General Silviculture Naeem Javid M.

Hassani
[Link] (2007 - 2009)

Silviculture Continued from Page number 56………………

Chapter Number 4 continued
Tree Reproduction
Artificial factors for stimulation of flowering:
- Since flowering is mainly concerned with carbohydrates (C-H-O), therefore,
treatments which prevent the movement of carbohydrates from the top also
produces early flowering:
These treatments are:
1. Root pruning: (injury to roots)
2. Girdling: (removing of bark in a circular section)
3. Strangulation (to restrict flow of something) by wire or metal band.
4. Inverting of a ring of bark:
5. Tying a knot in a young tree/ branch
6. Planting at an angle of 45 degree.(less food transportation)
7. Grafting on dwarf root stack
8. Training the branches to horizontal position
9. Fertilization, esp. phosphorus.
- Sickly trees sometimes produce an abundant crop of small fruit as a last effort
before dying.
- Similarly, heavily tapped pines also produce abundant flowers.
- Diseased trees , or trees in adverse conditions will produce more flowers to
establish their regeneration
- Dominant trees produce more flowers as they receive more light which means
more food while a suppress tree does not produce more flowers. (pic)
- A single tree produces more flowers because max exposure to sun light results in
more photosynthesis hence more food accumulation.
PERI
ODICITY OF FLOWERING:
- Periodicity is the regular cycle of flowering/ seeding.
- It is the interval b/w flowering and fruiting.
- The frequency of flowering varies greatly with spp, weather, age and size of trees,
and with canopy and crown class.
o Reasons of flowering:
 Genetic characteristics
 Environmental factors
 Soil fertility
 Soil moisture
 Soil nutrients (the yr in which soil has nutrients, tree will produce
flowers)
o Examples of spp
 Fir
 Average cycle for moderate seed year = 6 yrs
 For good seed yr = 10 yrs
 Deodar
 Moderate seed year = 3 yrs
 Good seed year = 4 – 5 yrs

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 Spruce
 M s yr = 3
 G s yr = 5 -6
 Chir
 M s yr = 3
 G s yr = 4 -5
 Kail
 M s yr = 2
 G s yr = 2 – 3
 Shisham
 M s yr = 1
 G s yr = 1
 Acacia
 M s yr = 1
 G s yr = 1-2
- Majority of the spp are bisexual (both sexes are present)
- Conifers, etc are monosexual (separate sexes)
- Bamboos produce flowers once in life usually after 40 years but if rhizomes re
planted they may produce flowers after 10 years and this is called classical
periodicity.
SEE
D DORMANCY:
It is defined as, “In an inactive state, when growth and development of a seed,
bud, etc slow or cease, in order to survive adverse environmental conditions”
Seeds of numerous plants do not germinate readily even if all the conditions favorable for
their germination are provided to these. The germination may be delayed for days, weeks,
or even months. The seed of such plants are said to in a dormant condition and the
condition is called seed dormancy.

SIGNIFICANCE OF SEED DORMANCY:

- The dormancy enables the plants to over come periods of unfavourable
environmental conditions, thus providing the plants a mechanism for survival
- In temperate zones where temp falls below freezing in winter, most plants could
not survive in vegetative of flowering state. Thus, in ay plants seeds and buds
become dormant. The dormancy begins oat the onset of winter cold allowing the
plant to pass the winter with little or no damage.
- Moisture is a pre-condition for the germination of seeds, and seeds of plants
growing in arid regions remain dormant till a sufficient amount of water is
available.

CAUSES OF SEED DORMANCY:

Following are the main causes:
1. Dormancy due to condition of embryo:
Two kinds of dormancy have been observed due to condition of the embryo.
a. Dormancy due to immature embryo:

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Failure of seed to germinate may be due to poor development of the

embryo at seed maturity. Such embryos continue their development during
dormant period. The seeds germinate only when the embryos complete
their development.
b. Afterripening:
In the seeds of rosaceous plants (apple, pear, cherry, blackberry, etc) and
conifers, the embryo appears to be fully developed but they fail to
germinate when all the conditions necessary for germination are provided
to them. The embryos in these cases require some period of development
during which changes occur within the seeds that result in the breakdown
of dormancy.
2. Dormancy Due to Seed Coat:
The seed coats of most seeds are composed of several layers of cells derived from
integument (an outer protective layer on a seed). During seed ripening some
chemicals lose water and form a tough, protective layer around the embryo. Such
seed coats cause dormancy in the following ways:
a. Water Impermeability:
A hard seed coat prevents absorption of water, thus inhibiting germination
and causing dormancy. It is common in Leguminosae.
b. Gas Impermeability:
Some seeds are permeable to water but impermeable to gasses esp to
oxygen eg Xanthium. On the other hand some seeds are permeable to
oxygen but impermeable to CO2 hence produced inside the seeds during
respirations inhibits seed germination and causes dormancy.
c. Development of Special Structures:
In some seeds a special cork-like structure called strophiolar plug
develops tat blocks micropyle (small opening in the seed coat). Therefore,
the seeds are unable to absorb water and oxygen necessary for germination
and remain dormant.
d. Mechanical Resistance:
In some seeds, the seed coat offers resistance and hence the embryo
cannot expand and seed remains dormant.
3. Dormancy due to Chemical Inhibitors:
Some compounds like pulp of fruit or glumes block some processes essential for
growth and produce growth abnormality. These compounds are referred to as
chemical inhibitors.
4. Dormancy due to Environmental Factors:
Certain environmental factors esp light and temp affect seed germination
including dormancy.
a. Effect of Light:
- Seeds response to light variously
- Effect of radiant energy on seed germination is quite diverse
- Some seeds require light for germination while others germinate only in dark
- Some seeds require exposure to altering light and dark periods for germination
- Seeds that require light for germination are said to be Photodormant.

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b. Effect of Temperature:
- Many seed esp of rosaceous spp like peach, plum, cherry, etc; many other
deciduous plants will not germinate until they are exposed to low temp in moist
conditions
- Many seeds respond to higher temp and several respond best when daily temp
alternate b/w high and low
- About 62 cold requiring spp have been recorded so far

BREAKING SEED DORMANCY:

The following measures can be adopted to break the seed dormancy so these can
germinate when conditions favourable for germination are provided to them.
1. Scarification:
- Breaking the seed coat is called Scarification
- Used when seed is impermeable or having mechanical resistance
- The seed coats are scarified or cracked either by mechanically, chemically or by
the fire
- Mechanically by shaking the seeds with sand or sand paper; or scratching by
knife; or even by chewing; naturally by microbial action or passage of seed
through the digestive tract of a bird or an animal; exposure to alternating temp, or
movement of water across sand or rocks.
- Chemically by concentrated acids, alcohols which dissolve away waxy materials
that block water entry. Seeds of many legumes are soaked for a few minutes to an
hour in concentrated sulphuric acid to soften the hard seed coat to make these
permeable to water and gasses.
- Fire plays an important role in scarification esp for spp like Albizzia spp.
2. Impaction:
- Impaction means to strike something with force
- This method implies to vigorous shaking of the seeds
- This method is used when the micropyle is blocked by a cork like substance,
strophiolar plug, which prevents the penetration of oxygen and water
3. Prechilling or Stratification
- Seeds of many plants like rosaceous spp, conifers, and herbaceous spp do not
germinate until these are exposed to low temp in the moist conditions in the
presence of oxygen from weeks to months
- Stratification is the process in which when the seeds shed from parent plants in
the autumn, these are covered with cold soil, debris, and snow layers
- This process can be done artificially by layering the seeds during winter in flats
containing moist sand and peat. The seeds in flats are cooled before they will
germinate
- Prechilling is used for Stratification now-a-days
- The process accumulates food and stores moisture which finally helps in
germination thus breaking the seed dormancy.

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VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
- Describes reproduction in plants in which new individuals develop asexually from
specialized structures such as bulbs, rhizomes, or runners rather than from
specialized sex cells.
- Asexual propagation is the production of new plants from the leaves, stems, or
roots of a single parent plant. Asexual propagation, which does not require
pollination or fertilization, is a rapid method of propagation. It ensures that all of
the parent’s genetic material survives even if the parent dies, and it creates
offspring, known as clones, with the same traits as the parent plant. Asexual
propagation is advantageous when plants are well adapted to a particular
environment.
- E.g. by coppice or root suckers, etc.
- In plants two types of buds are found (i) Dormant buds (originate in the leaf axils
and in bark, each year growing sufficiently to keep the tip just out of wood) (ii)
adventitious buds (found in living tissues). When any disturbance occur in
physiological activities e.g. by cutting or by injury, etc these develop shoots.

