

Objectives
To discuss the ecological role of seed plants

Motivation
Ask the learners what they ate for breakfast / lunch / prior to class. Are these plant based? In what
ways are their food derived from (seed) plants?

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss the ecological role of seed plants in terms of providing nutrition to consumers. Refer to
textbook (pp. 244-249).
How did plants and animals co-evolve? In what ways did plants depend on animals?
Discuss the specific roles of plants on human life, such as food, fuel, construction material, and
medicine
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Artificial selection – many plant varieties are created by humans
through years, decades, and centuries of selection. For example: wheat and other grains; broccoli, cau-
liflower, cabbage, and other vegetables derived from wild mustard.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Ask the learners to list down the ways they used plant-derived materials in the last 6 hours.

Deepening
Ask the learners:
— What animals, when made extinct, will cause the decline of plant species? What do these animals
do?

66
 — What medicines that they take are derived from plant products?
— In what ways did humans influence the evolution of plants?

Integration
The uses of plants in many other fields are already the main topic in this lesson. This includes food
(culinary arts), agriculture, medicine, and ecosystem research.

Remediation
Ask the learners to list down the ways animals depend on plants, and the ways plants depend on
animals to survive and reproduce.

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to discuss what can be done to preserve plant diversity.

Processing and Generalizing

In what ways are plants and animals interdependent on each other?
What are the uses of plants to humans?

Reflection
I understand the ecological role of plants in terrestrial ecosystems.
I am aware of the uses of plants to humans.

Chapter 14 Diagnostic Test

The majority of the plant kingdom are important producers in the terrestrial ecosystem due to
their ability to _______(1)_______. Through evolution, plants have gained the ability to reduce their
dependence on an aquatic environment through the acquisition of different traits. Early plants, such as
the _______(2)_______, do not have water-conducting tissues, which limits their height and habitat to
places that are kept moist. _______(3)_______ have water-conducting tissues in their stems, making
them the first vascular plants. However, their _______(4)_______ stage is still aquatic, which makes
their reproduction still dependent on water. Later, _______(5)_______ evolved to finally remove the
requirement for the aquatic conditions in the meeting of the plant gametes. These plants produce
_______(6)_______ and house the embryos inside seeds. Seed plants can be grouped into the non-
flowering _______(7)_______ and the flowering _______(8)_______.
1. photosynthesize 5. seed plants
2. bryophytes 6. pollen
3. ferns and fern allies 7. angiosperms
4. gametophyte 8. gymnosperms

67
Unit VIII Diversity of Animals, p.256

Chapter 15.1 The Animal Kingdom, p.257

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ list the features that distinguish the Kingdom Animalia from other kingdoms
■ explain his animals are classified based on body symmetry and embryonic development

Lesson 1 MAJOR FEATURES OF ANIMALS, p.258

Lesson 2 HOW ARE ANIMALS CLASSIFIED, p.261
These lessons are grouped together since they follow a common theme – on the classification of
animals based on their developmental origin. The features of animals is closely related to their embry-
onic structure.

Lesson Overview
This lesson describes the major features of animals, including their body, development, and modes
of reproduction.
The classification of animals is based on the body layers produced by the differentiation of embryonic
tissue. This development is thought to be indicative of the phylogenetic lineage of animals.

Objectives
To describe the kingdom Animalia
To define the embryonic and developmental features of animals and their role in classification
Motivation
Ask the learners to define an animal. What is an animal?
— Can it move from place to place? If so, what about sponges?
— Does it need to have a complete digestive system (with mouth and anus)? If so, what about
corals?
NOTE: Animals are multicellular and heterotrophic. Although there are exceptions, most are sexually
reproducing and motile – in at least one life stage.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss the major features of animals. Refer to textbook (pp. 258-260).
What is a true specialized tissue? Are tissues required for multicellular organisms?
Discuss the common modes of reproduction in animals.
Discuss the modes of growth and development in animals. Refer to textbook (pp. 261-265) for clas-
sification based on morphology and developmental stages. Pages 263-265 contain essential information
for the embryonic tissue layers and the development of digestive system.
Define the terms diploblastic and triploblastic, and the coelom.
Discuss the classification of animals as shown in Fig. 15.1.4.

68
Strategies for Differentiated Instruction
Show the learners photographs of different members of the Animal kingdom. Be sure to represent
every phylum at least one. Ask the learners to try and make a phylogenetic tree based on their own
judgment. Afterwards, compare their trees with the scientifically-accepted tree.

Deepening
Why are slime molds not considered animals? They are motile, composed of many cells, hetero-
trophic, and sexually reproducing.
— Answer: Slime molds are not multicellular (emphasize why they are not multicellular and how
they differ from sponges.) They do not have specialized tissues, and the vegetative body is composed
of a single cell type.

Integration
FOSSILS AND THE EVOLUTION OF LIFE: The phylogenetic tree of animals is an area of ex-
tensive study. Ancient fossils leave almost no clue in the presence of tissue layers, which are likely to
be rotted away. Thus, the scientists usually rely on morphological methods to classify extinct animals.
(Note: DNA can be extracted from some fossils and can serve as evidence for phylogenetic classification.)
There are many cases where animal remains are re-assigned to a different taxon.

Remediation
Ask the learners to draw the general embryonic body plan of animals belonging to coelomates,
acoelomates, and pseudocoelomates, and draw comparisons on all three.

Reinforcement
Compare and contrast coelomates, acoelomates, and pseudocoelomates in terms of the presence or
absence of certain structures.

Processing and Generalizing

What are the general body features of animals?
What are the features of animal embryonic development?
How are animals classified?

Reflection
I can distinguish major clades of animals based on morphological and developmental characteristics.

69
Chapter 15.2 The Invertebrates, p.266
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ Describe the distinguishing characteristics of invertebrates
■ Explain the various body forms and body functions of invertebrates

Lesson 1 PHYLUM PORIFERA, p. 267

Lesson Overview
Sponges are considered the simplest, and perhaps most primitive of all animals. They do not have
true tissues, and straddle the line between “aggregates of cells” and multicellular.

Objectives
To describe the members of phylum Porifera

Motivation
MUSEUM VISIT – for all the lessons in this chapter: (field trip) – visit a natural history museum,
or a marine museum. Document the invertebrates and search for members of phylum Porifera.
If preserved samples are available in the biology laboratory, show them in class.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss the morphology, cellular organization, feeding, and reproduction of sponges. Refer to text-
book (pp. 267-269).
As the preserved samples look markedly different from live samples, show underwater photographs
of sponges.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Ask the learners to search for photographs of sponges online and describe their characteristics.

Deepening
Summary: ask the learners to summarize the roles of the different cell types of sponges.
Will breaking a sponge into two kill it? Why or why not?

Integration
Marine biodiversity and habitat: sponges are an important component of the reef ecosystem. To
some extent, sponges provide habitat and add to the structure of coral reefs.

Remediation
Ask the learners to draw the gross morphology and internal structure of sponges.

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to draw and label the different cell types present in sponges.

70
Processing and Generalizing
What is the general body shape of sponges?
How do sponges feed and reproduce?

Reflection
I can describe and identify members of phylum Porifera.

Lesson 2 PHYLUM CNIDARIA, p.270

Lesson Overview
Cnidarians have true tissues that arise from two germ layers. Important examples of this phylum include
the jellyfish, corals, and sea anemones. Cnidarians are known for their stinging cells called cnidocytes.

Objectives
To describe the body plans of the different classes of phylum Cnidaria
To discuss the life cycle, feeding, and reproduction of cnidarians

Motivation
MUSEUM VISIT – for all the lessons in this chapter: (field trip) – visit a natural history museum,
or a marine museum. Document the invertebrates and search for members of phylum Cnidaria.
If preserved samples are available in the biology laboratory, show them in class.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Introduce the cnidarian body plan. How does a cnidarian eat and expel food waste? Refer to textbook
(pp. 270-274).
What are cnidocytes? Discuss their structure and function.
Discuss the reproduction and life cycle of cnidarians. What are the differences in the life cycles of
each of the different classes?
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: the Box Jellyfish (Chironex fleckeri) has a well-developed eye.
However, it has no brain – how the eye operates and interprets images is still a mystery.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Ask the learners to search for photographs of cnidarians. How many different body plans, morphol-
ogies, and classes can they see?

Deepening
Of what importance to us are cnidarians? Ask the learners to research about the benefits of coral
reefs, and how we can ensure the protection of such habitats.

