ME413: Combustion
Engineering
Air-Fuel Ratio
Air–fuel ratio (AFR) is the mass ratio of air to a solid, liquid, or
gaseous fuel present in a combustion process. The combustion may take
place in a controlled manner such as in an internal combustion engine or
industrial furnace, or may result in an explosion (e.g., a dust
explosion, gas or vapor explosion or in a thermobaric weapon).
The air–fuel ratio determines whether a mixture is combustible at all,
how much energy is being released, and how much-unwanted
pollutants are produced in the reaction. Typically a range of fuel to air
ratios exists, outside of which ignition will not occur. These are known
as the lower and upper explosive limits.
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟
AFR =
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
In an internal combustion engine or industrial furnace, the air–fuel ratio is an
important measure for anti-pollution and performance-tuning reasons. If exactly
enough air is provided to completely burn all of the fuel, the ratio is known as
the stoichiometric mixture, often abbreviated to stoich.
Ratios lower than stoichiometric are considered "rich". Rich mixtures are less
efficient, but may produce more power and burn cooler. Ratios higher than
stoichiometric are considered "lean". Lean mixtures are more efficient but may cause
higher temperatures, which can lead to the formation of nitrogen oxides.
Some engines are designed with features to allow lean-burn. For precise air–fuel
ratio calculations, the oxygen content of combustion air should be specified because
of different air density due to different altitude or intake air temperature, possible
dilution by ambient water vapor, or enrichment by oxygen additions.
Engine Management System
The stoichiometric mixture for a gasoline engine is the ideal ratio of air to fuel that
burns all fuel with no excess air. For gasoline fuel, the stoichiometric air–fuel mixture is
about 14.7:1 i.e. for every one gram of fuel, 14.7 grams of air are required. For
pure octane fuel, the oxidation reaction is:
25 O2 + 2 C8H18 → 16 CO2 + 18 H2O + energy
Any mixture greater than 14.7:1 is considered a lean mixture; any less than 14.7:1 is
a rich mixture – given perfect (ideal) "test" fuel (gasoline consisting of solely n-
heptane and iso-octane). In reality, most fuels consist of a combination of heptane,
octane, a handful of other alkanes, plus additives including detergents, and possibly
oxygenators such as MTBE (methyl tert-butyl ether) or ethanol/methanol. These
compounds all alter the stoichiometric ratio, with most of the additives pushing the
ratio downward (oxygenators bring extra oxygen to the combustion event in liquid
form that is released at the time of combustions; for MTBE-laden fuel, a
stoichiometric ratio can be as low as 14.1:1).
Mixture is the predominant word that appears in training texts, operation manuals, and
maintenance manuals in the aviation world.
Air-fuel ratio is the ratio between the mass of air and the mass of fuel in the fuel-
air mix at any given moment.
For pure octane the stoichiometric mixture is approximately 14.7:1 or λ of 1.00 exactly.
In naturally aspirated engines powered by octane, maximum power is frequently
reached at AFRs ranging from 12.5 to 13.3:1 or λ of 0.850 to 0.901.
The air-fuel ratio of 12:1 is considered as the maximum output ratio, whereas the air-fuel
ratio of 16:1 is considered as the maximum fuel economy ratio.
Fuel–air ratio (FAR)
Fuel–air ratio is commonly used in the gas turbine industry as well as in government
studies of internal combustion engine, and refers to the ratio of fuel to the air.
Air–fuel equivalence ratio (λ)
Air–fuel equivalence ratio, λ (lambda), is the ratio of actual AFR to stoichiometry for a
given mixture. λ = 1.0 is at stoichiometry, rich mixtures λ < 1.0, and lean mixtures λ > 1.0.
There is a direct relationship between λ and AFR. To calculate AFR from a given λ,
multiply the measured λ by the stoichiometric AFR for that fuel. Alternatively, to
recover λ from an AFR, divide AFR by the stoichiometric AFR for that fuel. This last
equation is often used as the definition of λ:
Because the composition of common fuels varies seasonally, and because many modern
vehicles can handle different fuels when tuning, it makes more sense to talk about λ values
rather than AFR.
Most practical AFR devices actually measure the amount of residual oxygen (for lean
mixes) or unburnt hydrocarbons (for rich mixtures) in the exhaust gas.
Fuel–air equivalence ratio (ϕ)
The fuel–air equivalence ratio, ϕ (phi), of a system is defined as the ratio of the fuel-
to-oxidizer ratio to the stoichiometric fuel-to-oxidizer ratio. Mathematically,
where m represents the mass, n represents a number of moles, subscript st stands for
stoichiometric conditions.