REASONS FOR VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION:

Vegetative reproduction is adopted under special circumstances, which are as under:
1. Inability to produce viable seed (in spp like Banyan, Fig, Oranges, etc)
2. True to type spp (exactly similar to mother spp)
a. By seed the seedling may not be like mother tree or somewhat father tree
b. In veg reproduction, 100% surety is guaranteed.
3. Particular form of plant (e.g. a dwarf tree)
4. Modify growth habit (e.g. if Olea ferrugenia, which has good root system but low
seed production, is grafted with other Olea spp, which has poor root system but
good seed production, the new spp will be modified with not only good root
system but also excellent seed production)
5. Adaptation of habitat: (by vegetative means the adoptability of a spp in a
particular area is increased)
6. Produce immunity against pests and diseases
7. More quantity of plants/ greater no of plants
a. Tissue culture
i. here a single tissue produces a single plant
ii. From a single tree, we can produce millions of plants.
8. Easy and quick results:
a. Sometimes seed collection is a problem e.g. poplar, Tamarix, etc also
vegetative means takes lesser times to grow which the seeds take to
germinate, establish, etc.

TYPES/ METHODS/ MODES OF VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION:

1. Root Suckers: (pic free hand)
- When a root of a plant is partially or wholly cut to produce new shoots.
- OR; A shoot arising from the root of woody plant is called root suckers
_ (BCFT)

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-Roots of the plant are injured (which results in the disturbance of the
physiological functions)
- When new shoots are appeared, the main stem is cut.
- Mainly used for regeneration purposes in Bela Forest in Punjab.
- E.g. shisham, Poplus alba, ailanthus, simal, robinia, etc.
2. Coppicing:
- When the main plant is cut from near ground, it produces a flush of fresh
shoots.
- “A shoot arising from an adventitious bud at the base of woody plant that has
been cut near the ground or otherwise burnt back”_BCFT
- Mainly observed in Eucalyptus, broad leaves, Dodonaea, acacia modesta,
Morus alba, Prosopis juliflora, etc. (pic)
- The stem is cut as near to the ground as possible because the adventitious buds
are concentrated to collar regions (where adventitious buds are located b/w
bark and wood i.e. cambium)
o Factors influencing coppicing:
 Age/ Size of tree
 Greater age less coppicing
 Some trees have coppice power till age of 50 to 70
years
 Season
 Cut the stem before spring i.e. cut in dormant season
 Site characteristics
 Sites having fertile, deep, etc soils produce good
coppices.
 Height of cutting
 Cut near collar point
 Coppicing power
 Inherent coppicing power
 Strong coppicers
 Conifers are not at all
o Strong coppicers:
 Shisham
 Eucalyptus
 Acacia
 Albezzia
 Olea
 Salix
o Fair coppicers
 Oak
 Acacia
o Limited
 Acacia nilotica
 Bombax ceiba
o No coppicing

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 Pines/ conifers
 Reported in Chir in young age called seedling coppice

3. Cutting
- A portion of stem, root, or branch is planted in the soil. A new shoot is
produced.
- Cutting depends upon:
 Spp
 Age (1-3 yrs)
 Lateral and basal portion give better results than apical portion
or terminal portion
 Season: early spring or late winter
 Habit:
1. Deciduous: early spring/ late autumn
2. Evergreen: monsoon (because high humidity affects less
evapotranspiration)
 Size of cutting (thumb size/ finger size)
 Hormones: (root inducing hormones)

1. IAA (Indole Acetic Acid) (make solutions of hormones and

dip cuttings and perform the field planting)

- Types of cuttings
 Root cuttings
1. From adventitious buds
2. 10 – 25cm length of cutting (3 to 10 inches)
3. Placed horizontally underground
4. e.g. shisham, pulonia, robinia, etc
 Root Shoot cutting (pic)
1. Cutting having part of root as well as shoot
2. Size is equal to thumb and length 9 inches (6 inch root
while 3 shoot)
3. The height of stump depends upon moisture availability;
greater moisture, longer the shoot
4. Also known as stump cutting
5. Planting should be as quick as possible
 Stem Cutting/ Branch cutting:
1. 10 – 25 cm length of cutting
2. One year old plant
3. Finger size should be the minimum size
4. Two-third of the cutting should be in the ground (pic free
hand)
5. Upper cut should be 5 cm above node (pic free hand)
6. Cutting should be slanting (tircha _ pic) so that moisture
could not accumulate
7. Cutting should be inserted obliquely (pic)

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8. Cutting should be done before dormant period

9. Keep wet while transporting

 leaf cutting
1. In some spp like Philloden spp (ornamental plant)
2. Also in Jack pine (pinus bantsions)
3. Petiole is removed
4. Give superficial cut to vein (pic)
5. Place on soil with pins
6. It will absorb moisture and will develop roots.
4. Layering:
- A method of propagating plants by covering a branch or shoot with soil so
that it takes root while still attached to the parent plant
- Methods of Layering:
- Two methods of layering are commonly used.
 Air layering
 Soil Layering
Soil Layering: (pic)
i. Remove bark after making a cut
ii. Place a stone and cover the cut with soil.
iii. Provide moisture
iv. Don’t cut the branch from the mother tree in a single cut, rather 1/3
should be cut of old branch and check its effect on mother plant.
After a week cut it off if there is no effect on the new shoot. If
effects are visible, then do not directly cut the branch rather cut it
upto ½ lengths.
v. E.g. roses, mango, jasmine, grapes, etc.
Soil layering is of following types:
i. Serpentine Layering: (pic)
in such layering, a single is branch is inserted in two or three
places inside the soil
mainly for those spp having soft and flexible branches, especially
for ornamental plants.

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ii. Mound layering or Stool layering. (pic)

under this condition, cover the plant with soil and new shoots arise
e.g. in apple

Air Layering:
This method can be done in upper atmosphere
 The part of the branch is covered with a polythene sheet or a
plastic cover with soil and tie with spongy material
 Rest of the process is similar as in soil layering ie removal of
bark; cutting in intervals, etc. See pic
 E.g. sweet chestnut

5. Grafting:

Twin Graft on an Apple Tree

This picture shows a successful twin graft between two plants. In grafting, the scion, or portion of a plant to be propagated, is
physically attached to a seedling or stock plant of the same species using a grafting rubber band and grafting wax. After several weeks,
if the graft is successful, the stock and scion will have grown together. Wild plants such as trees and shrubs can also undergo natural
grafting, in which their root systems grow together. This allows for the sharing of essential nutrients between different species.

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Oxford Scientific Films

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
Following fig explains the whole process of sexual reproduction in plants:

Flower Pollination and Fertilization

Flowers contain the structures necessary for sexual reproduction. The male component, or stamen, consists of a thin stalk called the
filament, capped by the anther. The female component, the pistil, includes the stigma, a sticky surface that catches pollen; the ovary,
which contains the ovule and embryo sac with its egg; and the style, a tube that connects the stigma and ovary (A). Pollen is produced
in the anther (B), and is released when mature (C). Each mature pollen grain contains two sperm cells. In self-pollinating plants, the
pollen lands on the stigma of the same flower, but in cross-pollinating plants—the majority of plants—the pollen is carried by wind,
water, insects, or small animals to another flower. If the pollen attaches to the stigma of a flower from the same species, the pollen
produces a pollen tube, which grows down the neck of the style, transporting the sperm to the ovule (D). Within the embryo sac of the
ovule, one sperm cell fertilizes the egg, which develops into a seed. The second sperm cell unites with two cells in the embryo sac
called polar nuclei, and this result in the development of the endosperm, the starchy food that feeds the developing seed. The ovary
enlarges (E) and becomes a fruit.

Another fig in this regard:

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Chapter Number 5
Regeneration
REGENERATION:
“The process or method or renewal of forest crop by natural or artificial means using
potential capability of trees to reproduce sexually or asexually, is called regeneration.”
OR; the renewal of a forest crop by artificial means, also the new crop so obtained is
called regeneration._ (BCFT)

TYPES OF REGENERATION:
There are two types of regeneration:
1. Natural Regeneration
2. Artificial Regeneration
1. Natural Regeneration:
The method of renewal of a forest crop by self sown seed, by coppice or root
suckers is called natural regeneration.
2. Artificial Regeneration:
The method of renewal of forest crop by sowing, planting, cutting, Layering,
Budding or other artificial means is called artificial regeneration.