Integration
Large parts of the Philippines are ancient coral reefs. These are responsible for some of the unique
land formations such as the Chocolate Hills in Bohol and the Hundred Islands in Pangasinan.

71
Remediation
Ask the learners to draw representative specimens of each of the cnidarian classes.

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to tabulate the distinguishing features of the different cnidarian classes.

Processing and Generalizing

What is the general body plan of cnidarians?
How do cnidarians feed and reproduce?
What are the main classes of cnidarians?

Reflection
I can now identify members of the different cnidarian classes.
I understand the ecology of cnidarians.

Lesson3 PHYLUM NEMATODA, p.275

Lesson Overview
Nematodes, or roundworms, are pseudocoelomate organisms that are typically minute in size. These
may inhabit the soil as free-living, or in other organisms as parasites.

Objectives
To describe the body plan, feeding, and reproduction of nematodes

Motivation
MUSEUM VISIT – for all the lessons in this chapter: (field trip) – visit a natural history museum.
Document the invertebrates and search for members of phylum Nematoda.
Some roundworm samples are available in medical collections – like the parasite Ascaris, from
human patients.
If preserved samples are available in the biology laboratory, show them in class.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss the morphology of nematodes, and some representative species as well. Refer to textbook
(pp. 275-276).
What human ailments are caused by nematodes?

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Ask the learners to look for species of nematodes online. Which of these are beneficial or harmful
to humans?

72
Deepening
Discuss the different diseases caused by nematodes. Some of these diseases are found in the Philip-
pines, such as filariasis, elephantiasis, and intestinal worms (Ascaris) – locally known as bulate.

Integration
MEDICINE: Due to the problematic nematode parasites, several medicines have been developed
to combat infection. Still, nematodes are a leading cause of disability in developing countries, through
malnutrition or physical deformity.
MEDICINE: Even though Ascaris is a parasite, research has shown that infection by Ascaris actu-
ally reduces allergy in many people. Scientists think that Ascaris modulates the human immune system,
causing the infected person to be less prone to allergy. Perhaps one day, allergy can be prevented by
ingesting a controlled dose of Ascaris eggs, and de-worming after a specified time.

Remediation
Ask the learners to draw the body plan of a nematode.

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to describe the life cycle of a selected species of parasitic nematode.

Processing and Generalizing

How are nematodes classified as pseudocoelomates?
What is the general body plan of a nematode?

Reflection
I can now identify a member of phylum Nematoda based on the overall morphology.
I understand the ecology of free-living and parasitic nematodes.

Lesson 4 PHYLUM ANNELIDA, p.277

Lesson Overview
Annelids, or segmented worms, are animals possessing an elongated body plan divided into segments.
This body segmentation will be important in more complex animal taxa. Annelids possess a closed
circulatory system and a true coelom.

Objectives
To discuss the body plan and several representative species of phylum Annelida

Motivation
MUSEUM VISIT – for all the lessons in this chapter: (field trip) – visit a natural history museum,
or a marine museum. Document the invertebrates and search for members of phylum Annelida.
Marine annelids are particularly conspicuous or colorful.
If preserved samples are available in the Biology laboratory, show them in class.

73
Presentation of Content / Reading Materials
Discuss the annelid body plan. Refer to textbook (pp. 277-278). Several images for the body plan
are available online.
What are the different classes of annelids? Which of these include the earthworm?

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Ask the learners to search for photographs of marine, soil and freshwater annelids. It is unlikely that
preserved specimens are similar in color to live, photographed specimens.

Deepening
Ask the learners about the human importance of:
— Earthworms
— Leeches

Integration
AGRICULTURE: Earthworms are a vital part of the soil ecosystem and are beneficial to plants.
Earthworms improve soil texture and play a role in the conversion of decayed plant matter into humus.
MEDICINE: Leeches were used before the days of modern medicine as a means of bloodletting.
Nowadays, several proteins are isolated from leeches that cause blood to remain liquid. Leeches are still
used in hospitals to reattach severed limbs or extremities by restoring blood flow to them.

Remediation
Ask the learners to list the distinguishing features of each annelids class.

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to differentiate phylum Annelida and phylum Nematoda.

Processing and Generalizing

What is the general body plan of annelids?
What is the role of the coelom and body segments in annelids?

Reflection
I am now familiar with the morphology and ecology of annelids.

Lesson 5 PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES, p. 279

Lesson Overview
Platyhelminths, or flatworms, are animals that have tissues arising from three body layers (triplo-
blastic) but do not have a coelom. They typically have a flat, elongated body – earning them the common
name. Flatworms include colorful, free-living marine forms to important human parasites such as the
tapeworm, the blood fluke, and liver fluke.

74
Objectives
To describe the morphology and ecology of platyhelminths

Motivation
MUSEUM VISIT – for all the lessons in this chapter: (field trip) – visit a natural history museum,
or a marine museum. Document the invertebrates and search for members of phylum Platyhelmithes.
— Marine flatworms include the colorful Turbellarians
If preserved samples are available in the biology laboratory, show them in class.
— Medical specimens may include the tapeworm and liver fluke. Microscope slides may include
smaller species of flukes, including Schistosoma.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss the body plan of platyhelmiths. Does it have specialized organs for feeding and excreting
waste? Refer to textbook (pp. 279-281).
What species of flatworms are medically important to humans? What are their life cycles, and what
diseases do they cause?

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Ask the learners to look for:
— Photographs of flatworms online, especially marine, free-living species
— Studies on human infections of parasitic flatworms

Deepening
Ask the learners to look for the life cycle of parasitic flatworms. Which species require different
hosts to complete their cycle?

Integration
MEDICINE: In order to combat the parasitic members of this phylum, several drugs have been
developed. Intestinal parasitic infestation by a few individuals rarely become serious, but systemic
infection (forming cysts in different organs) is dangerous. Sometimes, the brain can be affected.

Remediation
Ask the learners to sketch the body plan and internal structure of a representative flatworm, such
as Planaria.

Reinforcement
What structures do flatworms utilize for the following functions: digestion, respiration, excretion.

Processing and Generalizing

What are platyhelminths? What is their general body plan?
How do flatworms feed and reproduce?
How do flatworms interact with humans?

75
Reflection
I can describe the morphology and reproductive behavior of members of phylum Platyhelminthes.

Lesson 6 PHYLUM MOLLUSCA, p. 282

Lesson Overview
Mollusks are a diverse phylum of soft-bodied coelomate organisms. Many mollusks possess a shell
(either internally or externally), but all share the following body parts: a mantle, a muscular foot, and
the main visceral mass containing the internal organs. Several classes of mollusks will be described in
this lesson.

Objectives
To discuss the general morphology of mollusks, as well as the characteristics of each class

Motivation
MUSEUM VISIT – for all the lessons in this chapter: (field trip) – visit a natural history museum,
or a marine museum. Document the invertebrates and search for members of phylum Mollusca.
If preserved samples are available in the biology laboratory, show them in class.
Live samples may be observed in some areas (such as the garden or aquarium)
Mollusks may be eaten. Some students (or faculty) may bring cooked squid or mussels.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss the general body plan of mollusks. Refer to textbook (pp. 282-285).
What are the different classes of mollusks? Discuss the characteristics and representative species of
each class. To supplement the lecture, you may search online for photographs of members of each class.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Ask the learners to bring samples of mollusks or mollusk shells to class. These may either be live,
cooked, or preserved.
If the museum visit activity is performed, ask the learners to document the mollusks they encounter
during the visit.

Deepening
Given the discussion of the different mollusk classes, ask the learners to classify the mollusk exam-
ples or specimens shown by the instructor or those encountered in the museum.

Integration
Humans have many different uses and interactions for mollusks. JEWELLERY: oysters produce
valuable pears, which are secretions that enclose an irritant that reaches the mantle of the mollusk. Several
species can be used for FOOD, while others are important pests in AGRICULTURE.
ENGINEERING has drawn inspiration from the mollusk known as the shipworm (Teredo). Its
capability to bore through wood was copied by engineers to build the tunneling device, used today to
dig tunnels through solid rock.

76
Remediation
Ask the learners to draw comparisons between different mollusk classes.

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to make a list of mollusks that can be eaten and to identify the classes that these
groups belong to.

Processing and Generalizing

What is the general mollusk body plan? How does the body plan differ across the different mollusk classes?

Reflection
I can distinguish between different mollusk classes.
I am aware of the characteristics of phylum Mollusca.

