NOTES ON FLUID MECHANICS

Peter E. Clark
Department of Chemical Engineering
November 12, 2008

1
Contents

1 Introduction 5
1.1 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.1 Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.2 Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.3 Specific Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Newtonian Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 Shear Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 Shear Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.3 Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Non-Newtonian Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1 Power Law Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.2 Bingham Plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.3 Herschel-Bulkley Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.4 Dilatant Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.5 Time Dependent Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Kinematic Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 Surface Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6 Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 Fluid Statics 15
2.1 Basic Equation of Fluid Statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 Pressure - Depth Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.1 Constant Density Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.2 Variable Density Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Pressure Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4 Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5 Pressure Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5.1 Manometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2
 Contents

2.5.2 Bourdon Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.5.3 Pressure Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.6 Accelerated Rigid-Body Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3 Balance Equations 27
3.0.1 Equation of Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.1 Control Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 Fluid Velocity in a Confined Region . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2.1 Flow Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2.2 Plug or Creeping Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2.3 Laminar Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2.4 Turbulent Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3 Unsteady-State Mass Balances . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4 The First Law of Thermodynamics 37

4.1 Energy Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2 Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.2.1 Sign Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2.2 Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2.3 Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3 Internal Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.4 Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5 Bernoulli Equation 43
5.1 Applying the Bernoulli Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.2 Bernoulli Equation With Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.3 Gas Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.4 Non-Flow Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.5 Flow Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.5.1 Pitot Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.5.2 Static Pitot Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.5.3 Venturi Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.5.4 Orifice Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.5.5 Rotameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.6 Unsteady Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

3
Contents

6 Fluid Friction in Steady One-Dimensional Flow 61

7 Momentum Balance 63
7.1 Newton’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.2 Control Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.3 Forces on a Control Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.4 Steady Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.5 Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum . . . . . . 73
7.5.1 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

4
1 Introduction

Outline
1. Review

a) Density
b) Specific gravity
c) Specific weight

2. Newtonian Fluids

a) Stress
b) Strain
c) Strain rate or shear rate
d) Viscosity

3. Non-Newtonian Fluids

a) Pseudoplastic
b) Bingham Plastic
c) Yield pseudoplastic or Herschel-Bulkly Fluid
d) Dilatant
e) Time dependent
i. Rheopetic
ii. Thixotropic

4. Kinematic Viscosity

5. Surface Tension

5
 1. Introduction

6. Pressure
7. Computer Problems

1.1 Review
There are a few concepts that need to be reviewed to aid in
understanding the text.

1.1.1 Density

mass kg g lbm
ρ= Units : 3 ; 3
: (1.1)
volume m cm f t3
Density is an extremely important property of matter. The density of a
material can be considered continuous except at the molecular level.
Density can also be thought of as the constant that relates mass to
volume. This makes it easy to convert between the two.

1.1.2 Specific Gravity

ρ kg g lbm lbm
SG = W here ρre f = 1000 3 ; 1 3 ; 62.4 3 ; 8.33 (1.2)
ρre f m cm ft gal
Specific gravity is used instead of density to tabulate data for different
materials. Using the specific gravity, the density in any set of units
may be found by picking the reference density in the desired units.
Note: When the reference density is expressed in cmg 3 , the density and
specific gravity have the same numerical value.

1.1.3 Specific Weight

g N dyne lb f
γ =ρ Units : 3 ; ; (1.3)
gc m cm3 f t 3
The specific weight (1.3) is a quantity that is used frequently in fluid
mechanics. In the American Engineering Series (AES) of units, it is
numerically equal to the density. The units are lb f rather than lbm .

6
 1.2. Newtonian Fluids

The choice of γ (gamma) for the symbol for specific weight was
somewhat unfortunate since another important variable in fluid
mechanics (strain) also uses γ . To avoid this problem, some books
uses Γ for strain. This is non-standard and can cause confusion since
Γ is rarely used for this purpose in the literature.

1.2 Newtonian Fluids

A fluid is defined as a material that can not support a stress or as a
material that is continuously deformed by the application of a stress.

Figure 1.1: A fluid element before deformation.

Figure 1.2: Fluid element after the application of a force acting tan-
gentially on the top of the element.

1.2.1 Shear Stress

The shear stress is simply the force divided by the area over which it
acts. As we will see, it has the same units as pressure.
f orce N dyne lb f lb f
shear stress(τ or σ ) = Units : 2 ; ; ; (1.4)
area m cm2 f t 2 in2

1.2.2 Shear Rate

Strain is a quantity commonly found in mechanics. It is the ratio of
the change in length divided by the original length. In fluids the shear

7
 1. Introduction

strain is defined as the shear displacement divided by the height of the

fluid element. Strain is unitless.

displacement x
strain (γ ) = = (1.5)
element height y

Since a fluid is continuously deformed by a force acting on it, strain

doesn’t mean much, but the rate of strain or shear rate (γ̇ ) is important.

dγ d xy 1
strain rate or shear rate (γ̇ ) = = Units : (1.6)
dt dt time

1.2.3 Viscosity
Newton first proposed that the shear stress could be related to the
shear rate by
τ = Constant γ̇

The constant is termed the viscosity (µ ). It is a constant of

proportionality between shear stress and shear rate. Viscosity is
analogous to a modulus.

τ F ·t dyne · s N · s
τ = µ γ̇ =⇒ µ = Units : ; ; 2 or Pa · s (1.7)
γ̇ area cm2 m

The unit ( dyne · s ) is called a Poise. It is more common to use

cm2
centipoise (cp) or 0.01Poise. Water has a viscosity of 1 cp while
honey has a viscosity of about 400 cp. It is easy to confuse Poise and
centipoise when making calculations. Remember, a Poise is equal to
1, dyne · s . A Pa · s is equal to 0.1 Poise. Viscosity can also be
1cm2
lb · s
expressed in f ft 2 . The viscosity of water in the AES system of units
lb · s lb · s
is 2.1x10−5 f ft 2 . Converting from Poise to f ft 2 is accomplished by
lb · s
multiplying Poise by 1 f ft 2 /478.8 Poise. The equivalents for
viscosity are

lb f · s N ·s
1 = 47.88 = 478.8 Poise = 47880 centipoise
f t2 m2

8
 1.3. Non-Newtonian Fluids

1.3 Non-Newtonian Fluids

Fluids that exhibit a nonlinear relationship between stress and strain
rate are termed non-Newtonian fluids. Many common fluids that we
see everyday are non-Newtonian. Paint, peanut butter, and toothpaste
are good examples. High viscosity does not always imply
non-Newton behavior. Honey is viscous and Newtonian while a
5W30 motor oil is not very viscous, but it is non-Newtonian. There
are several types of non-Newtonian fluids. Figure 1.3 shows several
of the more common types.

Figure 1.3: Types of non-Newtonian fluids.

1.3.1 Power Law Fluids

Power law fluids are fluids that follow the power law (Equation 1.8)
over part or all of the shear rate range. These fluids are also known as
pseudoplastic fluids. Where m is the consistency index (K is also used
· sn and n is the power law or flow
in the literature) with units of Farea
behavior index. For power law fluids, n ranges from 0 to 1. While it is
greater than one for dilatant fluids. The value of m or K depends upon
the system of units. Viscosity of a power law fluid is obviously a
function of shear rate and not constant as it is for Newtonian fluids.
There are two different ways to describe the viscosity: the slope of the
tangent line at any point on the curve and the slope of the line drawn

9
 1. Introduction

from the origin to the shear rate of interest (Figure 1.4). The latter is
the preferred method and is termed the apparent viscosity and given
the symbol (ηa ). This is short for the apparent Newtonian viscosity
because it is the viscosity that a Newton fluid would have if the line is
based on a single point measurement. Because the viscosity is a
function of shear rate it is necessary to specify the shear rate at which
the viscosity is reported (ηa (γ̇ )).

τ = mγ̇ n (1.8)

τ m γ̇ n m
ηa (γ̇ ) = = = 1−n (1.9)
γ̇ γ̇ γ̇

Figure 1.4: Apparent Newtonian viscosity.

1.3.2 Bingham Plastic

Bingham plastic fluids are fluids that exhibit a yield stress (Figure 1.3.
This means that the fluid will support a stress up to a point before flow
begins. Good paints are Bingham plastics. The flow behavior of
Bingham plastic fluids is described by
τ = τ0 + µ p γ̇ (1.10)
Where τ0 is the yield stress (the stress that must be exceeded before
flow begins) and µ p is the plastic viscosity.