PURPOSE OF REGENERATION:
- Old trees are removed to avoid rottening and allowing new crop
(regeneration)
- To cope with the demand of people
- Removal of trees is also done to expel the inferior spp
- Regeneration is also necessary to increase the green cover
- Other effects like binding soil, controlling soil erosion, increasing water
yield, improving the environment, etc.

NATURAL REGENERATION:
- Natural regeneration can occur either by vegetative means or by seed.

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- Under vegetative means coppicing, layering, and root suckers are the
common methods and by seed following conditions are necessary.
i. Adequate seed supply
ii. Adequate light conditions, obtained by regulation of the density and
composition of various strata or canopies.
iii. Suitable soil conditions for germination and establishment
iv. Suitable composition and degree of development of undergrowth to protect
the seedling from desiccation and biotic influences without undue
competition for light and nutrients
v. Efficient protection from all kind of damages
vi. Adequate conservation or drainage of surface flow.
vii. Adequate drainage, infiltration, and aeration in soil.
viii. Effective soil conservation

METODS OF NATURAL REGENERATION BY SEED:

There are different methods of regeneration comes naturally by seed on different sites.
i) Natural Regeneration on Blank areas
ii) Natural Regeneration of Forested areas

ECOLOGICAL BASIS OF NATURAL REGENERATION BY SEED:

Appearing of regeneration naturally by seeds depends upon the followings:
a) New alluvial soil:
Deposition of soil occurs when river bands turn during its movement. This
deposition results in deposition of alluvial soil. (Pic)
In these soils, those spp can grow whose trees are present along the river. Because
seed will shed and move along the water and get deposited in alluvial soil to give off new
generation. For regeneration, seeds must be:
- light in weight
- should be of light demander spp
- should be of fast growing spp
- Should be of leguminous spp, because soil in not fertile.
Normally dispersed or shedding of seeds occur in July, August when flood comes.
Here soil becomes fertile with vegetation and these changes in condition gives rise to
Succession. Fore example in Sind province.
 Pioneer:
 Saccharum munja
 Saccharum spontum
 Tamarix dioca
 Poplus euphratica
 Sub Climax:
 Saccharum spp
 Poplus euphratica
 Acacia nilotica
 Pre-Climax:
 Acacia nilotica
 Prosopis spicegera

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 Climax:
 Prosopis spicegera
 Salvadora spp
 Capparis aphylla
 Acacia senegal

b) Land Slips:
In the hills, especially where the land is measured by shifting cultivation or
overgrazing, land slips are frequent e.g. Dir, Swat, Kaghan provide new sites for
colonization.
 Pioneer
 Shrubs
 Pinus wallichiana
 Sub-Climax
 Cedrus deodara
 Picea smithiana
 Pinus wallichiana
 Climax:
 Cedrus deodara
 Abies pindrow
 Picea smithiana

c) Sites where abundant cultivation has done:

In those areas where land has been cultivated abundantly the soil is compact,
infertile. This comes to know from history of land.
Normally on these site, when felling is done the roots remain there and give rise
to new shoots. There are also often a few large trees still standing on the areas having
been left as to troublesome to fell on girdle, or as shade trees. They attract birds which
carry seeds from outsides, also seed are shed by there trees and helping in regeneration.
E.g. here soil will be well drained; pioneers will be grasses afterwards light demanders
and then shade bearers spp will come.

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR SEED GERMINATION:

Following conditions are necessary for the germination of seed.
1. Living embryo
2. Rehydration of seed (Moisture)
By imbibitions (sucking of water by seed)
Results in swelling of seed
Activates enzymes
o Starch  glucose
o Protein  peptones
o Lipids  lipase
3. Oxygen
Necessary for oxidation
4. Temperature

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Ideal 37 OC
Optimum 68OF - 86 OF
Minimum 32 OF and maximum 113 OF
5. Light
It may or may not be required
Light is necessary esp for the cases of “coleoptiles”
Required for light demanders like Pinus roxburghii
6. Other factors include
Soil air
Nutrient availability
Succession and Climax
Competition
Crop composition
Site _ on what type of area seeds are falling
Over wood _ canopy cover
Soil depth
Soil condition
NATURAL REGENERATION BY SEED:
Special Thanks to Sir Nowsherwan Zarif Sb

Natural regeneration by seed can be done under following Silvicultural Systems (it is a
planned programme of Silvicultural treatments through out the life of the stand to
achieve stand’s structural objectives based on integrated resource mgt):

Following Systems are applied to obtain Natural Regeneration by Seed:

1. CLEAR FELLING SYSTEMS
Definition:
- To cut down and remove all of the trees from a forest or other area of land
is called clear felling
- It is a system in which successive areas are clearfelled and regenerated
every year naturally or artificially
Procedure:
- The entire area is divided into as many units as there are number of years
in rotation of crop
- Eg for shisham, rotation is 40 years, so no of units will be 40 see fig.

- Each unit is felled and regenerated annually; such a unit is called felling
coup or regeneration coup
- Total area is divided into Coupes.

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- Now if total area is 40,000 acres and rotation age for Shisham is 40 years
then coupe area is:
Coupe area = 40,000 acres/ 40
Coupe area = 1000 acres
Each unit, which is felled each year, is 1000acres.
- The coupes are made equally productive; where the area is not uniform the
coup size can vary
- The coup area is less if compartments are very productive, and more if less
productive
- A planting target should be fixed for 10 years, 12 years, or 15 years, and
regenerate the area with in it.
- The size, form and arrangement of coup vary. The coups can be scattered
in whole area
- The result coup is even aged
- Regeneration is natural; but can be Artificial is most cases
Applicability:
- Where the original spp are not valuable eg in Tropical Thorn Forest
Prosopis cineraria, Beri, Capparis spp, etc are not valuable and its annual
yield is 10 cft/ acre. We clear these forests and introduce shisham which
has 15o cft/ acre timber value and 1500 cft/ acre fire wood yield
- Where exotics are to be introduced eg Eucalyptus spp, hybrid poplar, etc
- Where trees have become too old to be retained
- Where spp are light demanders, and can bear full frost, temperature, wind,
etc.
- Suitable for those spp where seed supply is abundant
- Mainly applied in plains like in IPs where there is less risk of erosion,
floods, etc
- Also applied in Tropical Thorn Forests and Tropical Dry Deciduous
Forests
- Applied for spp having short rotation age and produce seed each year
- The crops obtained would be even aged
- A planting target is set to minimize catastrophes
When and How?
- From September to January
- In good seed year
- Can be carried out in Blocks and Strips in particular geometrical shapes
- Felling is done before germination period
Mostly not carried out when??
- Succession % is low
- Risk of invasion of undesired spp
- Less density of seed growing spp
- Unfavourable conditions
- Chances of flood or erosion
Merits of Clear Felling:
- It is simple ie felling does not require any technical skill
- It is cheapest in sense of production

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- Cost of raising is less

- Light demander grow well
- Minimum damage due to extraction and felling
- Quickest method ie method of increasing the valuable stand and convert
those into plantations
- Regeneration quick
- Quick return annually
- Desired spp and desired mixture can be introduced
- Spp composition is controlled
Demerits of Clear Felling:
- Danger of soil loss
- High rain fall increase swamp ness
- Weeds thick growth
- Complete exposure of forest
- Multiplication of diseases, etc is fast as the forest obtained is Even aged
(See also the demerits of Even aged stand)
- Hazards of erosion
- Less aesthetic
- Disturbance to Ecosystem, Wild life and Environment

2. SELECTION SYSTEM
- “When an individual tree or small group of trees from all over the forest
are felled in order to create small gaps to stimulate or free regeneration
and uneven aged forest result in which trees of all age classes are
distributed over the whole of the forest, such a system is called Selection
system.”
- In this system selected trees are felled
- Mainly applied for conifers in moist temperate forests.
Objectives:
- To get regeneration
- To get uneven aged forest
- To get normal forest_ having trees of each age class
- To get optimum mixture of spp
- To get sustainable yield
Implementation:
- Selection system can be applied in:
 Coniferous forests
 Tropical Semi-evergreen forests
 Moist Temperate Forests _ Single Selection system
 Mangroves Forests_ Group Selection system
Execution / Implementation:
- 1st check the crop whether it is diseased free or not, check other defects
like dead, defected, badly shaped, over mature, broken tops, etc
- 2nd mark the trees having exploitable diameter ie 24 inches
- 3rd girdling (a ring around a tree trunk made by removing the bark and
underlying tissue in order to kill the tree) is done for the tree. It helps not