Lesson7 PHYLUM ARTHROPODA, p. 286

Lesson Overview
Arthropods contain the most species in the Animal kingdom, and display incredible diversity in
form and ecological niche. Arthropods possess jointed appendages, an open circulatory system, and an
exoskeleton made of chitin. In this lesson, the vast diversity of arthropod subphyla will be described.

Objectives
To discuss the general morphology of arthropods
To introduce the major arthropod subphyla (and classes)

Motivation
MUSEUM VISIT – for all the lessons in this chapter: (field trip) – visit a natural history museum,
or a marine museum. Document the invertebrates and search for members of phylum Arthropoda.
— Arthropods are a particularly diverse group; many classes may need to be represented.
— Some institutions may have specialized insect collections that are worth visiting.
If preserved samples are available in the biology laboratory, show them in class.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss the arthropod body plan – body segments, exoskeleton, respiration, and circulation. Refer
to textbook (pp. 286-291)
Introduce the different subphyla. What differentiates them from the other subphyla? Discuss some
representative species as well.
Discuss the characteristics of several well-known arthropods such as:
— Insects
— Spiders and scorpions
— Millipedes and centipedes
— Crustaceans
— Horseshoe crabs

77
Strategies for Differentiated Instruction
Natural history museums are almost guaranteed to have extensive collections of arthropods. Ask
the learners to:
— Document arthropod species
— Characterize them into the major arthropod groups

Deepening
What are the important human interactions with arthropods? Ask the learners to research and report
about several human interactions such as:
— Food production – arthropods are either major pollinators of produce, or important agricultural
pests
— Health – several diseases have arthropods as vectors
— Food and nutrition – several arthropods such as crustaceans and some insects may be eaten
— Other emerging and niche uses of arthropods

Integration
Arthropods, being the most diverse of the animal phyla, play an equally diverse role in human life
and the environment. Such interactions may be discussed in DEEPENING (above).

Remediation
Ask the learners to make representative illustrations of each arthropod subphyla.

Reinforcement
Tabulate the differentiating characteristics of the major arthropod subphyla.

Processing and Generalizing

What is the general arthropod body plan?
What is the significance of the different body segments of arthropods?
What kind of skeletal, respiratory, and circulatory system does this phylum have?
What are the differences between the arthropod subphyla?

Reflection
I can now distinguish between members of the different subphyla.
I can identify arthropods from other members of Animalia.

78
Lesson8 PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA, p. 292
Lesson Overview
Echinoderms are the first deuterostome phylum we will encounter. This lesson will discuss the main
characteristics of echinoderms, more commonly known as the phylum where starfish, sea urchins, sea
cucumbers, and sand dollars belong to.

Objectives
To describe the members of phylum Echinodermata

Motivation
MUSEUM VISIT – for all the lessons in this chapter: (field trip) – visit a natural history museum,
or a marine museum. Document the invertebrates and search for members of phylum Echinodermata.
— Since echinoderms are exclusively marine, look for marine exhibits.
If preserved samples are available in the biology laboratory, show them in class.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss the morphology and behavior of echinoderms. Refer to textbook (pp. 292-293).
Review the meaning of deuterostome. What are deuterostomes? What do they have in common
with vertebrates?
Discuss the different classes of echinoderms. What type of symmetry do most of these possess?

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Echinoderms are particularly fascinating due to their morphology and symmetry. Following the
Museum Visit activity (if performed), ask the learners to draw and illustrate echinoderm specimens.
— Specimens may be available in the school laboratory as preserved samples or skeletons (tests).
These could be used as reference.
— Learners can use online references or photographs of live echinoderms since living specimens
are more colorful than preserved ones. Also, several parts, like tube feet, are only visible on live
specimens.

Deepening
Ask the learners to study the different life stages of echinoderms and come up with a diagram on
their development. Typically, echinoderms have a larval stage.

79
Integration
REEF ECOLOGY: The crown-of-thorns starfish is well-known to be a major reef destroyer. It con-
sumes coral polyps and has a few natural enemies due to its spiny armor. Large groups of these starfish
can wipe out reefs rapidly. In a balanced ecosystem, the population of these starfish are kept in check.

Remediation
What are the parts of echinoderms? Ask the learners to illustrate and label their parts using a rep-
resentative class.
— For an added challenge (or variety), try to illustrate the anatomy of sea urchins, sea cucumbers,

Reinforcement
Echinoderms belong to the group Bilateria. Ask the learners to discuss the relationship of echino-
derms to the rest of the group in terms of symmetry.

Processing and Generalizing

What are echinoderms? What is their general body morphology?
What is a deuterostome?

Reflection
I can distinguish echinoderms from other invertebrate phyla.

80
Chapter 15.3 The Vertebrates, p.294
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ describe the distinguishing characteristics of vertebrates
■ explain the various body forms and body functions of vertebrates

Lesson 1 CHARACTERISTICS OF CHORDATES, p. 295

Lesson Overview
The phylum Chordata includes the familiar vertebrate taxa, as well as groups of invertebrates col-
loquially known as sea squirts (Tunicates) and lancelets. This lesson discusses the defining features of
this phylum.

Objectives
To describe the different characteristics of phylum Chordata, including the notochord, pharyngeal
slits, post-anal tail, and nerve cord

Motivation
In the Museum Visit activity, ask the learners to search for chordate taxa. It may be possible to view
specimens of marine invertebrate chordates such as tunicates; others may be preserved on microscope
slides in school collections.
Many chordate characteristics may be seen in embryonic development. Some collections house dif-
ferent embryos of vertebrates (fish, pig, chicken, human, etc.). These may be viewed in class if available.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Although more characteristics of chordates will be discussed with the entire chapter, the textbook
(p. 295) only defines the parts common to chordate development.
Many of these characteristics are not visible in many adults of the vertebrate taxa, but are present
as reduced or embryonic features. For example, the post-anal tail in humans is reduced to the coccyx.
Try to discuss the tunicates and lancelets if time permits (these are not discussed in the book). These
are “primitive” chordate taxa that are still invertebrate. The adult tunicate looks like sponges due to their
sessile, filter-feeding behavior. However, their larval forms have all the above mentioned characteristics
of chordates.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Online research: Since chordate samples that clearly depict the notochord and pharyngeal slits are
quite difficult to come by, ask the learners to search for photographs (not diagrams) of actual specimens
having these structures. (A diagram is already supplied by the book) Assign them to search for the sci-
entific name and the phylogeny of the species depicted in the photograph.

81
Deepening
What advantage does the formation of chordate characteristics entail?

Integration
VERTEBRATE ANATOMY AND EVOLUTION: The anatomy of chordates, especially in the in-
vertebrate and embryonic forms, offer us a unique insight on the mechanisms of evolution of vertebrates
from invertebrates.

Remediation
Ask the learners to define the following terms, either in words or through illustration:
— Notochord
— Dorsal hollow nerve cord
— Pharyngeal slits
— Post-anal tail

Reinforcement
Differentiate the chordate tail with the rear elongation ‘tails’ of insects or other arthropods.

Processing and Generalizing

What are the defining features of chordates?

Reflection
I am able to differentiate chordates from members of other phyla.

Lesson 2 FISHES
Lesson 3 AMPHIBIANS
Lesson 4 REPTILES
Lesson 5 BIRDS
Lesson 6 MAMMALS
The book’s treatment of the chordate classes are short, so these are merged in to all the vertebrate
classes into one large lesson. This is also to allow for interclass comparisons and the construction of
phylogenetic tree leading to the final lesson in this unit: Human Evolution.

Lesson Overview
The following lessons are to introduce and define the familiar vertebrate classes. The vertebrates
all belong to phylum Chordata, with most classification schemes assigning it the rank of subphylum.
The fish are divided into three clades (in most textbooks, having the rank of Class): the jawless fish
(Agnatha), the cartilaginous fishes (Chondrichthyes), and the bony fishes (Osteichthyes).
Amphibians present the first major adaptations for life on land, and undergo metamorphosis that
transforms them from the larval to adult forms. Three orders of amphibians are presented in the book:
the frogs (Anura), the salamanders (Urodela), and caecilians (Apoda).