10
 1.3. Non-Newtonian Fluids

1.3.3 Herschel-Bulkley Fluids

The Herschel-Bulkley formulation is a generalization of the Bingham
plastic equation. In the Bingham plastic model, the viscosity is
constant after the yield stress is exceeded while the Herschel-Bulkley
model allows for power law behavior.

τ = τ0 + m γ̇ n (1.11)

Looking at the various parameters in the Herschel-Bulkley equation,

we can make the following observations for

τ = τ0 + m γ̇ n

when

τ0 = 0 =⇒ τ = mγ̇ n PowerLaw
τ0 = 0 and n = 1 =⇒ τ = µ γ̇ Newtonian
n=1 =⇒ τ = τ0 + µ p γ̇ BinghamPlastic

The Herschel-Bulkley fluid model can be reduced to the three other

models and is therefore the most general of the simple fluid models.

1.3.4 Dilatant Fluids

Dilatant fluids are shear thickening fluids. This means that the
viscosity increases with shear. There are few examples of dilatant
fluids. Most dilatant fluids are concentrated slurries. The power law
can be used to describe dilatant fluid behavior (n > 1).

1.3.5 Time Dependent Fluids

Time dependent fluids are fluids that increase or decrease in viscosity
over time at a constant shear rate. The construction industry uses a
cement slurry that thins with time at a constant pump rate because it is
easier to pump and fills forms easily. There are two types of time
dependent fluids: Rheopectic and Thixotropic.

11
 1. Introduction

Rheopectic Fluids
Rheopectic fluids increase in viscosity with time at constant shear
rate. There are few examples of rheopectic behavior. In the British
literature, rheopectic behavior is called anti-thixotropic behavior.

Thixotropic Fluids
These are fluids that lose viscosity over time at a constant shear rate.
Dispersing agents for cements tend to make them thixotropic.
Viscosity is recovered after the cessation of shear. In some systems,
the time it takes to recover is so short that a sheared sample can not be
poured out of a container before it gets too thick to flow.

1.4 Kinematic Viscosity

The kinematic viscosity, (ν ), is derived from gravity driven flow
measurements. Usually a glass capillary viscomer is used. Kinematic
viscosity can be derived from the shear viscosity (µ ) by dividing µ by
the fluid density.
µ
ν=
ρ
area f t 2 cm2
Units are time ( s , s , etc).

1.5 Surface Tension

Surface tension, (σ ), is a property of a liquid surface. It describes the
strength of the surface interactions. The units on surface tension are
Force
length . Surface tension is the driving force for water beading on a
waxy surface and free droplets of liquid assuming a spherical shape.
Lowering of surface tension can be accomplished by adding species
that tend collect at the surface. This breaks up the interactions
between the molecules of the liquid and reduces the strength of the
surface. Pure water has a surface tension that approaches 72 dynecm .
Surface tension can be reduced by adding surface active agents
(surfactants) to the liquid.

12
 1.6. Pressure

1.6 Pressure
Pressure is defined as force divided by the area that the force acts over
and therefore has units of FA . It can be a result of an applied force (for
example pumping) or hydrostatic (weight of a column of fluid). The
total pressure is the sum of the applied and hydrostatic pressure.
Pressure will be discussed in more detail in the next chapter.

P = Papplied + Phydrostatic

13
2 Fluid Statics

Outline
1. Basic Equation of Fluid Statics

2. Pressure - Depth Relationships

a) Constant density fluids

b) Ideal gases

3. Pressure

4. Pressure Vessels and Piping

5. Buoyancy

6. Pressure Measurement

a) Manometers
b) Pressure gages
c) Pressure transducers

7. Static Pressure Head

8. Acceleration

15
 2. Fluid Statics

2.1 Basic Equation of Fluid Statics

The pressure at a point in a static fluid is the same in all directions.
What this means that the pressure on the small cube in Figure 2.1 is
the numerically the same on each face as the cube shrinks to zero
volume. At the surface, the pressure is zero gage. Since depth
increases in the downward z-direction, the sign on the specific weight
in equation 2.1 is negative.

Figure 2.1: Hydrostatic pressure

A simple force balance and some algebra yields

dP
= −ρ g = −γ (2.1)
dz
For angles, (θ ), that deviate from vertical the equation becomes
dP
= −ρ g cos θ = −γ cos θ (2.2)
dz

2.2 Pressure - Depth Relationships

2.2.1 Constant Density Fluids
To establish the relationship between pressure and depth for a
constant density fluid, the pressure - position relationship must be
separated and integrated

16
 2.2. Pressure - Depth Relationships

Z Z
dP
= −ρ g =⇒ dP = −ρ g dz
dz
P = −ρ g z = −γ z (2.3)
Equation 2.3 is one of the most important and useful equations in fluid
statics.

Example 2.1. A 5000 f t well is filled with a drilling mud that

lb
has a specific weight of 11.2 f t 3f . What is the pressure in psig at
the bottom of the well?

h = ∆z = 0 f t − 5000 f t = −5000 f t

P = −h γ

11.2 lb f 7.48 gal f t 2

P = −h | |
gal t3 144 in2
−(−5000 f t) 11.2 lb f 7.48 gal f t 2
P= | | | = 2909 psig
gal f t 3 144 in2

2.2.2 Variable Density Fluids

Most fluids are relatively incompressible, but gases are not. This
means that the density increases with depth so we cannot use the
specific weight as a constant in determining the pressure. If we
assume an ideal gas, then the density is given by
PM
ρ=
RT
where M is the molecular weight, T is the absolute temperature, and R
is the gas constant in appropriate units.
Replacing ρ in the differental equation (d p/dz = −ρ zz) we get

17
 2. Fluid Statics

dP dP PM
= −ρ g =⇒ =− g (2.4)
dz dz RT
Z P2
dp gM 1 gM
=− dz =⇒ dP = − dz (2.5)
P RT P1 P RT
Which yields
P2 gM gM
ln( )=− (z2 − z1 ) =⇒ P2 = P1 e− R T ∆z (2.6)
P1 RT
Because the it is possible for the temperature to be non-uniform and
gases are poor conductors of heat, the correct equation to use is
  k
k − 1 gM∆z k−1
P2 = P1 1 − · (2.7)
k RT1
 
k − 1 gM∆z
T2 = T1 1 − · (2.8)
k RT
Where k is the ratio of the heat capacities.

2.3 Pressure Forces

Pressure acting on a surface exerts a force. This force can be
calculated from
Z Z Z
dF = PdA =⇒ dF = PdA =⇒ F= PdA

For constant pressure

F = PA (2.9)

Example 2.2. Using the result of the previous example

(P = 2909 psi), what is the force acting on the bottom of the
hole if the hole is eight inches in diameter?

F = PA
lb f π
F = 2909 2 (8 in)2 = 146222 lb f
in 4

18
 2.4. Buoyancy

Example 2.3. You are the proud possessor of a 200 f t tall water
tower. At the base of the tower (1 f oot above the ground) is a
seven foot tall by two foot wide access panel that is held in place
by bolts. What is the force on the plate?
The pressure at the bottom of the plate is given by

P = 199 f t γw

P = 12418 lb f
The pressure at the top of the plate is given by

P = 192 f t γw

P = 11981 lb f

Since the panel is rectangular, the average pressure can be used.

(−192 f t + (−199)) f t lb f
P=− γw = 12199 2
2 ft

12199 lb f 7 f t 2 f t
F= | | = 170786 lb f
f t2

2.4 Buoyancy
Remembering that in a liquid at rest the pressure at a point is the same
in all directions, a body submerged in the liquid will experience a
force on the top and bottom of the body. Because the body is finite in
length, the force on the bottom will be greater than the force on the
top. The easy way to think about the magnitude of the buoyant force
is that it is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced. It is probably
better to consider it as a force balance. To see how this works we will
use a length of pipe suspended in a well.

19
 2. Fluid Statics

Example 2.4.
A 5000 f t well is filled with a drilling mud that has a specific
lb
weight of 11.2 galf . A 1000 f t piece of pipe (od = 8 in, id = 7 in)
is submerged at the surface with only the top of the pipe exposed.
What is the buoyant force on the pipe?

h = ∆z = 0 f t − 1000 f t

−1000 f t 12 in 11.2 lb f 7.48 gal f t3 lb f

Pb = − | | | 3
| 3
= 582 2
ft gal ft (12 in) in
π

FB = Pb (8 in)2 − (7 in)2 = 5940 lb f
4

What happens if the bottom of the pipe is at 3500 f t.