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only in getting best quality seeds but also helps in standing seasoning of
the tree)
- 4th girdling not along road sides as there are chances of theft, wind blown,
etc
- 5th chemicals can be used for the same purpose
- 6th felling cycles are concentrated ie area is divided into blocks called
felling cycles.
Advantages of Selection System:
- Best for spp which are poor seeders
- Ideal for soil and water conservation
- Suitable for steep slopes
TYPES OF SELECTION SYSTEM:
a. Single Tree Selection System:
- Removal of all the trees above exploitable dia ie 24 inches (for conifers)
- Thinning is performed
- Normal rotation is fixed
- Felling cycles are located (20 to 30 years)
- Total yield (ie total volume and number of trees) is calculated of trees
which are to be cut down
- Felling preference is done ie more valuable trees are preferred
- Finally after felling villagers are allowed to take debris
b. Group Selection System:
- Applied only for Chir and Spruce
- On areas where slope in 70%
- Trees of 120 inches are treated
- Group system proceeds from top to bottom
- 500 groups of one acre; each are felled annually
- 5000 acres in 10 years, and felling cycle will be completed
- Rotation 120 to 140 years
- Exploitable dia is fixed at 20 inches

3. SHELTERWOOD SYSTEM
In this system a series of (ie two or more) felling are carried out to get
regeneration by seed, naturally.

TYPES OF SHELTERWOOD SYSTEM:

a. Uniform Shelterwood System/ Shelterwood Compartment System
- Advanced growth (seedling which is present before seeding felling) is not
left
- In this system, the canopy is opened out uniformly over the entire
compartment or sub-compartment and the regeneration will form more or
less uniform and even aged crop
- Mainly applied in chir pine forests

 Preparation or Preparatory Felling:

- It is actually thinning

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- For successful application of this system, it is essential that the crop

should have properly thinned out throughout its life till it is mature and
ready for exploitation and regeneration.
- The successive thinning offer an opportunity for the improvement of the
future stands by the removal of all defective trees.
- One of the main objective of this felling is to make gaps in the canopy,
provide space, and also the removal of wind fallen, 3D (dead, diseased,
and dry), inferior quality, suppressed, double leader, abnormal, wind
thrown, fire injure, crooked stem, fluted stem, spiral grains, etc trees – fig

 Regeneration or Seeding Felling:

- In the mature crop, a seeding felling is carried out leaving a prescribed no
of seed bearers as uniformly distributed over the area.
- Seed bearers should be:
 The best tree
 Have wide spreading crown
 Mature enough
 Providing fertile/ viable seed
 Dominant or co-dominant
 Straight, cylindrical bole
 Free from all diseases
- The number of seed bearers should be retained depends on several factors.
If the spp in question produces seeds regularly and abundantly and the
seeds are dispersed to considerable distances then a few seed bearers are
left.
- Similarly for light demanders the no of seed bearers are fewer as
compared to shade bearers.
- Southern aspect should have more seed bearers as compared to northern
aspect.
- It also depends upon the environmental conditions, aspect, Silvicultural
characteristic of trees, etc.
- E.g. for chir pine, as few as 5 (on northern aspect) to 8 (on southern
aspect) seed bearers are left per acre.
- For Fir, 35 seed bearers are required
- For Kail, 20 seed bearers are required
- For Deodar, up to 20 seed bearers per acre are required
- In plains, for Shisham, the number of seed bearers is 16 – 24 trees per acre

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 Secondary Felling:
- Once regeneration appears on the forest floor the over wood is removed in
one or more fellings to assist in the development of new crop, provided if
the spp is a strong light demander and regeneration with ease.
- For example for chir pine the seed bearers may be removed in a single
felling.
- If the spp is regenerated with difficulty and/or the seedling require
protection against drought or frost, the overwood may e removed in two or
more fellings.
- The rate of the removal of the overwood is determined by the progress of
regeneration.

 Final felling:
- It is the complete removal of the whole crop ie mature trees
- In this felling all the trees are removed including the seed bearers

b. Group Shelterwood System

- Here felling is carried out in patches
- Advanced growth is left
- Patches are extended centrifugally

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- Mainly applied for spp which are poor seeders and sensitive shade bearers
like Deodar spp
- Also applicable for Abies pindrow and Pinus wallichiana, a group uniform
system is introduced in Kaghan Valley and Shugran
Advantages:
- Advanced growth is gained
- Shelter to shade tolerant
- Less affected by snow, wind, storm, and other hazards
Disadvantages:
- Side shade is provided to seedling on the southern edge but the northern
edge remains in full sunshine
- During enlarging, damage occurs due to extraction
- Extraction is also another problem
- Difficult mgt due to large no of gaps/ groups

c. Irregular Shelterwood System

- This system resembles the group system in its initial stage.
- Gaps with advanced growth are located or artificially created to induce
regeneration
- The regeneration period is longer than in case of the group system,
becoming a significant proportion of the whole rotation, and may vary
from 40 to 60 years.
- The crops produced are therefore much more uneven aged then under the
group system.
- The areas to be regenerated are allotted to a regeneration block and are
adjusted at each riverain of the working plan
- The emphasis is on retaining superior stems for putting on increment
- Felling, for creating and enlarging the groups, is mainly concentrated on
defective trees leaving well formed trees till the end of the regeneration
period.
Advantages:
- It is flexible
- It protects the soil and can bear wind and snow damage better than even
aged crops
- Retention of best stems for more increment
- Less sacrifice of immature trees.
- More shade
- More yield/ increment
Disadvantages:
- (Similar to Group system)

d. Strip Shelterwood System

- Where wind velocities are high and protection from sun is necessary on
hot dry slopes, this felling is carried out against the direction of wind
- Introduced by Germans in Pakistan
- Felling is carried out in Strips

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- To make it possible to fell timber on hill slopes with minimum damage to

young growth
- Width of strip 5 time height of tree of plus tree
- First seeding felling is carried out during a good seed year on the leeward
direction (against the direction of wind)
- When the regeneration is sufficiently advanced on this strip, it is subjected
to secondary felling
- Narrow strips adjacent to first strips on windward side are made.
- When regeneration is established in second strip then secondary felling is
done in this strip.
- At the same time final felling is done in first strip and a fresh strip is
formed _ see fig

e. Shelterwood strip and Group System

- It is the combination of strip and group system
Modification:
- During seeding felling advanced growth are extended in strips
- Other felling are ie Secondary and Final fellings follow the same
sequences as in strip system
- Regeneration is speeded up due to presence of advanced growth present
already as compared to strip system – fig
-

f. Punjab Shelter wood System

- Similar to Uniform Shelterwood System
- Applied in Muree Hills and parts of Kashmir
Main Characteristics:
- Here advanced growth is retained (12 inch @ DBH) in PB IV
- A no of pole crops is also retained
- A few seed bearers are also left to ensure regeneration
- All other trees are cut

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- Proper thinning and cleaning of young crop is done

CONCEPT OF PERIODIC BLOCKS

To facilitate all the Silvicultural operations like weeding, thinning, pruning upto
felling total area is divided into areas called Period Blocks.
a. Number of Period Blocks
The number of PBs can be computed by the following formula:

Regeneration Period
- It is the time from Seeding Felling to Secondary Felling.
- For chir it is 25 years to 30 years.
- It is time from Germination of a seedling to establishment.
- It depends upon many factors like seeding factors of locality, hardiness of
spp, and natural hazards.
Rotation Age:
- It is the time upto which a tree is grown or allowed to grow
- The time from germination to harvesting
- For chir it is from 80 – 100 years
- It depends upon the demand and is fixed accordingly
Hence, Number of PBs = 80 years ÷ 4
Or; Number of PBs = 4
b. Area of Period Block
It can be calculated by the following formula:

Let total area is 1000 acres and no of PBs is 4, then Area of PB is:
Area of PB = 1000 acre ÷ 4 => 250 acres