82
 Reptiles are characterized by having the adaptation to walk on four legs (snakes have secondarily
lost this adaptation), with many species having adapted to completely remove their dependence on
water. Reptiles breathe with lungs and possess scaly skin. The book discusses four reptile orders: the
crocodiles, alligators, and caiman (Crocodilia), the tuataras (Sphenodontia), the lizards, snakes, iguanas,
chameleons, and geckoes (Squamata), and the turtles and tortoises (Testudines).
Birds are characterized by the presence of feathers for body covering and locomotion. Most birds are
capable of flight, having adapted for weight reduction by having air-filled bones and air sacs connected
to the lungs. Depending on the classification, birds can have up to 28 orders.
Mammals are most characterized by the presence of hair, and the ability to nurse their young by milk
– a secretion from the mammary glands. Mammals are divided into three main clades: the egg-laying
monotremes, the pouched marsupials, and the placental mammals.

Objectives
To describe and differentiate the vertebrate taxa
To produce an evolutionary overview of the vertebrate taxa

Motivation (It may be important to give the students a brief overview of the vertebrate taxa before
these activities)
Museum Visit: As a continuation or an added objective to the Museum Visit activity of the previous
chapter, the learners may document and take notes from natural history museums that house vertebrate
specimens or skeletons.
Zoo / safari visit: Many animal specimens in zoos and safaris are vertebrates. The learners will have
a great opportunity to see animals firsthand and to document their key characteristics. Kindly check
and reiterate the policies in these institutions (such as the use of flash photography, safety concerns,
cleanliness, etc.)
Laboratory specimens: your school may have specimens or skeletons of vertebrates. Show these to
the students.
Dissection of fish or frogs: Verify the dissection procedures to minimize the pain and distress to the
animal. (Note: swift, effective disruption of the central nervous system is key). The discussion on fish
or amphibians may be aided with dissection.
Dissection of balut: The morphology of the chick (while still in the egg) may be discussed with this
activity. It may be possible to obtain a particularly young embryo (whose feathers have not developed)
destined for balut production. This may be used to highlight commonalities between different vertebrate
embryos, as well as the presence of gill pouches – an important feature in chordate evolution.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss the fishes and the different classes. What are their defining characteristics, morphology,
and anatomy?
— Discuss the life cycle of fish, including the larval stage in most species. Differentiate the life
cycles of the three fish classes.

83
 — NOTE: the book classifies the different subgroups as clades, while some sources give the rank
as recommended. To the editors: please feel free to check and edit this manual to reflect the
principal source and taxonomic authority.
Discuss the general morphology and anatomy of amphibians and the major orders.
— Discuss the reproduction and life cycle of amphibians
— How do amphibians breathe? Discuss the different adaptations to terrestrial life. Despite this,
most amphibians still depend on water in certain life stages. (some amphibians, however, are
capable of living in completely dry desert areas)
— NOTE: some authors use different names for the orders of class Amphibia (Caudata instead of
Urodela)
Discuss the morphology and anatomy of reptiles and the major orders.
— What adaptations make reptiles better suited to land than amphibians? (despite this, some reptiles
are completely aquatic, like sea turtles and sea snakes)
— Differentiate the amphibian skin and reptile skin. Why did reptiles lose the ability to breathe
through their skin?
— Define the term poikilothermic.
— Discuss the different reptile orders.
Discuss the morphology and anatomy of birds. What differentiates birds from the other vertebrate
classes?
— Birds have been referred to as the animals most closely related to dinosaurs. This is evident in
the presence of scales in their feet, and the presence of a beak and feathers in some dinosaur
fossils. (Note: the term ‘dinosaur’ encompasses a very large group of prehistoric reptilians). In
some newer classification schemes, modern birds are still considered dinosaurs.
— What features are shared by both birds and reptiles?
— Discuss the adaptations for flight.
— Define the term endothermic. Why do birds (and mammals) need to keep this feature?
Discuss the morphology and anatomy of mammals. What body features and organs are exclusively
found on mammals?
— What are the three mammalian subgroups? What adaptations do these groups have that are
specialized for nursing the young?
— What specialized circulatory, neural, and skeletal features are found unique to mammals?
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Going back to the characteristic of being endothermic, some fish
have been known to be endothermic, such as tuna. This adaptation is likely due to the fish being a fast
swimmer and thus requires a faster metabolic rate.

84
Strategies for Differentiated Instruction
Ask the learners to document each representative vertebrate species they encounter in any of the
motivation activities above. The documentation may be either:
— Photography or illustration
— Writing down notable observed details

Deepening
Ask the learners to classify the documented vertebrate species into the different classes.
Attempt to construct a phylogenetic tree given the appearance of the various characteristics and
adaptations. The constructed tree may be compared against currently accepted models. These charac-
teristics may include:
— Vertebrae
— Keratinized epidermis
— Scales
— Mammary glands
— Amniotic sac
— …and others
Is it correct to say “mammals evolved from birds; birds evolved from reptiles; reptiles evolved from
amphibians; amphibians evolved from fish”? Why or why not?
— Answer: No, the statement above (and other related statements) are incorrect. It is more proper to
say that these groups share a common ancestor; and groups that diverged later share a common
ancestor later in the geological time scale. For example, mammals did not evolve from birds,
but birds and mammals shared a common ancestor. However, modern birds and reptiles share
a more ‘recent’ common ancestor than modern reptiles (and birds) and mammals. Perhaps this
common ancestor of birds and reptiles looked more reptilian than modern birds, but it is at this
point that the lineage of birds separated from reptiles.

Integration
Humans are included in the vertebrate mammals and thus have a lot in common with them. For ex-
ample, in RESEARCH, scientists test vertebrate animal models in order to verify the efficacy of drugs.
AGRICULTURE and AQUACULTURE utilizes several vertebrates as food. Several species of verte-
brates can be kept as PETS. In MEDICINE, the similarities of humans and other mammals paved the
way for XENOTRANSPLANTATION – the use of animal organs (such as pig’s) to be transplanted into
the human body. In CONSERVATION and ECOLOGY, scientists worry that several vertebrate species
will go extinct. Vertebrates are considered to be a keystone species in several ecosystems.

85
Remediation
Ask the learners to differentiate the vertebrate classes by listing their characteristics and contrasting
them.
If particular focus is given to a class, several orders may be differentiated.

Reinforcement
What are the adaptations utilized by the chordate classes to overcome the requirement for an aquatic
environment?
Are the caecilians and snakes related due to their lack of legs? Why or why not?

Processing and Generalizing

What are the major defining characteristics of the different vertebrate classes?
What different adaptations did the chordates undergo for life away from water?
What embryonic features are shared across the different vertebrates?

Reflection
I can identify the major vertebrate taxa.
I am aware of the different modifications to vertebrate anatomy.
I understand the similarities between the vertebrate taxa.

86
Chapter 15.4 Evolution of Humans, p.310
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ describe the derived features that distinguish primates from other animals
■ explain why scientists are having difficulty determining the true lines of descent in hominids

Lesson 1 EVOLUTION OF PRIMATES, p.311

Lesson 2 HUMAN EVOLUTION , p.313
The following lessons are grouped since the discussion of primate evolution in the book is quite
brief. It might be better to discuss human evolution as an offshoot of primate evolution.

Lesson Overview
Humans belong to the order Primates of class Mammalia. Human evolved very recently in the ge-
ologic time scale. In order to bring light to our evolutionary past, we must first look back at the history
and evidences of primate evolution.

Objectives
To discuss the characteristics of order Primates
To explain the evolutionary history of the primate families and genera
To explain the origin of humans and the extinct hominids
To discuss the evidences available that support the phylogenetic lineage of humans

Motivation
Some primates may be encountered during the Museum Visit activity. Ask the learners to properly
document them either in photographs, illustrations, or notes.
Human and primate skeletons (or replicas) may be available in the school collection or laboratory.
Show the learners an image of the illustration “The March of Progress” by Rudolph Zallinger. Ask
them about their reaction to it.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss the lineage of primates and the various traits. Refer to textbook (pp. 311-312).
— NOTE: on page 319, the genera Pan, Pongo, Gorilla, and Homo belong to the family Hominidae,
which was not stated in the paragraph. (The family Hylobatidae was stated, however.)
Explain the lineage of the Hominids. Refer to textbook (pp. 313-317). The discussion is arranged
in somewhat chronological order.
— Explain the different sources of fossil hominids and the hominid genera: their traits, diet, and
possibly, behavior. Which of these show behavior that parallels that of modern humans?
— What are the characteristics of genus Homo? Why is it important to consider brain volume?
— Discuss the importance of mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal DNA in providing evidence of
genetic lineage.

87
 NOTE: Kindly provide the learners continuous access to dictionaries (online dictionaries can be
handy) due to the number of technical and scientific jargon in these lessons.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Provided with photographs of the different primates, ask the learners if they can name some of
them (using common names, then proceeding to scientific names whenever possible). Many species of
primates are conspicuously depicted in media and are thus familiar.
Ask the learners to list down the things they find in common with humans and apes.