−3500 f t 12 in 11.2 lb f 7.48 gal f t3 lb f

Pb = − | | | 3
| 3
= 2036 2
ft gal ft (12 in) in

−2500 f t 12 in 11.2 lb f 7.48 gal f t3 lb f

Pt = − | | | 3
| 3
= 1454 2
ft gal ft (12 in) in
π

FB = (Pb − Pt ) (8 in)2 − (7 in)2 = 5940 lb f
4

2.5 Pressure Measurement

2.5.1 Manometers
There are numerous ways that pressure can be measured. Two
examples are shown in Figures 2.2 and 2.3.

20
 2.5. Pressure Measurement

Figure 2.2: Open-end manometer.

Figure 2.3: Differential manometer.

Most books, your’s included, present a manometer equation, which

for simple manometers is easy to use. For a manometer having more
than one fluid and a complex topography, the following three rules are
far easier to use.

Starting at one end of the manometer

1. Work through the system considering only one fluid at a time

2. Add pressure differences as you proceed down through a fluid

from the starting point (or subtract when working upwards).

3. Move horizontally through a fluid without change in the

pressure

21
2. Fluid Statics

Set the resulting equation equal to the pressure at the other end of the
manometer.

Applying these rules is simple. In Figure 2.4, the tank and tube form a
simple manometer. To find the pressure at point A, we start by writing
the pressure at point A as PA . Appling rule 3, we move from point A
to point B. Since both points are at the same level, the pressures are
equal.

Figure 2.4: A tank with a standpipe (simple manometer).

Rule 2 says to subtract going up so h γ is subtracted from PA and since

there is no flow PA − h γ must be equal to the pressure at the top of the
tube (Patm ). This produces the equation

PA − h γ = Patm

For more complicated manometers containing more fluids and more

legs, just add terms to the equation to describe each one.

22
 2.5. Pressure Measurement

Example 2.5. Looking at the manometer in Figure 2.3 we can,

by applying the rules, write an equation for the manometer.
Begin by designating the pressure at point A as PA .
Applying rule 3, move horizontally to point F where the pressure
is equal to PA .
Applying rule 2, add the contribution to the pressure from the
column of fluid (F → E), (b + h) γw .

PA + (b + h) γw
Applying rule 3, move horizontally from E to D
Applying rule 2, subtract the contribution from the mercury col-
umn, −h γHg

PA + (b + h) γw − h γHg
Applying rule 2, subtract the contribution from the water column
C → B, −(b + a) γw

PA + (b + h) γw − h γHg − (b + a) γw
Since there is no flow, set the equation = to the pressure at B,
PB .

PA + (b + h) γw − h γHg − (b + a) γw = PB
This becomes the manometer equation. Some algebra allows us
to determine the pressure difference between points A and B, ∆P

2.5.2 Bourdon Tube

Bourdon tube pressure gages (Figure 2.5) consist of a closed-end
metallic tube that is curved in to almost a circle. Application of
pressure causes the tube to ’straighten’ a small amount and the motion
is converted into a rotation of the needle on a dial. These gages are
simple and rugged, so they are used in a wide range of applications in
a plant environment.

23
 2. Fluid Statics

Figure 2.5: Bourdon tube pressure gage

2.5.3 Pressure Transducers

A transducer is a device that turns a mechanical signal into an
electrical signal or an electrical signal into a mechanical response.
There are a number of ways to accomplish this.

1. Strain gage

2. Capacatance

3. Variable reluctance

4. Optical

2.6 Accelerated Rigid-Body Motion

Changes in motion bring about acceleration or deceleration. A
gasoline truck accelerating or decelerating will cause the fluid in the
tanks to move to one end of the tank or the other. The major change in
the analysis of pressure is that the force balance becomes equal to the
mass times accleration rather than zero.
 
dP d2 z
= −ρ g+ 2 (2.10)
dz dt
This equation can be integrated for constant density fluids to yield
 
d2z
P2 − P1 = −ρ g + 2 (z2 − z1 ) (2.11)
dt
24
 2.6. Accelerated Rigid-Body Motion

For gauge pressure

   2 
d2z d z
P = −ρ h g + 2 = −h γ + ρ 2 (2.12)
dt dt

 pressure term (−h γ ) and an

Equation (2.12) has the static
d2z
acceleration term, ρ dt 2 . Evaluating the static pressure term is
relatively easy, the acceleration term can be a little more difficult.

25
2. Fluid Statics

26
3 Balance Equations

Almost all of engineering comes down to balances – mass,

momentum, and/or energy. We have already seen in developing the
manometer equation that it is nothing more than a pressure balance.
In the beginning chemical engineering course, the general balance
equation was presented. Evaluating the various components of the
equation is the challenge in various aspects of chemical engineering.

Flow in−Flow out +Generation−Consumption = Rate o f Accumulation

Simple mass balances without chemical reactions leave out the

generation and consumption terms.

ṁin − ṁout = Rate o f Accumulation

So, if the rate of accumulation is zero (steady-state), we have

ṁin = ṁout

Based on balance arguments, the following important relationships

can be derived.

Q = vA (3.1)
In Equation 3.1, v is the velocity and A is the cross-sectional area. For
constant density fluids
Qin = Qout
so
vin Ain = vout Aout (3.2)

27
 3. Balance Equations

3.0.1 Equation of Continuity

Because mass must be conserved

ṁ1 = ṁ2

and

ṁ = ρ v A (3.3)
the continuity equation becomes

ρin vin Ain = ρout vout Aout (3.4)

or
∑ρ vA = 0 (3.5)
The equation of continuity can also be written in terms of the specific
weight.

Example 3.1. Water flows into a cylindrical tank through

pipe 1 at the rate of 20 ft/s and leaves through pipes 2 and
3 at the rate of 8 ft/s and 10 ft/s, respectively. At 4 we
have an open air vent. The following are the inside diame-
ters of the pipes: D1 = 3 in, D2 = 2 in, D3 = 2.5 in, and D4 = 2 in

Solution
1. Calculate the mass flow rates in using ṁ = ρ v A

ṁ1 − ṁ2 − ṁ3 = ṁtank

ρ v1 A1 − ρ v2 A2 − ρ v3 A3 = ρ vtank Atank
It is clear that the value of ρ is the same on both sides of the equation
so it can be eliminated. Since area = π4 d 2 and the area term is on both
sides of the equation, the π4 term cancels.
 2  2  2
20 f t 3 in ft 8 ft 2 in ft 10 f t 2.5 in ft
| − | − | = vtank (12 f t)2
s 12 in s 12 in s 12 in
28
 3.1. Control Volume

Figure 3.1: Example: Flow into and out of a tank.

Solving for vtank yields

ft
vtank = 0.148
s
Later
 itwill be necessary to think of the vtank term as the differential
dhtank
dt . Using Equation 3.2 and assuming that the air in the tank is
incompressible
vtank Atank = v4 A4
   
0.148 f t π 2 f t 2 π 2in f t 2
| | = v4 | | |
s 4 4 12 in
Solving for v4 gives
ft
v4 = 21.38
s

3.1 Control Volume

The control volume is an imaginary sub-volume in a flow system
through which flows occur. It can be denoted with a dotted or dashed
line enclosing the volume (Figure 3.2).
This may seem like an unnecessary complication, but with another
simple addition the control volume concept becomes quite useful. If
the area through which the flow occurs is declared to be a vector

29
 3. Balance Equations

Figure 3.2: Control volume

 
quantity directed outward from the control volume ~A = A~n , it can
be combined with the velocity vector using the dot product
 to produce 
~
the proper sign for the flow when Equation 3.5 is used ∑ ρ v · A = 0 .
The dot product produces v · ~A =⇒ v A cos(θ ), where θ is the angle
between the area and velocity vector. Since the cosine of zero is one
and the cosine of 180 is (−1), the direction of flow is set relative to
the area vector. It is important to draw the control volume such that
the velocity vector is perpendicular to the control volume surface
(Figure 3.3).

Figure 3.3: Control volume with area and velocity vectors

The previous example would become

ρ v1 A1 cos 180 + ρ v2 A2 cos 0 + ρ v3 v3 cos 0 + ρ v4 A4 cos θ = 0
Where the sign of the final answer would determine the direction of
flow. Plugging in numbers we find that A4 cos θ is positive so the flow
is outward.