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4. WEDGE SYSTSEM:
- Introduced by Germans
- Applied in a compartment or sub-compartment
- The main objective is to protect regeneration against wind and intense
light.
- It is basically evolved from strip system
- The design is like a wedge
- In hilly areas the apex of the wedge should be downward
- Other dimensions are given in the given figure
Historical Background:
- Based upon suggestion to protect from wind as compared with square and
circles
- Applied and elaborated by Dr. Phillips
- Applied first in coniferous forests
Applicability:
- Conifer + broad leaved forests
- In plains and hills
- 1st : select patches at 250ft interval in a compartment, see fig
- 2nd : start felling from the central patches
- 3rd : Progress from the apex of the wedge, see fig
- 4th : Rest of the dimensions are given in the fig

Advantages:
- Logging easy
- Regeneration natural
- Prevention from wind and other hazards

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TWO STORIED HIGH FOREST:

Definition:
- A Silvicultural system which originates from seed or seedling plants
resulting in two layered structure of forest crop is called Two Storied High
Forest
- Eg Shisham and mulberry in Changa Manga
- Mainly applied in Irrigated Plantations
- The major spp grown in the irrigated plantation are at present Shisham and
Mulberry
- The former is pronounced light demander while the later is shade bearer
- Shisham produces good fire wood and also very good timber if retained;
while mulberry is mostly used in sports industry and besides used for
timber production.
Method of regeneration:
- For shisham by stump planting or root suckers
- For mulberry by stumps

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Procedure:
- At 6th year of shisham thinning is don
- Plant spacing is 10ft into 10ft
- Then, under wood mulberry is introduced
- Spp composition: 60% shisham, and 40% mulberry
- Usual rotation of Shisham is 22 years
- The area is restocked after debris burning and mulberry is introduced
again
- At the end of 2nd rotation, the crop is felled leaving about 10 standards per
acre
- Same procedure for third rotation
- In this way a continuous supply of rotation is maintained
Operations:
- Leveling is done in planting area
- 2 – 3 weeding during first year
- Cleaning is carried out during 3rd year
- Seedling or root suckers are preferred over coppice
- Thinning carried out during 6th, 11th, and 16th year.

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Chapter Number 6
Artificial Regeneration
ARTIFICIAL REGENERATION:
Definition:
Regeneration means removal and replacement of forest crops. If this removal and
replacement is done by artificial methods, it is called artificial regeneration. OR; if the
removal and replacement of a forest crop involves human activities, it is called artificial
regeneration.

SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES OF ARTIFICIAL REGENERATION:

1. Artificial Regeneration is done for the introduction of desired spp. (The spp is
well developed, economical and requires less care)
2. Artificial Regeneration is done for supplementation purposes to fill the bare
areas in the forest where natural regeneration never comes.
3. Artificial regeneration is also done for the introduction of valuable exotic spp.
4. Artificial regeneration is also done to replace less valuable spp with more
valuable spp.
5. It is also done for afforestation purposes.
6. It is also done to increase the density of forest.
7. It is also done to increase the density of forest.
8. It is also done to replace the natural regeneration.
9. It is also done for environment improvement and aesthetic purposes.

ADVANTAGES OF ARTIFICIAL REGENERATION

The following are demerits of natural regeneration but in favor of artificial
regeneration:
1. Quicker results because every work is carried out systematically
2. Full and more even stocking
3. Facility with which species composition can be regulated
4. Concentration of forest work reducing costs and facilitating supervision
5. More rapid early growth and so less risk from weeds.
6. Better revenue even when the actual operation is not cheaper.

COMPARISON B/W ARTIFICIAL AND NATURAL REGENERATION

Artificial Regeneration Natural Regeneration
i) It gives quicker results. i) It is a slow process
ii) Full and more even stocking ii) Uneven stocking
iii) Spp composition can be regulated. iii) Different spp grow in same area
-- -- naturally
iv) Soil is disturbed iv) Soil is less exposed
v) There is rapid result so less risk of v) Reduced risk of dangers from pest,
weeds, browsing and other dangers diseases, etc.
vi) Better yield is received vi) There is no surety of yield
vii) There is no advance growth vii) Advance growth is achieved
viii) Maintenance and supervision easy viii) Maintenance is difficult

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ix) It is expensive method ix) It is economical

x) We may get even aged plantation x) All age classes are present.

EVALUATION OF SITE FOR PLANTATION PURPOSES

The most important features of the site are those which will determine whether a
particular area or patch should be taken up for planting at all, and then if it is suitable for
planting, then what are the chances of success what spp should be used and what special
measures are required. This site can be evaluated by site factors or vegetation it carries.
Two methods of site evaluation are:
1. Direct Method
Site factors are known and site value can be determined. Site factors may include
climate and soil. Biotic factors are not considered separately as their effects are reflected
in the soil and vegetations of the site.
i. Climate will consist of rainfall, temperature, winds, humidity etc. we will
see the mean annual rainfall and its distribution. The maximum and
minimum rainfall should be known. Our crop will depend upon the
minimum rainfall and its distribution. About temperature mean annual
temperature, winter and summer temperature should be known.
ii. The wind movement from the dry tracts should also be known. Humidity is
also important from evaporation point of view.
iii. The chemical and physical properties of the soil over the area, as texture,
structure acidity, depth, soil profile, soil moisture, porosity and aerations etc.
2. Indirect Method
The site can be evaluated by vegetation growing over the site e.g. if Zizyphus is
growing, then the site will be good for those spp having the same requirements as
Zizyphus the Tamarix spp is growing then the soil is saline etc. if Prosopis specigera or
Cappario spp are growing, conclusion can be drawn that the rainfall is 10" per anum. Soil
is drained and loamy. It will be good for irrigated plantation when Salvadora grows, soil
is shallow, heavy saline and plantation is difficult.
To evaluate the site, it is better to check the area whether the area it is fit for
planting or not. If there area is suitable then the question arises that which spp should be
planted. It can be done by observing the climatic and physical features of the area.
These features are broadly classified into Geomorphology; Soil features,
Hydrology and type of vegetation. These are discussed as:
i. Geomorphology:
It is the appearance, structure, and form of the terrain. It is further divided into:
topography and Geology
Topography determines whether the area is plain or sloppy and also determines
the altitude.
If it is sloppy ground then geography determines the aspect ie what is the
direction of slope.
Altitude is also important because we know that spp vary with increase in
altitude. For instance spp vary when we travel from one forest type to another in
Subtropical region we find Pinus roxburghii while in temperate region we find
Pinus wallichiana.

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ii. Soil Features:

The soil profile is the total depth of soil and the development of various horizons
within it are very important from the plant growth point of view, because these
effect the nutrients availability and moisture retaining proportions as well as root
penetration.
Soil profile also gives us information about texture, structure, accumulation of
organic matter, which strongly affects the tree growth.
iii. Hydrological Features:
There are the characters which affect water:
- Whether the area to be planted exits in depression
- What is the depth of water table?
Above factors help in choice of spp like if water table is near ground, then
shallow rooted spp are raised, while, if water table is deep below then deep rooted
spp are raised.
iv. Vegetation Features:
It helps us to determine the spp of an area to be planted as well as it also
determines the nature of soil. The nature of soil is very clearly identified by
vegetation; it carries because specific spp grown in particular soil. The most
appropriately it is known as indicator spp like Tamarix grown in Saline soil.
CHO
ICE OF SPECIES:
The term “choice of species” clearly implies the possibility of a selection from a
number of potential candidates, with the list of possible trees being drawn from:
1. Literature
2. Eco-physiological tests
3. Field trials

FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF SPECIES:

SELECTION OF SPECIES
The choice of species is done on the factors discussed below:
1. Ecological Consideration
The indigenous spp. which are already growing they are selected for the
plantation. The species growing in the vicinity i.e. around the area in neighboring
tracts will also succeed in the site. If no species is present then the exotic species
from the areas having the same ecological conditions as the site, can be selected.
As for Mastung we can select species from the areas having the same conditions
like Quetta, etc, but not from Murree and Kaghan valley. The ecological
conditions of the site and the ecological requirements of the species should be
compared, if these are similar, then the species are recommended for plantation in
the site.
These factors also help in selection of spp for the plantation. These factors
include: rainfall, humidity and temperature.
For example, we can not select conifer spp for those areas where rainfall is low.
Similarly Acacia nilotica grows well in high humidity.
2. Objectives of Plantation

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The different species have different properties a species will give more timber,
other is good for firewood and third one give good protections to the soil and so
on. For this purpose the spp are classified according to their objectives which they
give as:
1. Production - Major and minor forest produces.
2. Protection - This gives protections against wind and water erosion and has
best watershed value.
3. Aesthetic - The spp having good aesthetic value.