Deepening
Using an image of “The March of Progress” with the scientific name labels removed, ask the learners
to attempt to identify the depicted species or subspecies.

— Since the illustration was conceived in 1965, new findings have already replaced older findings.
However, the fossils remain the same – perhaps only assigned new names or lineages.
It may be interesting to find out how we can reconstruct the faces from skeletal remains.
Is the measure of brain volume related to the ability to communicate and use tools? Why or why not?
Is the saying “man came from apes” logically correct?
NOTE: that The March of Progress Image is deemed to be misleading by some scientists, suggesting
a linear concept of evolution rather than a branching concept

Integration
Related to this study is FORENSIC RECONSTRUCTION: Human remains, such as skulls, can be
used as a template by reconstruction experts to try and find out what the person looked like while he
or she was still alive. It is possible due to the fact that there are definite points of attachment between
muscles, skin, and bone – and the amount of these can be estimated by the trained expert. The expert
builds muscle from bone (using a modeling clay-like substance) and completes it layer by layer until the
skin is complete. Although the skin color and hair distribution cannot be judged by just bone structure,
educated guesses are made based on the geographical location and other fossil evidence.

88
Remediation
Ask the learners to draw (or attempt to reconstruct) the phylogenetic tree of the order Primates. In
order to keep it simple, the activity can be limited to extant species.

Reinforcement
Given the lesson on the behavior of the extinct hominids, ask the learners to draw a caricature of a
particular fossil hominid while it was still alive. It should depict one or more of the following:
— Its diet
— Interaction with other members of the species
— Habitat
— Unique or emergent behavior (bipedalism, use of tools, etc.)

Processing and Generalizing

What characteristics define the order Primates?
How did we know the lifestyle of the ancient hominids?
How is the species Homo sapiens sapiens placed in the primate lineage?

Reflection
I can identify primates from the other mammalian orders.
I understand the basis and evidence for the evolutionary lineage of primates.
I understand the challenges of reconstructing the history of human evolution.

Chapter 15 Diagnostic Test

A. The animal kingdom is an incredibly diverse group of multicellular eukaryotes that have specialized
tissues, the ability to move or react quickly to stimuli, reproduce sexually, and are heterotrophic.
The phylum _______(1)_______, or the sponges, are considered to be the most simple of all animals
due to the lack of true tissues – only specialized cells. Phylum _______(2)_______, where corals and
jellyfish belong, have tissues that can contract and absorb nutrients. Members of this phylum are also
known to have specialized stinging cells called _______(3)_______.
The following phyla are characterized by three embryonic cell layers, making them _______(4)_______.
A body cavity housed within the middle layer or mesoderm is called a _______(5)_______. Some phy-
la, such as the _______(6)_______ or the flatworms, are triploblastic but has no body cavity, making
it _______(7)_______. Phylum _______(8)_______, or the roundworms, contain a body cavity but
is sandwiched between the mesoderm and endoderm, making them _______(9)_______. The phyla
of mollusks, arthropods, echinoderms, and chordates are all true coelomates. Members of phylum
_______(10)_______ are known for their soft bodies, containing a mantle and a foot, which may or may
not be housed in a hard, calcium carbonate shell. The phylum _______(11)_______ includes the animals
with chitinous exoskeletons and jointed legs. In this phylum are the _______(12)_______, arachnids,

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crustaceans, millipedes, and centipedes. Members of phylum _______(13)_______ include the starfish
and sea urchins. Finally, the evolution of the _______(14)_______, which was to eventually become the
backbone in vertebrates, was seen in phylum _______(15)_______.
1. Porifera 9. pseudocoelomate
2. Cnidaria 10. Mollusca
3. cnidocytes 11. Arthropoda
4. triploblastic 12. insects
5. coelom 13. Echinodermata
6. Platyhelminthes 14. notochord
7. acoelomate 15. Chordata
8. Nematoda

B. The vertebrates are characterized by the presence of a hard, mineralized backbone which enclos-
es and protects the _______(1)_______. Vertebrates also have a skull, or _______(2)_______, that
protects the brain. The simplest vertebrates are the _______(3)_______, some of which retain the
notochord (and thus do not possess a hardened vertebra) throughout life. This is followed by the jawed
fishes, including the _______(4)_______ or cartilaginous fishes, and the _______(5)_______, or the
bony fish. _______(6)_______ represent the early adaptations for life on land, having feet and limbs but
still relying on water for the development of their embryos. _______(7)_______ and birds lay eggs with
sturdy shells and an amniotic sac designed to prevent the developing embryo in the egg from drying out.
_______(8)_______have specialized glands called _______(9)_______ that are used to nourish the
young. It is from a group of mammals, called _______(10)_______, where the humans evolved from.
1. dorsal nerve cord 6. amphibians
2. cranium 7. reptiles
3. jawless fish 8. mammals
4. Chondrichthyes 9. mammary glands
5. Osteichthyes 10. primates

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Unit IX Organismal Biology, p.324

Chapter 16.1 Structure and Function of Animals, p.325

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ discuss sexual and asexual reproduction methods
■ explain the processes of digestion and absorption
■ explain the role of the musculoskeletal system
■ discuss different body processes such as nutrition and energy production, blood circulation, gas
exchange, and immunity

Lesson1 REPRODUCTION, p. 326

Lesson Overview
Reproduction is an essential characteristic of life. There are a variety of reproductive strategies
employed by animals. In this lesson, we observe several means of asexual and sexual reproduction.

Objectives
To describe the means of sexual and asexual reproduction in animals

Motivation
If you have discussed the different animal taxa before this, you may ask the learners to recall the
means of sexual (or asexual) reproduction in the different representative animal species.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss the different reproductive strategies (pp. 326-328).
The textbook only has the asexual reproduction examples being illustrated. I believe that a more
complete lesson can be delivered by discussing sexual reproductive strategies as well. For example:
— Sponges and corals, and some fish release sperm and eggs into the water. The eggs are fertilized
and transform into larvae, which settle down.
— Male octopi give the females packets of sperm. This is typically injected into the female’s mantle.
The female uses this to fertilize her eggs.
— Amphibians (such as frogs) form male-female pairs and simultaneously release eggs and sperm
into the water. Many amphibians have specialized ways to take care of their young.
— Birds and reptiles rely on internal fertilization so the female lays fertilized eggs. Prior to this,
males and females of the species copulate first.

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 — Mammals rely on internal fertilization and give birth to live offspring.
— Copulation – where the male injects or inserts sperm into the female – is present in many animal
phyla, including vertebrates and arthropods.
— Social insects (such as ants and bees) rely on the queen – whose primary purpose is reproduction
– as the core of the colony. In many social insects, the worker caste is composed of nonrepro-
ductive females, while the males’ sole purpose is to fertilize the queen.
This topic needs to be discussed as scientifically (but as freely) as possible to bypass the taboo on
discussing sexual behavior.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Let the learners report on the reproductive behavior of animals, with focus on the sexual reproduction
(since not all animals can asexually reproduce). These can be illustrated or creatively presented in class.
It is recommended that the class be split in groups so a phylum or class can be assigned to each group.

Deepening
Why is sexual reproduction needed? What happens when a population stops reproducing sexually?

Integration
POPULATION GENETICS and CONSERVATION: When a population is severely reduced, the
individuals will find difficulty in avoiding inbreeding. An inbred population will suffer from the increase
of homozygous recessive individuals may confer disadvantages in survival. A population with poor
genetic diversity is prone to diseases, as there is a less chance of natural resistance among the population.
This is taken into concern by scientists that monitor the populations of threatened species of animals.

Remediation
While most animals are capable of sexual reproduction, there are some that reproduce exclusively
by asexual reproduction. Ask the learners to research examples of such animals.

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to list down all the means of sexual and asexual reproduction discussed in class.
For each item, ask them to provide examples of animal taxa exhibiting such means. Lastly, ask them
to describe how each of the means of reproduction is advantageous to the animal from an evolutionary
perspective.

Processing and Generalizing

What is the importance of sexual reproduction?
Why can some animals reproduce asexually?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of sexual and asexual reproduction?

Reflection
I am familiar with the reproductive strategies in animals.