The advantage of using equivalence ratio over fuel–oxidizer ratio is that it takes into
account (and is therefore independent of) both mass and molar values for the fuel and the
oxidizer. Consider, for example, a mixture of one mole of ethane (C2H6) and one mole
of oxygen (O2). The fuel–oxidizer ratio of this mixture based on the mass of fuel and air is
and the fuel-oxidizer ratio of this mixture based on the number of moles of fuel and air is
Clearly the two values are not equal. To compare it with the equivalence ratio, we need
to determine the fuel–oxidizer ratio of ethane and oxygen mixture. For this we need to
consider the stoichiometric reaction of ethane and oxygen,
C2H6 + 7⁄2 O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O
This gives
Thus we can determine the equivalence ratio of the given mixture as
or, equivalently, as
Another advantage of using the equivalence ratio is that ratios greater than one always
mean there is more fuel in the fuel–oxidizer mixture than required for complete
combustion (stoichiometric reaction), irrespective of the fuel and oxidizer being used—
while ratios less than one represent a deficiency of fuel or equivalently excess oxidizer
in the mixture. This is not the case if one uses fuel–oxidizer ratio, which takes different
values for different mixtures.
The fuel–air equivalence ratio is related to the air–fuel equivalence ratio (defined previously)
as follows:
Mixture fraction
The relative amounts of oxygen enrichment and fuel dilution can be quantified by
the mixture fraction, Z, defined as
where
YF,0 and YO,0 represent the fuel and oxidizer mass fractions at the inlet, WF and WO are
the species molecular weights, and vF and vO are the fuel and oxygen stoichiometric
coefficients, respectively.
The stoichiometric mixture fraction is
The stoichiometric mixture fraction is related to λ (lambda) and ϕ (phi) by the equations
assuming
Percent excess combustion air
In industrial fired heaters, power plant steam generators, and large gas-fired turbines, the
more common terms are percent excess combustion air and percent stoichiometric
air. For example, excess combustion air of 15 percent means that 15 percent more than
the required stoichiometric air (or 115 percent of stoichiometric air) is being used.
A combustion control point can be defined by specifying the percent excess air (or oxygen)
in the oxidant, or by specifying the percent oxygen in the combustion product. An air–fuel
ratio meter may be used to measure the percent oxygen in the combustion gas, from which
the percent excess oxygen can be calculated from stoichiometry and a mass balance for fuel
combustion. For example, for propane (C3H8) combustion between stoichiometric and 30
percent excess air (AFRmass between 15.58 and 20.3), the relationship between percent
excess air and percent oxygen is:
Sample Problem
1 kmole of ethane(C2H6) is burned with an unknown amount of air during the
combustion process. If the combustion is complete and there are 4 kmole of oxygen in
the product, the air-fuel ratio is what?
Solution:
C2H6 + a(O2 + 3.76N2) → bCO2 + cH2O + 4O2 + a(3.76N2)
C: 2 = b ; b = 2
H: 6 = 2c ; c = 3
O: 2a = 2b + c + 8 → 2a = 2(2) + 3 + 8 → 2a = 15 ; a = 7.5
N: 7.52a = 7.52a
C2H6 + 7.5(O2 + 3.76N2) → 2CO2 + 3H2O + 4O2 + 28.2N2
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑚
AFR = = ; M= , m=nM
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑛𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑀𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑛
𝑀𝐶2 : 2(12) Nair = 7.5 kmole
𝑀𝐻6 : 6(1) Nfuel = 1 kmole
𝑀𝑂2 : 2(16)
𝑀𝑁2 : 2(14)
7.5[2 16 +3.76 2 14 ]
AFR =
1[2 12 + 6 1 ]
𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑖𝑟
AFR = 34.32 ………………… Ans
𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
Definition of terms
Air - the invisible gaseous substance surrounding the earth, a mixture mainly of oxygen
and nitrogen.
Air Density - The density of air or atmospheric density, denoted ρ, is the mass per unit
volume of Earth's atmosphere.
Air Fuel Ratio - is the ratio between the mass of air and the mass of fuel in the fuel–air
mix at any given moment.
Air–fuel equivalence ratio - λ (lambda), is the ratio of actual AFR to stoichiometry for a
given mixture. λ = 1.0 is at stoichiometry, rich mixtures λ < 1.0, and lean mixtures λ >
1.0.
Air-Fuel Ratio Meter - An air-fuel ratio meter monitors the air–fuel ratio of an internal
combustion engine.
Alkane - In organic chemistry, an alkane, or paraffin, is an acyclic saturated
hydrocarbon.