The objectives of the plantation are specified and the species are recommended.
3. Effect on Site
It has been found by experience that the replacement of natural forest by pure
plantations of certain species leads to soil and site degradation, both directly by
erosion and indirectly through changes in the biological processes in the soil. The
reference is given to teak in Bangladesh as teak is light demander and have open
canopy. The leaves are very hard to decompose and blown away by wind thus soil
remains unfertile. If the spp. is light demander then weeds will grow in the blanks.
Leaves will not decompose hence resulting a loss of nutrients and gradually the
whole site becomes unfertile. So, light demander spp should be grown with shade
bearers to avoid the danger of degradation of site. Thus the site can be utilized up
to a marked extent. As Morus able is grown with Dalbergia sisso in irrigated
plantations of Pakistan.
4. Spacing of Regeneration (spp)
The spacing of spp in regeneration is governed by various factors as light
requirement, crown size and site fertility etc. the spacing is determined under
various conditions and situations. The main points which determine the spacing
may be listed as follows:
1. Method of Stocking (Regeneration)
The artificial regeneration is done by two ways as by sowing and planting.
(i) Sowing: In case of sowing closed spacing is required to have more
chances of success.
(ii) Planting: In case of planting the plants have 80% survival and
wider spacing is recommended.
2. Grazing Incidence:
By grazing, young seedlings are destroyed by animals and close spacing is
necessary to face this danger, whereas wider spacing is good where grazing
incidence is less.
3. Rate of Growth:
In slow growing species close spacing is suitable while in fast growing spp the
spacing should be wider.
4. Site Quality:
Wider spacing is adopted for good quality site while closed spacing is adopted in
case of poor sites.
5. Crown size:
Species having small crown as Poplar and Eucalyptus planted at close spacing,
but spacing should be wider in case of spp. Having crowns as Acacia nilotica.

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6. Wood Growth in the Area:

In the areas having wood growth, the seedlings are suppressed and killed by
weeds and closer spacing is required and wider spacing is suitable for areas free
of weeds because success is sure.
7. Tolerance:
If a spp is light demander then its spacing will be wider but close spacing is
suggested in case shade bearing species. At the time of maturity 50 trees per acre
are present in chir and 80 trees per acre in Deodar.
8. Object:
The object may be specified and if the object is only volume production as
firewood then closer spacing will be best, but in case of producing timber wider
spacing is adopted to obtain good quality straight boles.

5. Economic Consideration:
Only those spp should be selected which requires little tending operations or
which is economical one ie which give better yield with less cost.

6. Other factors include:

Suitability to Soil and Moisture Conditions
Succession
Generic Factors
Relative Costs

PURPOSE OF PLANTATION:
1. Industrial Uses
2. Domestic Uses
3. Environmental uses
4. Tree planting as an Integral Part of Other land uses. For instance, when
Changa Manga plantation was raised the main objective was to get fuel wood
to overcome the demands of railway engines but now the objective has been
changed to timber production.
SLO
W GROWING AND FAST GROWING SPECIES:
Slow Growing Spp: All soft wood spp are slow growing. If we are selecting slow
growing spp then the following points should be kept in mind.
i) Low income on long return:
Because of their long rotation there is always a fear whether the spp which we are
going to plant will be beneficial after long rotation or not.
ii) Unknown value of timber after long rotation:
It is always a problem to predict whether these spp will be of any use or not,
whether after many years these spp are demanded by consumer or not.
iii) Exposure of soil:

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As we know that all soft wood spp are planted for purpose of timber. They are
slow growing; they are not planted over large scale because for a long time they do
not cover the soil.
Fast Growing Spp: Generally all broad leaved spp are fast growing. They are generally
used for small wood production and timber. E.g. Poplar is used in match industry and
mulberry in sports industry.
Fast growing spp are useful on account of following reasons.
a) Use for industrial purposes:
All fast growing spp are used for industrial purposes. Some of the fast growing
spp are: i) Eucalyptus spp ii) Simal iii) Poplar iv) Salix, etc.
b) No predictability problem:
As the rotation age of fast growing spp is short so there is no fear whether these
spp will be demanded after rotation or not eg poplar of one year as well as of 6
years can be used for industrial purposes. Moreover the rotation of mulberry is 15
years and that of Salmalia is 20 years.
c) Can be grown for multipurpose:
Some times one spp can be used for only one purpose where the industry is
present. So if industry is not present, those spp should be planted which can be
used for multipurpose.
d) No Silvicultural Problems:
As the slow growing spp have long rotation so they require weeding, thinning,
etc. on the other hand the fast growing spp cover the ground rapidly so there is no
need of such Silvicultural operations.
e) Proper Management is required:
Fast growing spp have irrigation problems. These spp always need management
like the agricultural crops.
EXO
TIC AND INDIGENOUS SPECIES:

EXOTIC SPP:
“The term exotic in forestry lakes a generally accepted definition simply ‘any
species grown outside its natural range or distribution” like Eucalyptus spp Poplus spp
Acacias, Prosopis juliflora, Broussonetia papyrifera, Ailanthus excela, Robinia
pseudoacacia and Casuarina equisetifolia.

NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF EXOTICS:

Pakistan is spending a lot of foreign exchange on the import of timber on the
import of timber and timber products annually, while the demand for the same is still
increasing rapidly with the expansion of wood-based industries and rise in the standard of
living. It is therefore imperative, that all its resources are fully exploited to achieve self-
sufficiency in forest products. The production can be increased by putting more area
under forest and by introducing fast growing exotic species.

PROPERTIES OF SUCCESSFUL EXOTICS:

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Often, however, exotic plantations are formed on open grasslands sandy waste or
other tract devoid of forest, and here their creation is an advantage rather than otherwise,
apart from utilitarian considerations.
The exotic trees grown in commercial forests for the production of wood have the
following properties:
I. their produce is of high value
II. their rate of yield is high
In addition to these, exotic trees have the following properties in common:
i. Adequate supply of seeds (or cuttings) is available
ii. They are easy to rise in nurseries.
iii. They are easy to establish and grow in plantations
iv. Insects or diseases do not prevent their successful growth
v. Information is available on methods of growing them and on their rate of
growth and yield.

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TRIALS FOR INTRODUCTION OF EXOTICS:

The procedure adopted in Nigeria, Uganda, and Zambia for the introduction of
exotic species has been quite successful and is recommended for use in other arid zones.

Steps Involved:
i. The Species Elimination Trials
The trial is designed to eliminate from further consideration those species clearly
unsuited to the environment of the new planting area.
Species elimination trials in Nigeria have given sufficiently reliable information
to eliminate about half the species at a reasonable cost after two year.

ii. The Species Growth Trial

The growth trial provides information no performance, growth rate, stem and
crown form, agencies causing injury or death, and crop benefits to be derived from those
species emerging successfully from elimination trials.
Growth trials are established on different soil types and different climatic zones
of the region.

iii. Species Plantation trials

Comparison of different spacing, fertilizers, cultivation and other Silvicultural
treatments should be made on trial plots designed for that purpose. The species, which
pass this test and meet the desired purpose, may then be recommended for field planting.

iv. Species Trials in Pakistan and Some Results

The indigenous plant species have evolved through long and continued selection
and probably are the best suited to the local environment i.e. in plain and arid area
following species are grown Prosopis spicegera, Salvadora oleoides, Tamarix articulate,
Acacia senegal, Zizyphus jujuba and Tecoma undulata

EXOTIC SPECIES RECOMMENDED FOR VARIOUS ZONES:

1. Northern Hilly Tract: Poplus deltoides, Robinia pseudoacacia.
2. Sub-Mountain Range: Eucalyptus tereticornis
3. Western Hilly Areas: Poplus deltoides, Eucalyptus spp.
4. Indus plain: Acacia cyanophylla, A. tortilis, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Leucaena
leucocephala (iple iple), Poplus euramericana.
5. Deserts: Acacia aneura, A. tortilis, A. Victoria, Prosopis juliflora, P. cineraria.
6. Saline Areas: A. nilotica, A. cyanophylla, E. camaldulensis, E. microtheca,
Leucaena leucocephala, Prosopis juliflora.
7. Waterlogged Areas: E. camaldulensis, E. robusta.