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Lesson 2 NUTRITION AND ENERGY PRODUCTION, p.329
Lesson Overview
Animals are heterotrophs, meaning they must consume other organisms (or organic compounds
produced by other organisms) to obtain energy. Animals, unless in partnership with autotrophs (such as
coral symbiotes), cannot produce their own energy. Animals employ the various metabolic pathways
discussed in Biology I to transform food energy to ATP.

Objectives
To discuss animal feeding behavior
To discuss nutrition with reference to the biological macromolecules (in Biology I)
To explain the biological process that food encounters within an animal

Motivation
What do animals eat? Challenge the learners to tell what a specific animal eats (or where it gets its
nourishment from). These animals may be the ones encountered from the previous Unit (Museum Visit,
Zoo visit, etc.)

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

What are the main groups of animals according to food source? Refer to textbook (pp. 329-334).
In addition to the herbivore, carnivores, and omnivores, some animals may be parasitic as well – which
makes them fall outside the three groups above.
Review the biomolecules first (refer to the Biology I textbook) and explain their role as the macro-
nutrients.
Discuss the different processes by which the nutrients can be digested and absorbed. In the context
of energy production, the biomolecules are processed by either glycolysis, transamination/deamination
(for proteins), or beta-oxidation before entering the Krebs cycle. This lesson is from Biology I.
Note that many steps in this lesson are only available to animals with digestive systems with a mouth
and anus. Many animals, such as cnidarians, consume and expel food through the same orifice. Others,
like many endoparasites, absorb nutrients through their external covering.
Vitamins differ from one animal to another. This is because some animals can synthesize what others
cannot – such as vitamin C. Many primates cannot synthesize ascorbic acid so it is considered a vitamin,
while other animals – especially carnivores – can make their own.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Ask the learners to do simple research on a particular phylum or species and find out how it obtains
its nutrition. How do these animals obtain food? What do they eat?

Deepening
Is the feeding behavior and digestion related to the presence or absence of coelom? Why or why not?
What are the differences between the digestive systems across the various animal phyla?

93
Integration
ANIMAL NUTRITION: Whether for conservation, research, veterinary, or agriculture, a proper
balanced diet is important. Researchers may formulate different diets based on the animal’s diet in its
natural habitat, or approximate it (if these diets are no longer available). For example: cats and dogs are
carnivores, but most commercial cat food contain grain – which provides the necessary carbohydrates
at a lower cost.

Remediation
Ask the learners to list three different types of feeding mechanisms in animals. Have them discuss
different structural adaptations that enable them to feel efficiently.

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to compare and contrast at least two animal species in terms of feeding and nutri-
tional needs.

Processing and Generalizing

What are the different macronutrients used by animals?
What are the main subdivisions of the animal kingdom according to food source?

Reflection
I understand how animals obtain their food.
I can describe the different animal feeding preferences.
I am aware of the digestive processes used in breaking down and absorbing food.

Lesson 3 CONTROL SYSTEMS, p.335

Lesson Overview
Animals have complex behavior that entails feeding, reproduction, movement, and response to many
stimuli. In order to accomplish this, the nervous system and endocrime system work to form control
systems that can react in a timely manner.

Objectives
To discuss the roles of the neural and hormonal control systems of animals

Motivation
Reflex: several known reflexes can be used to demonstrate involuntary neural control. The reflex
triggers include:
— The popular knee-jerk reflex
— Oculocardiac reflex: pressing onto the eyeballs slows down heart rate (tends to disappear in
adults)
— Biceps reflex
— Pupillary light reflex

94
Presentation of Content / Reading Materials
Discuss the structure of the nervous systems of different animal phyla. Many animals have a ‘main’
collection of nerve cells in the brain. Other animals, such as cnidarians have a neural net. If different
nerve cells are bundled together, the result is nerve fibers. The formation of the brain is also associated
with the brain’s localization into a head packed with other sensory receptors. The evolution of the head
in many different animal phyla is called cephalization. Refer to textbook (pp. 335-345).
Describe the structure of the brain. The book’s discussion of the brain is primarily focused on the
brain structure of higher primates. Brains of other vertebrates are markedly different (of course, brains
of animals from other phyla have pronounced differences as well).
Differentiate the central and peripheral nervous system; the sensory-somatic and autonomic nervous
system; and from the autonomic nervous system, the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
What are hormones? Discuss the main classes of hormones and their effects on the body – on the
organism’s actions and development.
— NOTE: Cholesterol is not a hormone, but it is grouped together with the hormones to account
for their structural similarities

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Ask the learners to search online for the structures of the different animal nervous systems. It is good
to represent all phyla (except Porifera). Ask them to sketch these structures.

Deepening
What is the impact of the complexity of the central nervous system to the animal’s behavior? How
about the brain-to-body mass ratio? Does a more complex central nervous system mean more complex,
‘intelligent’ behavior?

Integration
Studies on the nervous system and hormones (endocrine system) in humans are governed by the
disciplines of NEUROLOGY and ENDOCRINOLOGY. These fields help treat human diseases, and
also give us insight on animal biology as well.

Remediation
How are nervous systems arranged into its different components? Ask the learners to draw a nerve
cell, nerve bundle, and a sample animal nervous system.

Reinforcement
List down; compare and contrast the opposing branches of the autonomic nervous system.
Challenge the learners to match the physiological responses with the hormones that cause them.

Processing and Generalizing

What are the different nervous system layouts found in the animal kingdom?
What are the roles of the somatic and autonomic nervous system? How about the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous system?

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 What is the role of hormonal control on the physiology of animals?

Reflection
I understand the role of the nervous system in animals.
I am familiar with the different effects of hormones in animal response, growth, and development.

Lesson 4 CIRCULATION, p.346

Lesson Overview
In order to distribute oxygen (and nutrients) to cells that are not in direct contact with oxygen-con-
taining air or water, animals must rely on a circulatory system. Different animals have different config-
urations for their circulatory systems.

Objectives
To explain the role of the circulatory system
To discuss the types and configurations of circulatory systems of different animal phyla

Motivation
Ask the learners about blood. Why is blood red? What is the color of the blood of other (non-ver-
tebrate) animals?
— As an example, the blood of the horseshoe crab is blue; it contains hemoganin bound to copper
instead of hemoglobin bound to iron.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss the circulatory system and differentiate the open and closed circulatory systems. Refer to
textbook (p. 346-352).
Blood as discussed in this book is particular to the mammalian (human) setting. Other species have
different types of blood cells or oxygen-carrying molecules. For example, the red blood cells in fish,
birds, amphibians, and reptiles have nuclei; while mammalian red blood cells do not have nuclei.
Discuss the means of oxygenating the circulatory system in animals. These may include lungs, gills,
or the skin. What are the structures of these organs?
NOTE: some animals, having only few cell layers where oxygen, nutrients, and waste can freely
diffuse in and out, do not require a circulatory system.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

DISSECTION: If proceeding with frog or fish dissection, it may be possible to observe the heart.
It may be carefully dissected – sometimes even while still beating. (Make sure that the animal’s central
nervous system is disabled or disconnected.)
DISSECTION OF NONLIVING SPECIMENS: Chicken or pork hearts are available in the meat
section of many markets. These may be dissected as well and their internal components observed.

96
 It is possible to observe blood in a microscope if the school is equipped with one. Mount a drop of
blood on a slide and place it in a microscope. You can get a blood sample from a consenting student
(or a faculty member) by using a sterile, medical-grade lancelet. A blood sample from a non-mammal
vertebrate can be used for comparison.

Deepening
Circulatory systems still rely on diffusion for gas exchange. In this case, the diffusion of oxygen
from air/water to the blood is important. The most efficient systems is achieved in many fishes through
countercurrent exchange, where blood and water (separated by a membrane) flow in opposite directions.
This ensures that the concentration of oxygen is higher in the water than the blood right next to it, causing
the oxygen to move into the blood.

Integration
MEDICINE: In humans, cardiovascular system disorders are the leading cause of death according
to many studies. Speaking of circulation and gas exchange as a whole, the related medical fields are
cardiology, hematology, and pulmonology. In many cases in heart disease, a blood vessel that supplies
blood to the heart is blocked, leading to oxygen deprivation of the heart muscle. This causes a heart
attack, which is sometimes fatal. People can succumb to multiple heart attacks.

Remediation
Ask the learners to list the blood vessels associated with the human heart. Have them identify which
of those are arteries and which are veins. Have them identify which of those are oxygenated and which
are deoxygenated. Have them trace the flow of blood.

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to draw or sketch the diagram of an open and closed circulatory system and make
comparisons between the two.