3.2 Fluid Velocity in a Confined Region

There are two ways to consider the velocity of a fluid in a flow
channel. The average velocity is probably the most straightforward. It
is simply the volumetric flow rate divided by the area of the conduit.
Q
vave = (3.6)
A
30
 3.2. Fluid Velocity in a Confined Region

In reality, unless the fluid is flowing very fast or very slow, there is a
significant velocity distribution that for flow of a Newtonian fluid in a
pipe is parabolic (Figure 3.4). One of the basic assumptions of fluid
mechanics is that the fluid velocity at the wall is zero i.e. no slip.
With the velocity equal to zero at the wall, the fluid velocity is at a
maximum at or near the centerline of the flow (depends upon the
geometry of the flow channel).

Figure 3.4: Velocity distribution for a Newtonian fluid in laminar flow.

3.2.1 Flow Regimes

Depending upon the fluid velocity, the fluid can flow in different flow
regimes. At low flow rates, the fluid particles move in a uniform
fashion along the channel with only a small difference in the velocity
between the wall and the centerline. As the velocity increases, the
flow remains uniform, but the difference between the velocity at the
centerline and the wall becomes large. This flow regime is termed the
laminar region or simply laminar flow. At some point the velocity
increases enough that the flow becomes chaotic and the uniformity in
the flow disappears (termed turbulent flow). The velocity profile
becomes flat and the flow is strongly mixed. Flow regimes can be
separated by the value of the Reynolds number. This is a

31
 3. Balance Equations

dimensionless group that represents the ratio of the inertial forces to

the viscous forces and is given by

ρdv
NRe =
µ

where d is the characteristic diameter of the flow channel, ρ is the

fluid density, v is the velocity, and µ is the fluid viscosity.

3.2.2 Plug or Creeping Flow

At extremely low flow rates, the fluid is normally in plug or creeping
flow. This flow regime has a flat velocity profile with much smaller
difference between the velocity of the fluid flowing near the wall and
at the centerline (Figure 3.5). Experimentally, it is a difficult flow
regime to maintain. This flow regime is mathematically simpler than
the other two flow regimes so it has been the subject of a great deal of
study. Reynolds numbers are typically less than one for plug or
creeping flow.

Figure 3.5: Velocity distribution for a Newtonian fluid in plug flow and
laminar flow.

32
 3.3. Unsteady-State Mass Balances

3.2.3 Laminar Flow

As velocity increases above the plug flow limit, a velocity profile
similar to that labeled as laminar in Figure 3.5. The Reynolds number
range for laminar flow is one to 2,100 (it may be somewhat higher in
non-Newtonian fluids). In steady (time derivative equal to zero),
uniform flow a fluid particle will flow along the same streamline. This
means that there is no mixing of fluid across streamlines in laminar
flow. In extreme cases where vibrations have been excluded, the
laminar flow regime can extend to a Reynolds number of 60,000 or so.

3.2.4 Turbulent Flow

Turbulent flow profiles exhibit a flat velocity profile with a thin
laminar layer near the wall. The motion of fluid particles in turbulent
flow is chaotic and the flow is strongly mixing. If you have ever
watched smoke rise from a cigarette, you should have noticed that it
rises in a narrow channel (laminar flow) and then breaks into a plume
when the velocity becomes high enough to reach the turbulent flow
regime. Almost all flow in water pipes, air ducts, and pipelines is
turbulent.

3.3 Unsteady-State Mass Balances

There are a number of real world problems that are not steady-state
problems. What this means is that the rate of accumulation term in the
equation below is not zero but it is equal to dm
dt .

ṁin − ṁout = Rate o f Accumulation

So the equation becomes

dm
ṁin − ṁout =
dt
Example 3.7 in de Nevers needs some explanation. In this example, a
tank that is initially full of air is being pumped down with a vacuum
f t3
pump. At a constant volumetric flow rate (Q = 1min ), how long does it

33
3. Balance Equations

take to reduce the pressure to 0.0001 atm? As with any balance

problem, the best place to start is by writing the balance equation

dm
ṁin − ṁout =
dt
In this system, there is no flow in so the ṁin term is zero and the
equation reduces to

dm
= −ṁout
dt
At this point, use the definition of density and rearrange the equation
to find the mass of gas in the system using the density and system
volume

msystem = ρsystem V system

Taking the time derivative of both sides of the equation yields
 
dm d ρsystem dV system
= V system + ρsystem
dt system dt dt
but the system volume is constant so the last term is equal to zero and
the equation becomes
 
dm d ρsystem
= V system
dt system dt
Assuming that the gas is not compressible, m = ρ V , however, we are
interested in the mass flow rate ṁ so Q is used instead of V , yielding

ṁout = Qout ρout

Since Q is constant ρout = ρsystem which leads to

ṁout = Qout ρsystem

We can now write the differential equation for the system

d ρsystem
V system = −Qout ρsystem
dt
34
 3.4. Summary

Separating the variables yields

d ρsystem Qout
=− dt
ρsystem V system

Integrating the equation yields

 
ρsystem f Qout
ln = ∆t
ρsystemi V system
Remembering that

PM
ρgas =
RT
this equation can be solved for ∆t.

3.4 Summary
Mass balances are extremely important in fluid flow. Missing mass
usually means that there is a leak. Using the equation of continuity
seems
 difficult
 at first and dealing with the dot product of velocity and
~
area v · A appears to add an unnecessary complication, learning
how to set up problems using this formulation will help to minimize
mistakes in the long run. In Chemical Engineering, unsteady state
mass balances are important. It is worth spending some time to try to
understand them.

35
4 The First Law of Thermodynamics

In the last chapter, we covered mass balances. As a prelude to the

Bernoulli equation in the next chapter, we need to discuss energy
balances. The energy balance, like the mass balance, does not have
creation or destruction terms and so the general balance equation
reduces to

f low in − f low out = Accumulation

There are several forms of energy that we must deal with in fluid
mechanics.
1. Kinetic energy – energy due to motion
2. Potential energy – energy due to position
3. Internal energy – energy of the atoms and molecules that make
up a system
4. Surface energy – energy due to surface interactions
The other forms of energy are generally not useful in fluid mechanics,
but may find specialized uses in areas such as magentohydrodynamics.

4.1 Energy Transfer

Energy may be transfered through heat flow or work. Heat flows from
hot bodies to colder bodies. This form of transfer forms the basis for
thermodynamics. Work is defined as
Z Z
Work = f orce · d(distance) = F dx
Work can also be done by rotating shafts.

37
 4. The First Law of Thermodynamics

4.2 Energy Balance

Returning to the general balance equation and remembering that
energy cannot be created or destroyed we get

f low in − f low out = Accumulation

Your book uses lower case symbols for specific values as opposed to
the carrot or hat above the symbol. For instance

u ≡ Û
It also used upper case symbols for the non specific values as shown
below

U = mu
Energy may enter a system in several ways. It may be carried in across
the flow boundary by mater entering or leaving the system. Heat
transfer to or from the system is also a conduit for energy transfer.
Work may done on or by the system can also serve as a transfer
mechanism. Figure 4.1 shows an example of each of the mechanisms.

Figure 4.1: Energy input from flow, shaft work, and heat transfer

So the overall energy balance for the system becomes

d[m(u+ pe+ke)]sys = [(u+ pe+ke)in dmin +dQin +dWin −[(u+ pe+ke)out dmout +dQout +

38
 4.2. Energy Balance

This equation can be simplified by defining

dQ = dQin − dQout

and
dW = dWin − dWout
yielding

d[m(u+ pe+ke)]sys = [(u+ pe+ke)in dmin −[(u+ pe+ke)out dmout +dQ+dW

(4.1)

4.2.1 Sign Conventions

Sign conventions have always been a bit confusing. It seems difficult
to imagine that one can just arbitrarily pick a sign for flow into or out
of the system and get the correct answer. But, it works as long as you
pick a sign and stick with it. The sign convention in your book is

• Work done on the system (flowing in) is positive

• Heat transfered to the system (flowing in) is positive

This results in
dQ + dW = 0

4.2.2 Potential Energy

The specific form of the potential energy equation simplifies to

pe = gz

If one looks at a flowing system, the specific form of the potential

energy equation becomes

∆pe = pein − peout = g (zin − zout )

To get the total potential energy change we need to multiply the

specific quantity by the mass of the system.

∆PE = m∆pe

39
 4. The First Law of Thermodynamics

4.2.3 Kinetic Energy

The kinetic energy term reduces to

v2
ke =
2
or
v2
KE = m ke = m
2
For systems with velocity change
 
v2 v2
∆KE = m in − out
2 2

4.3 Internal Energy

For a closed system of constant mass with no kinetic or potential
energy, the internal energy can be written as

mdu = dQ + dW

Integration yields

U = mu = Q +W + constant

The constant is based on some reference point. Typically, it is water at

the triple point where u is set equal to zero.