Combustion - Combustion, or burning, is a high-temperature exothermic redox
chemical reaction between a fuel and an oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen, that
produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as smoke.
Dust explosion - A dust explosion is the rapid combustion of fine particles
suspended in the air within an enclosed location.
Ethanol - Ethanol (also called ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol, drinking alcohol, or
simply alcohol) is an organic chemical compound. It is a simple alcohol with the
chemical formula C2H6O.
Fuel - A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it
releases energy as thermal energy or to be used for work.
Fuel Air Ratio - refers to the ratio of fuel to the air.
Fuel–air equivalence ratio - ϕ (phi), of a system is defined as the ratio of the fuel-
to-oxidizer ratio to the stoichiometric fuel-to-oxidizer ratio.
Gas or vapor explosion - A gas explosion is an explosion resulting from mixing a
gas, typically from a gas leak, with air in the presence of an ignition source.
Gasoline - Gasoline or petrol is a transparent, petroleum-derived flammable liquid
that is used primarily as a fuel in most spark-ignited internal combustion engines.
Gas Turbine - A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of continuous
flow internal combustion engine.
Industrial Fired Heaters - An industrial furnace, also known as a direct heater or a
direct fired heater, is a device used to provide heat for an industrial process, typically
higher than 400 degrees Celsius.
Internal Combustion Engine - An internal combustion engine is a heat engine in
which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that
is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit.
Iso-octane - 2,2,4-Trimethylpentane, also known as isooctane or iso-octane, is an
organic compound with the formula (CH3)3CCH2CH(CH3)2.
Lean-burn - refers to the burning of fuel with an excess of air in an internal
combustion engine.
Mass Balance - A mass balance, also called a material balance, is an application of
conservation of mass to the analysis of physical systems.
Methanol - Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol, amongst other names, is an
organic chemical and the simplest alcohol, with the formula CH3OH (a methyl
group linked to a hydroxyl group, often abbreviated MeOH).
Methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) - also known as methyl tert-butyl ether and
tert-butyl methyl ether, is an organic compound with a structural formula
(CH3)3COCH3.
Mixture - a substance made by mixing other substances together.
Mixture fraction - is a quantity used in combustion studies that measures the mass
fraction of one stream of a mixture formed by two feed streams, one the fuel stream
and the other the oxidizer stream.
N-heptane - Heptane or n-heptane is the straight-chain alkane with the chemical
formula H3C(CH2)5CH3 or C7H16.
Octane - Octane is a hydrocarbon and an alkane with the chemical formula C8H18, and the
condensed structural formula CH3(CH2)6CH3.
Oxidant - An oxidizing agent is a substance in a redox chemical reaction that gains or
"accepts"/"receives" an electron from a reducing agent.
Power Plant - A power station, also referred to as a power plant and sometimes generating
station or generating plant, is an industrial facility for the generation of electric power.
Stoichiometry - Stoichiometry refers to the relationship between the quantities of reactants
and products before, during, and following chemical reactions.
Thermobaric Weapon - A thermobaric weapon, also called an aerosol bomb, a vacuum
bomb or a fuel air explosive (FAE), is a type of explosive that uses oxygen from the
surrounding air to generate a high-temperature explosion.
References
Hillier, V.A.W.; Pittuck, F.W. (1966). "Sub-section 3.2". Fundamentals of Motor
Vehicle Technology. London: Hutchinson Educational. ISBN 0 09 110711 3.
See Example 15.3 in Çengel, Yunus A.; Boles, Michael A. (2006). Thermodynamics:
An Engineering Approach (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 9780072884951
Kumfer, B.; Skeen, S.; Axelbaum, R. (2008). "Soot inception limits in laminar
diffusion flames with application to oxy-fuel combustion" (PDF). Combustion and
Flame. 154: 546–556. doi:10.1016/j.combustflame.2008.03.008
Introduction to Fuel and Energy: 1) MOLES, MASS, CONCENTRATION AND
DEFINITIONS. http://eyrie.shef.ac.uk/eee/cpe630/comfun1.html
"Energy Tips – Process Heating – Check Burner Air to Fuel Ratios“ U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy.
November 2007. Retrieved 29 July 2013.
"Stoichiometric combustion and excess of air“. The Engineering ToolBox.
Retrieved 29 July 2013. https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/stoichiometric-
combustion-d_399.html
Eckerlin, Herbert M. "The Importance of Excess Air in the Combustion
Process“Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering 406 - Energy Conservation in
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2014. Retrieved 29 July 2013.