Processing and Generalizing

What is the importance of the circulatory system? Why is it needed by many animal phyla?
What animal phyla rely on an open circulatory system? Which phyla have a closed circulatory system?

Reflection
I understand the role of the circulatory system
I can differentiate closed and open circulatory systems

Lesson 5 BODY SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT, p.353

Lesson Overview
Most animals can move; the ability to move and react to stimuli is a characteristic of all animals at
some point in their life stages. Muscular movement requires skeletal support. This lesson discusses the
basis for animal movement and body support.

97
Objectives
To describe the different types of body support: hydrostatic skeleton, endoskeleton, and exoskeleton
To explain the mechanisms by which muscle fibers generate force

Motivation
What are muscles? Have someone flex his or her muscles. How does a person control his/her mus-
cles? What bone supports the muscle that your classmate flexed?
Meat is mostly muscle. Muscle fibers can be observed in raw and cooked meat. Additionally, the
three types of muscles can be observed from samples available in the market: skeletal muscle in meat,
smooth muscle in intestine, and cardiac muscle in heart.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Introduce the different skeleton types of animals: hydrostatic, endoskeleton, and exoskeleton. Refer
to textbook (pp. 353-357).
— Note: apart from having a water-filled hydrostatic skeleton used by starfish for locomotion,
echinoderms are also considered to have an endoskeleton (the hard calcium carbonate plates
enclosed in skin).
Mention the different muscle types: smooth, cardiac, and skeletal muscle. Focus the discussion on
skeletal muscles. What are the components of skeletal muscle fibers?
Discuss the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction. This discussion is better supplemented
with videos and animations available online.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Muscle samples may be easily dissected and mounted on a microscope slide. Thin slices of muscle
(heart, smooth, skeletal) can be obtained from market samples and mounted on the microscope.
The skeletal system of a dissected frog may be used as reference for an endoskeleton.
Insect samples can be used for discussing exoskeletons.
Earthworms possess a hydrostatic skeleton. The locomotion using a hydrostatic skeleton can be
demonstrated using live earthworms.

Deepening
What is the advantage of an endoskeleton over an exoskeleton (with respect to animal growth)?

Integration
THE FOSSIL RECORD: Endo- and exoskeletons are hard structures and are thus more easily pre-
served than others. However, reconstructing the other soft body parts can be a challenge especially to
animal taxa that have no known close living relatives.

Remediation
Muscular action involves an antagonistic pair of muscles that are attached to a skeletal support. Ask
the learners to provide examples of an antagonistic pair of muscles and the bone that supports them.

98
Reinforcement
Ask the learners to document, describe, or draw their observations from any of the motivation or
observation activities (strategies for differentiated instruction) above.
What are the differences between hydrostatic, exo- and endoskeletons?
Outline the sequence of events leading to muscle contraction (sliding filament model)?

Processing and Generalizing

What are the different types of skeletal system?
What are the different types of vertebrate muscle cells/fibers?
How do muscles contract and relax?

Reflection
I understand the role of the musculoskeletal system for protection and movement.
I understand the processes that makes muscle fibers contract.

Lesson 6 IMMUNITY, p.358

Lesson Overview
In order to resist pathogens, animals must have a means of fighting them. Some animals possess
an immune system that is responsible for recognizing pathogens, attacking them, and preventing future
infections of the same pathogen.

Objectives
To explain the mechanisms of immunity and immune cells
To describe the innate and adaptive immune response

Motivation
Ask the learners if they have ever been sick with chickenpox, mumps, or measles. Have they been
vaccinated? Why is it unusual to get these diseases twice?

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss and differentiate the innate and adaptive immune response. Refer to textbook (pp. 358-361).
— What are pathogen-associated molecular patterns?
Discuss the different immune cell types of the vertebrate immune system.
Explain the interplay between the different immune cells in the human immune system. Kindly search
for diagrams or videos online that describe these interactions (the book provides a simple example in
Art Connection, p. 360).

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

White blood cells may be observed if there are prepared slides or through a blood sample. Staining
may be used if available. Ask the learners to describe any white blood cell seen in the slide.

99
Deepening
Present the learners with the following questions for researching:
— What groups of animals have an adaptive immune system?
— What do vaccines do and how do they work?

Integration
IMMUNOLOGY and VACCINE PREPARATION (see Career Connection). Apart from designing
and preparing vaccines, immunologists also deal with autoimmune diseases where the body’s immune
system attacks the body’s own cells, causing (usually) chronic, serious disease. There are also cases
where our immune system malfunctions due to death, destruction, or underproduction of mature white
blood cells (in AIDS, Ebola, or leukemia). The challenge of vaccine design is to try to develop vaccines
for widespread diseases and emerging infectious diseases.
DENGUE is a disease that is observed to worsen with each succeeding infection. One infection
of dengue virus typically gives lasting immunity, but only to the subtype that was encountered by the
body. Subsequent infections by other subtypes will result in antibody-dependent enhancement, causing
serious disease. The challenge of designing a dengue vaccine is to prepare a vaccine that will cover all
four dengue subtypes simultaneously. If time permits, ask the learners to read on this topic.

Remediation
Ask the learners to list the cell types involved in immunity and have them indicate the function of each.

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to draw a diagram detailing the steps by which the immune system is activated by
an invading pathogen.

Processing and Generalizing

What is the role of the immune system?
What are the components of the innate immune system? How about the adaptive immune system?
How does the immune system protect animals from pathogens?

Reflection
I understand the mechanisms of the innate and adaptive immune system.
I understand how vaccines work.

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Chapter 16.2 Structure and Function of Plants, p.362
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ describe the shoot organ system and the root organ system
■ describe the main function and basic structure of some plant parts
■ differentiate the vascular tissues found in a plant
■ describe how plants obtain nutrients

Lesson 1 THE PLANT BODY, p.363

Lesson Overview
Like animals, plants are multicellular organisms that have specialized tissues and organs. The func-
tions of these are described in this lesson.

Objectives
To describe the different plant tissue types
To explain the role of the different plant organs

Motivation
During the Garden Visit activity, ask the learners to note the variety in stems, leaves, and roots (if
visible).
Samples or images depicting the diversity of plant leaves, stems, and roots may be shown in class.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss the different plant tissues. Refer to textbook (pp. 363-367).
— What are meristematic tissues?
— What are primary tissues?
— What are secondary tissues?
— What are the specialized water- and nutrient-conducting tissue or structures in plants?
Discuss the role of the different plant organs: Stems, roots, and leaves. What are their structures?
In many plant species, there are various modifications to these organs to allow for survival in spe-
cialized niches. These include:
— Leaves in cacti are converted to spines
— Leaves in many vines are converted to tendrils
— Roots can become specialized storage organs (such as carrots)
— Stems can become water-storage organs and become photosynthetic (cacti and succulents)
— …and many more modifications found throughout the plant kingdom
Most of these parts are applicable to vascular plants. If time permits, try to discuss the parts of
non-vascular plants as well. These do not have true stems, leaves, or roots.

101
Strategies for Differentiated Instruction
Plant dissection: plant samples can be easily and readily obtained and mounted in a light microscope.
Several tissues and organs can be directly observed.

Deepening
Apart from modifying the roles of the different plant organs, some plants have lost some organs
altogether. For example, many parasitic plants cannot photosynthesize. Ask the learners to research and
report on the characteristics and evolutionary adaptations of parasitic plants.

Integration
HORTICULTURE is the science and art of growing and breeding plants – for ornamental, medicinal,
or food purposes. In horticulture, plants with key traits in their organs (including flowers) are selected
and bred until the desired trait is reliably inherited.

Remediation
Ask the learners to compare and contrast the different plant tissue types based on structure and function.

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to draw and illustrate the plant organs discussed in this chapter. What are their parts
and how do those parts relate to the organ's function.

Processing and Generalizing

What are the different plant tissues? What are their roles?
What are the functions of xylem and phloem?

Reflection
I understand the function of plant stems, leaves, and roots.
I am aware of the various modifications of plant organs for adaptation.
I understand the role of the different plant tissue types.

Lesson 2 REPRODUCTION, p.368

Lesson Overview
Most plants carry specialized structures for sexual reproduction. This involves the meeting of sperm
and egg and an alternation of generations between the haploid gametophyte and the diploid sporophyte.
In this lesson, the sexual and asexual reproductive strategies of plants will be discussed.