4.4 Work
Work on a compressible system is given by

dW = Fdx = PAdx = −PdV

Since the volume decreases, the sign is negative. Injection work is the
work required to inject a mass across system boundaries. Rather than

40
 4.5. Summary

deal with the injection work and the internal energy, the enthalpy
(h = u + PV ) is used. So that the energy balance equation becomes
  
v2
d m h + gz + =
2 sys
 
v2
h + gz + dmin
2 in (4.2)
 2 
v
− h + gz + dmout
2 out
+ dQ + dW

4.5 Summary
The first law can be used to analyze energy flow into and out of a
system. Equation 4.2 provides the basis for the Bernoulli equation
discussed in the next chapter.

41
5 Bernoulli Equation

One of the most useful equations in fluid mechanics is the Bernoulli

equation (BE). Your book presents it in the differential form
 
P v2
∆ + gz + =0
ρ 2
where ∆P is Pout − Pin . Looking at the units we find
F l3 l l l2
| + | + 2|
l 2 mass t 2 t 2
In order to straighten this mess out, it is necessary to divide ρ bygc or
to express force in terms of mass × acceleration. Either way yields
2
units of tl 2 .
F l 3 mass l l l l2
| | + 2| + 2|
l 2 mass t 2 F t t 2
There is a better way to think about the Bernoulli equation. Normally,
the BE is written between two points in the flow.
P1 v2 P2 v2
+ g z1 + 1 = + g z2 + 2 (5.1)
ρ 2 ρ 2
Neglecting friction and work and dividing both sides by g the
Bernoulli equation may also be written as
P1 v2 P2 v2
+ z1 + 1 = + z2 + 2 (5.2)
γ 2g γ 2g
This form has the advantage of having units of length or head.
Otherwise, ρ in Equation 5.1 has to be divided by gc to make the units
work out.

43
 5. Bernoulli Equation

5.1 Applying the Bernoulli Equation

In applying the BE, it is best to pick the two points (1 and 2) to zero
out as many terms as possible. For instance picking the two points
along the same horizontal line eliminates z1 and z2 . As an example,
consider a tank full of water that is draining from an opening near the
bottom of the tank (Figure 5.1)
By selecting points 1 and 2 (point 2 is just at the exit) as shown in

Figure 5.1: Bernoulli equation tank draining example

Figure 5.1, z1 and z2 are equal and cancel each other out. V1 is small
relative to V2 and can be ignored and P2 is equal to Patm so for gauge
calculations it is equal to zero. We are left with P1 and v2 to evaluate.
The position of the points can be selected in a slightly different
manner to make the problem even easier as shown in Figure 5.2.
In this case, P1 , z1 , V1 , and P2 are all equal to zero. This leaves z2 and

Figure 5.2: Bernoulli equation tank draining example

v2 to be evaluated. The quantity, z2 , is just the distance from the

44
 5.1. Applying the Bernoulli Equation

surface of the liquid to the midpoint of the flow and is equal to (−h).
Evaluating the velocity, v2

v22
0 + 0 + 0 = 0 + (−h) +
2g
Solving for v2
p
v2 = 2gh (5.3)

Which is known as Torricelli’s equation.

Example 5.1. Example: In the venturi meter shown below, the

D = 40cm and d = 10cm. What is the water discharge (flow rate)
in the system, if the pressure at A is 100kPa, Patm = 101.325kPa,
the water temperature is 10 ◦C, and cavitation has just started at
point 2?

Figure 5.3: Venturi tube.

Solution:

• The pressure at point 1 is given by

P1 = 100, 000Pa + 101, 325Pa

• The pressure at point 2 is set by the vapor pressure of water at

10 ◦C. P2 = 1230Pa

• Since the points are along the same horizontal line, z1 = z2 .

45
5. Bernoulli Equation

Writing the Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2

P1 v2 P2 v2
+ z1 + 1 = + z2 + 2
γ 2g γ 2g
canceling the elevation terms and rearranging the equation we get
 
P1 P2 v2 v2
− = 2 − 1
γ γ 2g 2g
Now we must express v2 in terms of v1 .
v1 A1
v1 A1 = v2 A2 =⇒ v2 =
A2
and solve the BE equation for V1
 2

P1 P2
 v1 AA21 v21
− = −
γ γ 2g 2g
 
P1
v21 γ− Pγ2
=  2
2g A1
A2
v  
u
P1 P2
u
u γ − γ
V1 = u
t2 g  2 A1
A2

substituting in the numeric values yields

v1 = 1.25
Since we know Q = vA
m3
Q = 0.157
s

It should be noted that cavitation is just boiling. When the pressure

equals the vapor pressure of the liquid at the specified temperature,
boiling occurs. So when a problem specifies cavitation, the pressure
at the point of cavitation is fixed by the vapor pressure of the liquid at
the specified temperature.

46
 5.2. Bernoulli Equation With Friction

5.2 Bernoulli Equation With Friction

Up to now we have neglected frictional forces. These forces increase
pressure drop and in some cases cause heating. The Bernoulli
equation can be modified to include friction by adding a friction term
(F ) to the right side of the equation. Note: In deNevers the friction
term has a negative sign because he has rearranged the equation to
yield the ∆ values to be final state minus initial state i.e. P2 − P1 so
don’t be confused. The Bernoulli equation becomes

P1 v2 P2 v2 F
+ z1 + 1 = + z2 + 2 + (5.4)
γ 2g γ 2g g
 
v2
The friction term F takes the form of a constant times 2g.
Frictional forces arise from simple flow, flow through valves, elbows,
orifices, etc. Values for the constant can be obtained from tables or
from the friction factor charts.

Example 5.2. Fluid flowing through the pipe and elbow shown
below exhibits frictional losses both in the pipe and the elbow.
The pipe friction will be treated in Chapter 6 and will be ne-
glected in this example.

Figure 5.4: Flow through an elbow.

The Bernoulli equation for this flow system becomes

P1 v2 P2 v2 F
+ z1 + 1 = + z2 + 2 +
γ 2g γ 2g g
47
 5. Bernoulli Equation

If the elbow is in plane perpendicular to the page, z1 = z2 . Since there

is no change in velocity, v1 = v2 . So the Bernoulli equation reduces to

P1 P2 F
= +
γ γ g
which simplifies to
P1 − P2
g = Fb
γ
Measuring ∆P then allows us to calculate the friction associated with
the elbow. If the flow rate is known then the constant, Kb in the
equation below can be evaluated.

v2
F =K
2

5.3 Gas Flows

Gasses at low velocities can be treated as incompressible fluids. The
pressure drop must also be low or the change in volumetric flow rate
and thus, the fluid velocity will cause problems. This means that the
BE can be used in many situations that are of interest to Chemical
Engineers.

When gases flow through a venturi meter, the velocity increases as the
passage gets smaller and decreases as passage returns to the original
size. Figure 5.5 is an idealized venturi tube with sharp changes in the
shape of the tube. Normally, the changes are more gradual, without
abrupt changes (like those shown in the figure). This means that the
pressure will decrease as the velocity increases on the left side of the
restriction and recover on the right side of the restriction. This can be
seen in Figure 5.6. Pressure recovery on the downstream side of a
restriction is a common occurrence. To understand this, we need to
look at a cross-section of the flow in the venturi tube at several points

48
 5.3. Gas Flows

Figure 5.5: Idealized venturi tube.

Figure 5.6: Pressure profile in a venturi tube.

Figure 5.7: Flow in a venturi tube.

49
 5. Bernoulli Equation

At the first increment, ∆x, the pressure, P1, must be greater than P2
for flow to occur. The increment near 2 in Figure 5.7 is characterized
by an increase in velocity that necessitates an increase in the pressure
differential across the increment. In the third increment, the velocity
is decreasing and P3 must be greater than P2 to provide the force
necessary to decelerate the flow.

5.4 Non-Flow Work

In the previous chapter, it was shown that the flow work could be
buried in the enthalpy. This left all of the non-flow work to be
accounted for. Non-flow work is often called shaft work, since in fluid
flow it is usually the result of a shaft turning. The Bernoulli equation
can be extended to include the work term by adding it to the left side
of the equation. Again be careful when comparing Equation 5.5 with
the equation in your book.