INDIGENOUS SPP:
“An indigenous species is one that grows naturally in the country, concerned
though, not necessarily in all parts and certainly not suited to all sites.”
Eg Natural origin of chir is in b/w 3000 ft to 6000ft altitude.
Advantages of Indigenous Species:

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1. Growth of natural stands provides some indication of possible performance in

plantation
2. The species is adapted to the environment and already filling and ecological
niche.
3. I. Species, even in monoculture are generally considered more ecologically
valuable than exotics for conservation of native fauna and flora.
4. The timber is likely to be known to local wood using industries.

For these reasons if and indigenous spp grows well in plantation on the sites for
afforestation there is no compelling reason to widen the choice.
SOW
ING AND PLANTING:
By sowing means to scatter or plant seed on an area of land in order to grow crops
whereas planting means to put a plant, or tuber into the ground to enable it to grow.
Advantages of planting:
i) Planting as a rule is a surer method and uses the minimum no of plants
required to cover the area.
ii) Plants give a valuable start.
iii) Species difficult to rise by seeds are propagated by planting.

Disadvantages of Planting:
i) It is a costly/ expensive method.
ii) It is labor dependent.
iii) When the plants are taken from nursery to planting site, very much ease is
required.
iv) Planting requires skilled labour
v) For planting, maintenance of nurseries is required to get sufficient stock at
right time.
Conclusion:
if good results are required, sowing is preferred over planting
planning should be restricted to difficult spp and difficult sites
When the plants re raised in containers and planted, great care is required
opt give minimum disturbance to roots.

METHODS OF PLANTING:
Planting in field has numerous methods varying widely in techniques and tools used.
Successful plantation depends upon the ability of roots of the planted tree to region
contact with the soil so that uptake of water and nutrients can be resumed.
Different plants have different planting methods. Some of the planning methods are as
follows.
1. Planting with naked roots.
2. notch planting
3. planting with ball of earth
4. planting with containers
5. deep planting
6. stump planting

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7. branch and stem cutting

8. root cutting
9. rhizome
10. brick planting

Pic showing planting _ pic from movie “Behind Enemy Lines”

1. Planting with naked root:
This method is applied incase of deciduous spp. In this case pit is dup up with
spades and the seeding is planted in the centre. The pit should be at least as deep
as the length of the roots. The excavated soil is then pushed back into pit and
pressed firmly.

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2. Notch Planting
Notch is a V-shaped figure. Instead of digging a pit, a notch is made in the soil
and seedling is planted. This is the quickest and most rough method than the first
method. See pic
This method is applied is sandy and areas with light soils. The spade is pushed
into the soil obliquely and then pulled in the opposite direction. The seeding is put
in the notch and the spade is pulled out. After pulling out the spade, the soil
automatically returns and the notches filled back again. If the sol does not return
then another notch is made at some distance and thus the first notch is filled
automatically due to side pressure.
Pre-germinated seeds are also planted by this method.
3. Planting with Ball of Earth:
This method is applied to those spp which are delicate, comparatively large in size
and cannot bear exposure of roots. Handling of such plants must be by ball of
earth and not by stem. Plant can live for longer periods and would not dir even if
actual planting is delayed. The plant bonded with roots will supply food to the
plants fro few days.
4. Planting with Containers:
Containers can be made of any material like concrete, metal, wood or plastics.
Some are of big size eg tin of ghee and oils or even in shoes (as in pic _ pic taken
from the movie Wall_E), etc. plants are raised in containers in the nurseries and
transported to the site for planting. There is no disturbance to the plant during
transportation. In case of planting with naked root and planting with ball of earth,
great disturbance is caused to the plant during transplanting. Before planning
hared containers must be remove. Polythene bags should be split.
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survival percentage of container plant is very great. ( Picture showing Wall-E having a
plant in a shoe on his head)

5. Deep Planting:
Deep planting means that the seed collar of seedling should be below the soil
surface and some portion of the stem should be buried in the soil. This method is
adopted in very dry areas where moisture is very deep in soil.

6. Stump Planting:
It is root-shoot cutting. These are pruned root shoot sticks. Their sizes can vary
but the common size is 9 inches root portion and 3 inches shoot portion dia ½
inches or 1 inch.
The advantage of stump planting in case of carriage, less risk of damage during
transplanting and the chances of success are more. It was suggested that the use of
stump has resulted in rottening but not proven. See pic
7. Branch and Stem Cutting:
Branch and stem cuttings of poplar, willows, and Tamarix are commonly planted.
8. Root cuttings:
Poplars are planted by this method also. The plants which produce root suckers
freely under natural condition can certainly be propagated by root cuttings eg
Aesculus, Albezzia, Robinia, etc.
Shoots are developed either from lateral or adventitious buds.
9. Rhizome:
It is an underground stem. Bamboo is planted by this method as well as the
ground grasses are also planted by this method. (pic showing rhizome)

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10. Brick planting:

In this method, seedling is raised in the nursery in bricks made up of soil. In the
center of the brick there is a cavity (hole). This cavity is filled with fertile soil and
the seedling is planted in it. When the seedlings are ready they are planted out
along with the brick. This method is adopted in sandy desert areas where there is
problem of shifting sands. See pic.
The disadvantage of this method is the cost of preparation of katcha Brick and
their large weight.

METHODS OF SOWING:
There are different methods for sowing. These methods are adopted in different areas
according to the condition of their requirement.
Following are some methods of seed sowing.
1. Broad casting method
2. Dibbling method
3. Strip or line sowing
4. Patch sowing
5. Ridge or mound sowing
6. Pit and trench sowing
7. Combined methods of sowing
1. Broad Casting Method:
in this method, a large no of seeds are just broadcasted (thrown in air) either by
hands or by some devices.
Broadcasting is also done aerially. It was adopted in Sand, but now it is not done
because it is expensive.
Advantages:
- Broadcasting is the easiest method of sowing
- It is cheapest method
- It is quick method or regeneration
- In most cases there is no need of soil work
- It is suitable in case the seed is small and not possible to be planted in individual

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polythene bags or pots

- It does not require skilled labour
This method is applicable in Riverine Forests of Sindh where soil and moisture
conditions are favorable.
2. Dibbling:
In this method seeds of bigger size are sown at equal spacing in bits with the help
of dibbling rods. It is adopted in Walnut sowing. The other advantage in this method
is that the seed quantity is ½ of the broadcasting method.

3. Line Sowing:
The seeds are sown in lines or rows as in coniferous forests. The soil is worked up
to 1'-2' depth and seeds are sown in lines. This line sowing is also adopted in for
Acacia nilotica in [Link].
4. Strip Sowing:
It is the same as line sowing but here seeds are sown in many lines adjacent to
each other and also sown in strips and seeds are broadcasted in strips in the worked
soil, it is known as strip sowing.

5. Patch Sowing:
In the roughly circular patch of soil several seeds are sown. Generally only one
plant is wanted in each, so any extra ones are weeded out later or used for
transplanting to blank. The difficulty in this method is that the competing weeds
growth process on the seedlings from all sides and unless intensive weeding is
continued, they are likely to be smothered, and inspection is very difficult. But with
quick growing species patch sowing may be cheap and effective. For supplementing
natural regeneration patches 5 x 2 ft to 5 x 5 ft are recommended for deodar with
adjoining patches 6 ft apart smaller patches are very likely to fail.
6. Ridge and Mound Sowing:
The soil is made in straight bund like structure called as ridge and simply a heap
of soil is known as mound. The seeds are sown on ridges and mound in case of dry
areas for condensing the moisture in the raised and loosened soil. The advantage of
the ridge over the mound is the greater freedom for the seedlings from weeds. There

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is a risk of soil wash exposing the roots which may be minimized by not making the
ridges too narrow and by firming the soil after sowing. See fig

7. Pitch and Trench Sowing

The method which effectively concerns only the arid regions aims at securing for
the young plants as merely moisture as possible. There are practical difficulties which
prevent wide application. Unless special precautions are taken the top soil is lost and
an inadequate depth of root able soil is provided and often the soil surface within the
pit in quickly sealed with clay particles and the seedlings drowned or the roots
suffocated. See above fig
8. Combined Methods
In reclamation areas it is now common practice to make a combine ridge and
trench and sow the seeds at three levels, on the ridge, on the mound and in the trench
different conditions prevail in each of the three situations depending on the climatic
and soil conditions, one or other will probably fail but the over all chances of success
are improved.