Objectives
To explain the alternation of generations in plants
To discuss sexual and asexual reproduction in plants

102
Motivation
Flowers are regarded as beautiful to look at. Either bring flowers to class for the students to observe,
or present photographs of flowers. The reproductive parts of nonflowering plants can also be brought
and observed: the sporophytes and gametophytes of mosses (containing reproductive parts), sporangia
of ferns and fern allies, and cones of gymnosperms.
These structures may be observed and documented during the Garden Visit activity.

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss the life cycle of plants, and try to include the different plant groups (especially mosses and
liverworts, ferns, the gymnosperms, and angiosperms). Refer to textbook (pp. 368-371) and to external
sources as well.
— What are the gametophyte and sporophyte? What do they look like in the different plant groups?
Discuss the structure of flowers and cones of seed plants.
Discuss the means of pollination (in seed plants) and fertilization in the different plant groups.
— Differentiate the single fertilization of gymnosperms with the double fertilization in angiosperms.
Discuss the means of asexual reproduction in some plant species.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Flower dissection: flower samples can be dissected with a sharp blade or knife, followed by observing
with a hand lens. These can be documented or illustrated. If there are several kinds of flowers brought
to class, each of them may be compared.

Deepening
Plants can form hybrids when two closely-related species are bred together (pollen from one is
transferred to the stigma of another). The seeds can be planted and the resulting plant typically has the
characteristics of both parents. However, this hybrid may be sterile, or planting its seeds will yield plants
having different characteristics as the parent. Why?

Integration
AGRICULTURE and CONSERVATION: as with animals, sexual reproduction is necessary to pro-
duce plant breeds with a chance of resisting disease. For example, bananas have been almost exclusively
propagated by asexual reproduction (due to their seedless nature), and lethal pathogens have been gaining
ground. The banana crop is threatened by lack of genetic diversity.

Remediation
Ask the learners to draw and compare the pollination and fertilization patterns of angiosperms and
gymnosperms.
How do non-seed plants reproduce?

Reinforcement
What are the advantages and disadvantages of sexual and asexual reproduction? Let the learners
compare and contrast between the two.

103
Processing and Generalizing
What are the different sexual and asexual reproduction methods of plants?
What are the plant parts specialized for sexual and asexual reproduction?

Reflection
I understand the ways in which plants reproduce sexually and asexually.
I am familiar with the structures of the flower, cone, and sporangia.

Lesson 3 FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS, p.383

Lesson Overview
This lesson focuses on the ecology of plants. Beyond autotrophs, plants have evolved into diverse
roles in the ecosystem – some as mutualists, commensals, and parasites.

Objectives
To explain the diverse ecological role of plants

Motivation
By now, the learners should be familiar with the different plant taxa. Ask them if they are familiar
with symbiotic relationships of plants and other organisms, such as:
— Plants coordinating with root bacteria (such as peanuts)
— Epiphytic plants (such as orchids)
— Parasitic plants (such as Rafflesia)
— Carnivorous plants (such as Venus fly-trap and the pitcher plant)
Photographs or samples of these taxa may be shown

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss the ecological niches plants occupy. Refer to textbook (pp. 372-374). Explain the roles and
interactions shown in the examples above (motivation).
Review the mycorrhizal interaction of plants and fungi.
Explain the leguminous root nodules, where plants house nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their roots.

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Have the learners examine actual specimens of root nodules, orchids, and with fly traps and ask
them to observe the specialized structure.

104
Deepening
Parasitic plants have even more specialized interactions with their host plant. Some plants can be
obligate or facultative parasites. Many of these interactions are available with external or online references.
Ask the learners to find out more about the life cycle and hosts of a popular parasitic plant, Rafflesia.

Integration
Though this section focuses mainly on plant-plant and plant-fungus interaction, plants also interact
extensively with animals. Several branches of animal studies have shown the CO-EVOLUTION of
plants and animals due to these interactions. For example, some plants co-evolved their partnership
with ants – giving ants nutrient-rich secretions while the ants protect the plants from grazing animals.
Other plants are known to chemically signal nearby plants in case of infestation by herbivorous insects.

Remediation
Ask the learners to list down and give examples of the various ecological roles filled by plants.

Reinforcement
Ask the learners to read about the structural adaptations of orchids the enable them to become epiphytes.

Processing and Generalizing

Apart from being autotrophs, what other interactions do plants have in the ecosystem?

Reflection
I am now aware of the different ecological interactions of plants and other kingdoms of life.

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Chapter 16.3 Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanism, p.375
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ define homeostasis
■ discuss positive and negative feedback mechanisms used in homeostasis
■ describe thermoregulation of endothermic and ectothermic animals
■ explain why osmoregulation and osmotic balance are important body functions

Lesson 1 FEEDBACK MECHANISM, p.376

Lesson Overview
This lesson discusses the various homeostatic and feedback mechanisms concerning the regulation
of nutrients, oxygen, body temperature, and osmotic balance in animals.

Objectives
To introduce and discuss the mechanisms of homeostasis in animals

Motivation
What happens when the temperature is too hot? Ask the learners if they know the reason why people
sweat. How does sweat work?

Presentation of Content / Reading Materials

Discuss the need for homeostasis. Review the necessary characteristics for life. Apart from home-
ostasis, what are these?
Discuss the various ways in which homeostasis is performed. Refer to textbook (pp. 376-380).
What physiological parameters need to be maintained?

Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

Ask the learners to research and report on the regulatory roles of the following organs:
— Skin
— Kidneys
— Pancreas
— Pituitary gland
— Hypothalamus

Deepening
It may be interesting to note the variations in thermoregulation in many animal species. How do
reptiles thermoregulate? What happens if reptiles are kept in a cold, unlit space? Unlike birds and mam-
mals, reptiles must absorb heat from the environment.

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Integration
The blood pH is tightly regulated in humans. It is not possible to change our pH with any food or
drink, no matter how ‘acidic’ or ‘alkaline’ it is – unless there is a serious physiological condition. Many
diet fads and products promising a healthier ‘alkaline’ body are therefore bogus.

Remediation
Ask the learners to provide the mechanism for the regulation of a selected parameter (like temper-
ature, blood glucose, oxygen level, etc.).

Reinforcement
Draw a diagram that shows the feedback mechanism involved.

Processing and Generalizing

What are the feedback mechanisms available to animals that help maintain homeostasis?

Reflection
I understand how regulatory and feedback mechanisms work for homeostasis.

Chapter 16 Diagnostic Test

Animals need to have the means of control, nutrition, locomotion, nutrient transfer, reproduction,
and immunity against pathogens to be able to survive. Many animals are able to _______(1)_______
nutrients through a specialized lining; in higher animals, a complete digestive tract is found. This system
is able to break down and absorb nutrients and _______(2)_______ waste. The nutrients and oxygen are
distributed through a circulatory system through a liquid organ called _______(3)_______ by a muscular
pump called a _______(4)_______. The animal may also have specialized cells and an immune system
that recognizes foreign material and destroys or neutralizes them. Movement in animals is governed by
the _______(5)_______, which receives sensory input and sends electrical signals in specialized cells
called nerves. A large collection of these cells form the _______(6)_______ of the animal. The signals
reach the _______(7)_______, which are able to contract and move at will. Another control system
regulates the growth, development, and internal environment of animals through chemical messengers
called _______(8)_______. Finally, animals reproduce sexually through the formation of sperm and egg
cells, which can be _______(9)_______ in many ways. Animals can have specialized organs to procre-
ate; or house, protect, or nurture their young. Some animals can reproduce asexually by fragmentation,
budding, or _______(10)_______.
1. absorb 6. brain
2. expel 7. muscles
3. blood 8. hormones
4. heart 9. fertilized
5. nervous system 10. parthenogenesis

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 Plants have different organs and specialized tissues that aid in the acquisition and transport of
water and nutrients. Plant growth begins at the _______(1)_______ found in shoots and root; in some
plants, meristematic tissue is found in leaf bases or beneath the bark as well. Plant _______(2)_______
connect the photosynthetic leaves and the roots; sometimes, stems can be modified as storage organ.
Plant _______(3)_______contain the most chlorophyll and participate in the production of sugars from
sunlight. Plants reproduce through spores or _______(4)_______. Spores are borne in sporangia found
in ferns and bryophytes while seeds are produced by the fertilization of the _______(5)_______ in seed
plants. Gymnosperms and angiosperms rely on the transfer of _______(6)_______ grains to the female
reproductive organs (such as female cones or pistil) to produce seeds.
1. meristem 4. seeds
2. stems 5. ovary
3. leaves 6. pollen

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Notes

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Notes

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