P1 v2 dWn f P2 v2 F
+ z1 + 1 + = + z2 + 2 + (5.5)
γ 2g g γ 2g g

The work term consists of all of the non-flow work. It includes work
done on the system by stirrers, mixers, pumps, etc. or work done by
the system turning turbines, shafts, or other rotating machinery. We
will return to non-flow work in Chapter 6.

5.5 Flow Measurement

The Bernoulli equation can be exploited to measure fluid flow rates.
Before we explore the different ways that the BE equation can be
used, we need to talk about the nature of flow around bodies. For a
fixed body in a flow, the fluid will approach the body and flow around
it as shown in Figure 5.8. The dark point in the center of the body
represents the stagnation point. At this point, the flow has a velocity
of zero i.e. the flow is stagnant. Since the fluid velocity at the
stagnation point is zero, it gives us a point in the system to anchor the
BE equation.

50
 5.5. Flow Measurement

Figure 5.8: Stagnation point.

5.5.1 Pitot Tube

A pitot tube is a simple device used to measure flow rates. It works
for both liquid and gas flows. The device, in its simplest form,
consists of a small diameter hollow tube bent into the shape of a L.
Usually the upstream opening is smaller than the diameter of the tube.
The height, above the center-line, of the fluid in the in the vertical leg
of the tube is related to the velocity of the fluid in the flow. An
example is shown in Figure 5.9.

Figure 5.9: Pitot tube

51
 5. Bernoulli Equation

Writing the Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2

P1 v2 P2 v2
+ z1 + 1 = + z2 + 2
γ 2g γ 2g

and zeroing out z1 , z2 , and v2 we get

P1 v2 P2
+ =
γ 2g γ

Assigning values to the various parameters

P1 = Patm + b γ

P2 = Patm + (b + h) γ
Substituting into the Bernoulli equation, neglecting friction, and
solving for v1 we obtain p
v1 = 2 g h (5.6)

5.5.2 Static Pitot Tube

Some books refer to the first example of a pitot tube as a stagnation
tube and the static pitot tube (pitot static tube) as a pitot tube. We will
use deNevers nomenclature. The difference between the pitot tube
and the static pitot tube is the
small opening on the side of the submerged part of the tube. Unlike
the stagnation tube (Figure 5.9), a direct measurement of ∆P is
possible. Using the Bernoulli equation and neglecting friction,

P1 v2 P2 v2 P1 v2 P2
+ z1 + 1 = + z2 + 2 =⇒ + 1 =
γ 2g γ 2g γ 2g γ

solving for v1
s s
∆P ∆P
v1 = 2g = 2 (5.7)
γ ρ

52
 5.5. Flow Measurement

Figure 5.10: Pitot static tube.

Figure 5.11: Venturi meter

5.5.3 Venturi Meter

We have previously discussed the venturi tube, but not as a method of
flow measurement. It has the advantage of no moving parts and if it is
designed properly friction can be ignored.
The Bernoulli equation can be written between points 1 and 2. For
horizontally mounted tubes, the elevation terms can be zeroed out.

P1 v2 P2 v2
+ z1 + 1 = + z2 + 2
γ 2g γ 2g
If the diameter of the tube at 1 is d1 and the diameter at 2 is d2 , the
velocity at point 1 can be expressed in terms of the velocity at point 2
by solving v1 A1 = v2 A2 for v1 . Furthermore, the area ratio can be
expressed as the ratio of the squares of the diameters. This leads to
the expression of the Bernoulli equation

53
 5. Bernoulli Equation

 2 2
d
P1 v2 d22 P2 v22
1
+ = +
γ 2g γ 2g
This equation can be solved for v2
v
u 2 (P − P )
u 1 2
v2 = t   (5.8)
d22
ρ 1 − d2
1

Application of the Bernoulli equation to the venturi tube in this

manner ignores friction and other important factors. This results in a
small error in the measured flow rates. To correct for this error, the
meters are calibrated and a calibration constant provided. This results
in the corrected venturi tube equation 5.9.
v
u 2 (P − P )
u 1 2
v2 = Cv t   (5.9)
d22
ρ 1 − d2
1

5.5.4 Orifice Meter

Orifice meters are, in some respect, an extreme example of a venturi
meter. The orifice meter has an abrupt change in diameter rather than
the more gradual change in the venturi meter. An orifice meter has a
plate, usually removable, with a small hole machined in the center.
The upstream side of the hole is flat, while the downstream side is
cone-shaped. One of the common mistakes in installing an orifice
meter is reversing the plate. This results in erroneous measurements.
Gas measurements made with orifice meters are analyzed using a
complex formula (Figure 5.12) that goes far beyond the Bernoulli
equation. The full orifice meter equation even includes the local
gravitational acceleration!

Needless to say the full equation is seldom used, but it is easy to see
why a great deal of accuracy is needed. Consider the case of a natural
gas well flowing into a pipeline. If the well is flowing 5 MMc f d (5
million cubic feet/day) and there is a 0.1 percent error in the meter

54
 5.5. Flow Measurement

Figure 5.12: Full orifice meter equation

reading, the gain or loss in gas sales is about thirty dollars per day or
eleven thousand dollars per year at the current price of natural gas. For
a field that produces a billion cubic feet per day (there are fields that
produce this much) the difference is in excess of two million dollars!

5.5.5 Rotameters
A rotameter is a simple device that is used when a high degree of
accuracy is not needed. The gas or liquid flow is used to levitate a ball
of known diameter and density. Usually the rotameter is calibrated so
that a measured position of the ball corresponds to a flow rate. Care
must be exercised when using rotameters. They are most accurate

55
 5. Bernoulli Equation

when the ball is located in about the middle two-thirds of the meter.
Measurement error increases at the ends.

5.6 Unsteady Flows

There are a number of situations where unsteady flows are
encountered. The simplest is the draining of a tank where the flow
rate varies with the height of the fluid in the tank. The Torricelli
equation (5.3) really only gives you a snapshot of the flow rate in
time. If the tank diameter is large the flow rate changes slowly, but if
it is small the flow rate change can be significant.

For a simple tank (Figure 5.13) Since Torrecelli’s equation gives the

Figure 5.13: Unsteady flow example.

instantaneous flow rate we can write the velocity at 2 as

p
v2 = 2gh

and if we solve v1 A1 = v2 A2 for v2 , we now have

A1 p
v1 = 2gh
A2
56
 5.6. Unsteady Flows

dh


v1 is only the rate at which the height is dropping dt . Rearrange


and solve for dhdt yields the differential equation

dh A2 p
− = 2 g, h (5.10)
dt A1
This equation can be solved by separating the variables and integrating
or by using the ordinary differential equation solver in MatLab.
Z h2 Z t2
1 A p
√ dh = 2 2g dt (5.11)
h1 h A1 t1
When the tank has parallel sides this problem is relatively easy,
however, if the tank is cone shape the area of the surface becomes a
function of height. Finding the functional form of the diameter is first
problem and integrating it is the second. For the cone-shaped tank
shown in Figure 5.14 as the level in the tank drops, the cross-sectional
area A1 decreases.

Figure 5.14: Cone shaped tank.

The area of a cone as a function of height can be derived using the two
diameters and the height. Since we are dealing with a truncated cone,
we have to break the problem down into two parts (Figure 5.15). First
the area between the two horizontal lines is constant and equal to π4 d22 .
Next we have to determine angle,θ . We know the value of hinitial and
we can derive the length of the opposite side of the triangle (o) by
d1 − d2
o=
2
57
5. Bernoulli Equation

Using h and o, tan θ can be calculated

o
tan θ =
h

Figure 5.15: Cone shaped tank.

Combining the numeric value for tan θ with any value for the height
yields the length of o at the selected height. The diameter, d1 at any
height between h0 and h can now be expressed by

d1 (h) = 2 (tan θ ) (h) + d2

Integrating Equation 5.11 becomes a bit more difficult because A1 is
now a function of height. The A1 terms now looks like
π
A1 = (2 (tan θ ) (h) + d2 )2
4
and the integral is

(2 (tan θ ) (h) + d2 )2
Z h2 Z t2
A2 p
− √ dh = π 2g dt (5.12)
h1 h 4 t1

This integral is somewhat more difficult to integrate than the one in

Equation 5.11, but there are a number of calculators or computer
programs (MatLab, Maple, or Mathematica) that can do the integral.

58
 5.6. Unsteady Flows

Example 5.3. Example: In Figure 5.16, the diameter of the

top of the tank is 2 f t and the diameter of the bottom is 0.5 f t.
The tank is 15 f t high. Derive an equation to calculate the time
needed to empty the tank given
−dh A2 p
√ = 2 g dt
h A1

Figure 5.16: Conical tank example.

Expressing A1 as
π
A1 = (2 (tan θ ) (h) + d2 )2
4
The integral that must be solved is
Z 15 Z t2
A1 p
− √ dh = A2 2g dt
0 h t1

Assigning values to the various parameters

π
A2 = (0.5 f t)2 = 0.196 f t 2
4
d2 −d1 2 f t−0.5 f t
0 2 2
tan θ = = = = 0.05
h h 15 f t
π
A1 = (2 (0.05) (h) + 0.5 f t)2 = (0.1 h + 0.5)2
4
59
 5. Bernoulli Equation

The integral is now

s  Z t
(0.1 h + 0.5)2
Z 15
2 ft 2
− √ dh = 0.196 f t 2 32.2 2 dt
0 h s t1

R 15 (0.1 h+0.5)2
√ dh
0
∆t = − rh 
0.196 f t 2 2 32.2 sf2t

Analytical solution of this equation is difficult, but it is easy to

evaluate numerically. The answer is

∆t = 4.6 s

5.7 Summary
The Bernoulli equation describes the relationship between velocity
and pressure. It is useful in a wide variety of flow problems. Care
must be taken in choosing the start and end points. In general, the
points should be selected to minimize the number of variables that
must be evaluated. In the next chapter we will see how the Bernoulli
equation can be extended to more complex flow systems where
friction is important and work is done on or by the system.

60
6 Fluid Friction in Steady
One-Dimensional Flow

Unlike the systems that were covered in the last chapter, real fluids do
not flow without frictional losses. Flow through pipes, valves,
expansions, contractions, bends or into or out of tanks are just a few
examples of sources of friction. One of the results of friction is
pressure drop.

61
7 Momentum Balance

7.1 Newton’s Laws

1. A body at rest remains at rest and a body in motion remains in
motion at the same velocity in a straight path when the net force
acting on it is zero.
2. The acceleration of a body is proportional to the net force acting
on it and is inversely proportional to its mass.
3. When a body exerts a force on a second body, the second body
exerts an equal and opposite force on the first. This is the so
called reaction force.

Expressing the second law in equation form

dv d (mv)
F = ma = m = (7.1)
dt dt
The mv term is called the linear momentum or simply the momentum.
Looking at the second law equation (7.1), it can also be thought of as
the rate of change of the momentum of a body is equal to the net force
acting on the body. For our purposes, this is probably a better way of
thinking about the second law. It is important to remember that the
force, acceleration, velocity, and momentum are vectors, i.e. they
have both a magnitude and direction.

7.2 Control Volumes

Most of the work in working momentum problems is in the
bookkeeping. Properly selecting a control volume and control surface

63
7. Momentum Balance

makes the process easier. If the subject of the analysis is moving, then
it is usually better to let the control volume move. For a fixed flow
system, the control volume should be fixed. For example, the system
shown in 7.1 should have a control volume that encompasses the
nozzle and the plate. For a jet exiting a moving airplane, the velocity

Figure 7.1: Force on a plate exerted by a jet of fluid impinging on the

plate at a 90◦ angle.

of interest is the relative velocity. An example is shown in Figure 7.2.

In this case, the velocity is given by

vx = v jet − vCV

Where the jet is moving in the negative x-direction while the control

Figure 7.2: Moving airplane

volume is moving in the positive
x-direction. This yields a negative

overall velocity v = −v jet − vCV . An example of a deformable
control volume is the control volume inside a piston chamber in a
motor (Figure 7.3). The control volume expands and contracts as the
piston moves up and down.

64
 7.3. Forces on a Control Volume

Figure 7.3: Deformable control volume.

7.3 Forces on a Control Volume

There are two types of forces that act on a control volume: Body and
Surface. The body forces act throughout the whole body while the
surface forces act on the control surface. Body forces can be a gravity,
electric, or magnetic field. Surface forces of interest in fluid flow are
pressure and viscous forces. Normally, we can ignore all of the body
forces except gravity.

∑ F = ∑ Fbody + ∑ Fsur f ace (7.2)

Gravitational force on a fluid element
dFgravity = ρ g d V (7.3)
Total force acting on a control volume
Z
∑ Fbody = CV
ρ g d V = mCV g (7.4)

Surface force acting on a small surface element

d ~Fsur f ace = σ ·~ndA (7.5)

Where ~n is an outwardly pointing vector normal to the surface dA and
σ is the stress on the surface, dA (Figure 7.4).
The total force on a body is
Z Z
∑ ~F = ∑ ~Fbody + ∑ ~Fsur f ace = CV
ρ gd V +
CV
σ ~n dA (7.6)

65
 7. Momentum Balance

Figure 7.4: Surface forces acting on a small area.

7.4 Steady Flow

In steady flow, the equation reduces to

∑ ~F = ∑ ṁ~v − ∑ ṁ~v
out in

Which reduces to
∑ F = ṁ (~vout −~vin) (7.7)
Example: Liquid Jet Striking a Flat
Plate
Water strikes a flat plate at a rate of 10kg/s with a velocity of 20m/s
and exits in all directions in the plane of the plate. What is the force
necessary to hold the plate in place?
Solution: All of the entering velocity is in the positive x-direction and
none of the fluid exits in the x-direction. This means that v2x is equal
to zero.
∑ F = ṁ (~v2x −~v1x )
reduces to
−Fx = 0 − ṁv1
Fx = ṁv1
10kg 20m N · s2
Fx = | | = 200 N
s s kg · m
| {z }
gc

Example: Liquid Jet Striking a

Curved Plate

66
 7.4. Steady Flow

Figure 7.5: Force on a curved vane

A 3-inch diameter jet with a velocity of 50 ft/s is deflected through an

angle of 70◦ when it hits a stationary vane, determine the horizontal
and vertical components of the force of the water on the vane.
Solution: Neglecting the weight of the fluid, height changes in the
fluid, the weight of vane and assuming no frictional losses, the
velocity of the exiting liquid jet must be the same as the entering jet.
This does not preclude changes in direction or cross-sectional shape.
Vector analysis must be used to determine the x and y velocities.

∑ F = ∑ ṁ~v − ∑ ṁ~v
out in
The x-component of the velocity is given by
 ◦ 
50 f t 70 2π ft
v2,x = v2 cos θ = | cos | ◦
= 17.1
s 360 s

The y-component of the velocity is given by

 ◦ 
50 f t 70 2π ft
v2,y = v2 sin θ = | sin | ◦
= 46.98
s 360 s

Calculating the mass flow rate

ṁ = ρ q where q = v1 A

50 f t 0.0491 f t 2 f t3
q= | = 2.455
s s
62.4 lbm 2.455 f t 3 lbm
ṁ = 3
| = 153.19
ft s s
67
7. Momentum Balance

The reaction force in the x-direction is given by

Fx = ṁ (v2,x − v1,x )
 
153.19 lbm 1 ft ft
Fx = | | 17.1 − 50 = -156.5 lb f
s gc s s
The reaction force in the y-direction is given by


Fy = ṁ v2,y − v1,y
 
153.19 lbm 1 46.98 f t ft
Fy = | | −0 = 223.5 lb f
s gc s s
If we want the force of the fluids acting on the plate, the signs are
reversed.
Now we will complicate the problem
by having the vane move with a velocity in the x-direction with a
velocity of 15 f t/s.
Example: Liquid Jet Striking a
Moving Curved Plate

Figure 7.6: Force on a moving curved vane

Using the relative velocity in place of v1

 ◦ 
35 f t 70 2π ft
v2,x = v2 cos θ = | cos | ◦
= 11.97
s 360 s
 ◦ 
35 f t 70 2π ft
v2,y = v2 sin θ = | sin | ◦
= 32.89
s 360 s
68
 7.4. Steady Flow

 
153.19 lbm 1 ft ft
Fx = | | 11.97 35 = -76.7 lb f
s gc s s
 
153.19 lbm 1 32.89 f t ft
Fy = | | −0 = 109.5 lb f
s gc s s
Since the vane is moving away from the jet, the forces will decrease as
the jet lengthens (the distance between the jet and the vane increases).
There is another way to think about
the momentum equation. If we write the equation as

∑F = ∑ρ vv·A (7.8)
This really is not that different. Remember that ṁ = ρ v A and by
taking the dot product between the velocity and the area vector (it
always points outward from the control surface) we can keep the signs
straight. Reworking the first part of the last example we get the
following.

Example: Force on a Curved Vane

∑F = ∑ρ vv·A
The x-component of the velocity is given by
 ◦ 
50 f t 70 2π ft
v2,x = v2 cos θ = | cos | ◦
= 17.1
s 360 s
The y-component of the velocity is given by
 ◦ 
50 f t 70 2π ft
v2,y = v2 sin θ = | sin | = 46.98
s 360◦ s
The reactive force in the x-direction is given by
ρ ρ
Fx = v1,x v1 · A + v2,x v1 · A
gc gc

62.4 lbm lb f s2 50 f t 50 f t cos (180) 0.0491 f t 2

Fx = | | | | |
f t3 32.2lbm f t s s
62.4 lbm 32.2lb f s2 17.1 f t 50 f t cos (0) 0.0491 f t 2
+ | | | |
f t3 lbm f t s s
= -156.5 lb f

69
7. Momentum Balance

The reactive force in the y-direction is given by

ρ ρ
Fy = v1,y v1 · A + v2,y v1 · A
gc gc

62.4 lbm lb f s2 0 f t 50 f t cos (180) 0.0491 f t 2

Fy = | | | | |
f t3 32.2lbm f t s s
62.4 lbm 32.2lb f s2 46.98 f t 50 f t cos (0) 0.0491 f t 2
+ | | | |
f t3 lbm f t s s
= 223.5 lb f

Let us look at a slightly different problem involving flow of a fluid

around a bend. The flow is not open to the atmosphere as it was in the
previous examples so pressure forces must be accounted for.
Example: Force on a Pipe Bend
Water flows through a 180◦ vertical reducing bend. The discharge is
0.25m3 /s and the pressure at the center of the inlet of the bend is
150kPa. If the bend volume is 0.1m3 and it is assumed that
Bernoulli’s equation is valid, what is the reaction force required to
hold the bend in place. Assume the metal in the bend weighs 500N.

Figure 7.7: Force on a bend.

Solution: Starting with the basic momentum equation, evaluate all of

the variables that can be easily evaluated.

∑F = ∑ρ vv·A
π 2 π 2
A1 = d = 0.071 m3 A2 = d = 0.0177 m3
4 1 4 2
70
 7.4. Steady Flow

q m q m
v1 = = 3.54 v2 = = 14.15
A1 s A2 s
Using the Bernoulli equation to evaluate the missing pressure.

P1 v2 P2 v2
+ z1 + 1 = + z2 + 2
γ 2g γ 2g
 
d1 d2
P1 = 150 kPa z1 = 0 m z2 = − + 0.1 m + = −0.325 m
2 2
Solving for P2
P2 = 59.37 kPa
Returning to the momentum equation we can write
ρ ρ
Fx + P1 A1 + P2 A2 = v1 v1 · A1 + (−v2 ) v2 · A2
gc gc
Inserting values for the variables and solving for Fx we get

Fx = −10.60 kN − 1.049 kN − 0.884 kN − 3.537 kN = −16.07 kN

The force in the y-direction is simply the sum of the weight of the
fluid in the bend and the weight of the bend.

g 0.1 m3 1000kg 9.81m N s2

Fy = WB + V ρ = 500 N + | | 2 |
gc m3 s 1 kg m

Fy = 1.48 kN

Note: If the bend in the previous example is turned around, the PA

forces have a negative sign in front of them and v1 is negative rather
than v2 . This results in a change in sign, but not magnitude, of Fx .
The analysis of a bend of less than 180◦ is similar, but the angles have
to be taken into account when the velocities are calculated.
Example: Flow in a 30◦ Bend.
A pipe that is 1 m in diameter has a 30◦ horizontal bend in it, as shown,
3
and carries crude oil (SG = 0.94) at a rate of 2 ms . If the pressure in
the bend is assumed to be essentially uniform at 75 kPa gage, if the

71
7. Momentum Balance

Figure 7.8: Forces on a 30◦ bend.

volume of the bend is 1.2 m3 , and if the metal in the bend weighs 4 kN,
what forces must be applied to the bend to hold it in place?
Solution: Starting with the momentum equation

∑F = ∑vρ v·A
π 2 q m
A1 = A2 = d = 0.785m2 v1 = = 2.55
4 A1 s
The velocity at the exit, v2,x , is not equal to v1 , but is equal to
 
2π m
v2,x = v1 cos 30 = 2.205
360 s
So the momentum equation becomes

 
2π ρoil ρoil
Fx +P1 A1 −P2 A2 cos 30 = v1,x v1 A1 cos (π )+ v2,x v2 A2 cos(0)
360 gc gc
Solving for Fx

Fx = −59.05 kN + 51.01 kN − 4.79 kN + 4.15 kN = 8.64 kN

There is no pressure force acting in the y − direction on the entrance

side of the bend nor is there a y − component of the velocity so
 
2π ρoil
Fy + P2 A2 sin 30 = v2,y v2 A2 cos(0)
360 gc

Fy = 29.45 kN + 2.39 kN = 31.84 kN

72
 7.5. Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum

The force in the z − direction results from the weight of the bend and
the weight of the fluid enclosed within it.

1.2m (0.94) 1000kg 9.81m N s2

Fz = WB +W f = 4 kN + | | 2 |
m3 s 1 kg m

Fz = 15.1kN

7.5 Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum

7.5.1 Review
Angular velocity The angular distance traveled per unit time.

dθ d (l/r) 1 dl v
ω= = = =
dt dt r dt r
dω d2θ 1 dv at
α= = 2 = =
dt dt r dt r
v = rω
at = rα

Where at is the acceleration in the tangential direction and v is the

linear velocity
For constant rotational motion there must be a force acting
tangentially to maintain the angular acceleration. The moment or
torque (M) is proportional to the length of the arm that connects the
point of action and the center of rotation.

M = rFi = rmat = mr2 α

In integral form
Z Z 
2 2
M= r α dm = r dm α = I α
| {z }
I 73
7. Momentum Balance

Figure 7.9: Angular velocity

I is the moment of inertia. Remembering that mv is the momentum in

a linear system, the moment of momentum or angular momentum for
a rotating point mass is given by

H = rmv = r2 mω
For a rotating rigid body, the total angular momentum is given by
Z Z 
2 2
H = r ω dm = r dm ω = I ω
| {z }
I
2π ṅ
Angular velocity ω = yields rad/s.
60
In vector form, the momentum force equation becomes

~ =~r × ~F
M

Where the magnitude of the moment of force is given by

M = Fr sin θ
The moment of momentum in vector form becomes

~ =~r × m~v
H
For a differential mass dm

74
 7.5. Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum

dm = (~r ×~v) ρ dV
Integration yields
Z
~ sys =
H (~r ×~v) ρ dV
sys

For steady flow the net torque can be written as

~ = ∑~r × ṁ~v − ∑~r × ṁ~v

∑M
out in
Example: A large lawn sprinkler
with four identical arms is to be converted into a turbine to generate
electrical power by attaching a generator. Water enters the sprinkler
from the base along the axis of rotation at a rate of 20 liters/s and
leaves the nozzles in the tangential direction. The sprinkler rotates at
a rate of 300 rpm in a horizontal plane. The diameter of each jet is
1cm, and the normal distance between the axis of ration and the center
of each nozzle is 0.6m. What is the torque on the shaft available to
generate electrical power?
Solution: We want to solve the equation

∑ M = ∑ rṁv − ∑ rṁv
out in

The last term is equal to zero since rin = 0. Calculate ṁ

1000 kg 0.02 m3 kg
ṁ = ρ q = | = 20
m3 s s
Calculate the nozzle velocity

0.02m3 1 4 m
vn = | | = 63.66
s 4 π (0.1m) s
Calculate the angular velocity

(2π ) 300 rev min rad

ω= | = 31.42
min 60 s s
Calculate the tangential velocity

75
7. Momentum Balance

  m
vnozzle = rω = (0.6m) 42 = 18.85
s s
Calculate the relative velocity
m
vrel = vn − vr = 63.66 − 18.85 = 44.81
s
Calculate the torque

0.6 m 20 kg 44.81 m N · s2
Tsha f t = rṁtotal vr = | | | = 537.7N · m
s s kg · m
Calculating the power
31.42 537.7N · m kW s
Po = ω Tsha f t = | | = 16.9 kW
s 1000 N · m

76