SEASON OF SOWING:
Seeds should be sown at the time when conditions are suitable. Generally seeds are
sowing in early spring or before start of Monsoon rains in the country. In areas where
snow falls, it is better to sow the seed before snowfall.
In Riverine areas, sowing should be done before flooding or when water falls back.

DEPTH OF SOWING:
Small seeds need a very thin cover of soil over them. They are killed if sown deep. Seeds
are buried a little deeper. The depth should be appropriate. If seed is sown deeper it will
germinate later.
It is better o sow seed a little deeper in hilly areas where there are greater chances of
erosion, because in such areas the seeds if sown shallower may be wipe away with the
water.

Advantages of Sowing:
It is an easy method and not too much labor is required.
It is cheaper method and here are no expenses of nursery operations.
Incase of planting, roots re greatly protected (ie roots need to be
protected); while in sowing seeds are just thrown.

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If we want to raise mixed crop with plants we have to raise many nurseries
which is difficult but incase of sowing it is easy to raise mixed crop by
combine sowing method. Eg ridge and trench method.

Disadvantages of Sowing:
It is not sure that all the seeds germinate or not. In addition some seeds are
damaged by birds, insects, rainfall or exposure to sunlight during
broadcasting.
Fungus may attack the seed during early stages of growth.
Once seed becomes activated and after activation if conditions become
unfavourable then all the seeds will die.
If proper water and moisture conditions are not provided to seed then all
stored food material will be of no use.

SPACING:
Spacing simply means the distance which is kept b/w rows and b/w plants. Eg in some
areas shisham is planted at spacing 6’× 10’ while on some places it is also planted at
spacing of 10’ × 10’ or even 10’ × 15’.
Factors responsible for spacing:
i) Characteristics of Species:
Whether its roots are growing horizontally or at some angle spp with wide
crowns require wider spacing.
ii) Tolerance of Spp:
Spacing is “narrow” for shade loving and “wider” for light demanders.
iii) Rate of Growth:
Fast growing spp require wider spacing. While slow growing spp require
narrow spacing.
iv) Spacing in case of Seed Spacing:
Seeds are sown at narrow spacing because of unknown germination
percentage of the seeds.
v) Site Conditions:
If on one side fertility is greater then wider spacing is recommended because
of less mortality rate.
If site is poor then close spacing is recommended due to more mortality rate.
vi) Spacing according to purpose of plantation or sowing:
a) Concerning with timber or fuel wood:
Spp with longer rotation are usually selected for timber and wide spacing is
given in such cases because plant receives more nutrients.
Spp with short rotation are selected for fuel wood and narrow spacing is
recommended for them.
b) Concerning with resin production:
Wider spacing is given in this case because trees will reach exploitable
diameter quickly because of very little competition.
c) Concerning with fruit production:
Wider spacing is given in case of purposes of fruit so that there should be no
competition among trees.

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vii) Spacing According to Need of Technology:

Nowadays plantations are being raised by modern technology ie all the
operations are carried out with the help of machinery. If plantation is
mechanized then we have to provide space of machine movement, so wider
spacing is required in such cases.
viii) According to Rotation Period:
To avoid longer rotation, spacing should be wider because there is
competition b/w shoot and root in close spacing and plant requires a lot of
time to reach to maturity.
ix) According to Availability of Funds:
Thinning is required in every spp and thinning requires capital. If we don’t
have too much funds then plants should be raised at wider spacing, but later
on it may cause gap which is again a loss of soil.
So if we have funds then planting should be done at close spacing.

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Chapter Number 7
Seeds
WHAT IS SEED?
‘’It is ripened ovary that consists of an embryo, stored food supply and having a
protective cornering.’’

Seeds
A seed has three main parts. The embryo consists of the cells that will develop into the structures of the adult plant (root, bud, stalk,
and leaf). The cotyledons—one in monocots and gymnosperms and two in dicots—are organs of absorption, drawing food from the
seed’s storage tissue. In monocots, this tissue is called the endosperm, and in gymnosperms, the megagametophyte. The cotyledons
themselves serve as storage tissue in dicots. The seed coat protects all of these structures from predation, injury, and moisture loss.

COLLECTION OF SEED
Obtaining and maintaining supplies of good seed depends upon an understanding
of the best techniques for collecting, extraction and storing seed and material factors
which influence their viability.
Moreover an adequate supply of good quality seed is a prerequisite for successful
artificial regeneration. Seed of important species like Shisham can be collected locally
any year but the problem is with infrequent occurrence of good seed year in case of
conifers i.e. once 3 or 4 years in silver Fir.

Agencies for collecting of Seed

Seed can be collected from the following agencies:
1. Pakistan Forest Institute , Peshawar
2. Pakistan Forestry Research Institute, Gadwall, Faisalabad
3. From the Responsible Contractors
4. From the Forest Guards
METHOD OF COLLECTING SEED
Seed can be collected by applying different methods i.e. collection from the
standing trees.
Following are the important methods by which one can collect the seeds from the
standing trees.

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1. By climbing up the trees

2. Collection of seed from Natural Fall
This is the cheapest method that does not require skilled labour and ensures that
only mature seed is collected. A rack, sieve and collection container is the only
equipments required. Seed of toot, Phulai, Beri, etc. can be collected with this modified
method.
3. Collection in the crown
A widely used method of collection is simply to climb up into the crown of the
tree and with the use of a saw or similar implement remove seed bearing twigs. The use
of safety belt is highly recommended.
4. Seed vehicles
With strong roof carriers often provide a quick and easy means of gaining access
to the crowns and fruits of small trees as shown in figures.
5. Portable ladders
Well designed ladders provide a quick and safe means of reaching the live crowns
of trees up to about 15m tall. For small trees a light wooden, or aluminium single section
or free standing ladder 6 – 8m long will be used. Seed of Eucalyptus and white Siris can
be easily collected.

6. Manual collection
This may prove very effective where trees are small and their branches are low
enough for the collector to reach them easily from the ground. The use of pruning shears
for cutting off thin branches are effective in collecting additional seed e.g. Toot, Shisham,
Beri, Kikar, etc.

7. Pole implements
Where the crop is out of reach for hand picking, the use of various pole
implements may be appropriate. Pole with shears, saws, or hook of various designs
attached to one end are commonly used for detaching the fruit or cutting the seed veering
twigs. Light and rigid bamboo, aluminium, or plastic poles 4-6m in length are common.

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In order to reach beyond the 6-8m range of single pole, multistage telescopic poles with a
shear on the end have been developed. These methods require careful location of the
ground so that pods and seeds are not lost on impact e.g. Pinus, Eucalyptus.

8. Throwing Rope with weighted end

A 5mm diameter sash cord or nylon rope 25mm in length with a 400 grams
weighted end (e.g. a small bag of sand) can be thrown over small branches, which are
then broken off by holding the two ends and pulling. Branches up to 12m from the
ground can be reached by using this method.
9. Flexible Saw
It is recently developed device also called a ‘’ high limb chain saw’’. It is long
and has a metal ring at each end for securing ropes: is similar in appearance and principle
to the chain saw. Branches up to 20 cm diameter can be brought down quickly and easily
handed. This method is not applicable to trees with actually angled branches.
10. Rifle
The advantages of using a rifle in order to shoot down seed bearing limbs of tall
Eucalyptus are worth mentioning. This technique has also been approved useful for the
collection of acacias pods from moist forest in Australia. This system, however, is not
practicable in our country.
11. Collecting seed from felled trees
This is also a cheap and commonly used method of seed collection. This method
can be very safely practiced where fallings are in progress. But it is very ridiculous and
unjustified to fell tree just for seed collection particularly in areas where trees are already
scarce. The seed of Kikar, Shisham, Siris and Beri, etc, can be collected from felled trees
easily.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED FOR SEED COLLECTION

 Stationary e.g. note book, recording forms, pens, and pencils
 Binoculars
 Camera and accessories.
 Markers (of different colours)

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 Coloured plastic ribbons

 Tree measuring instruments e.g. diameter tape, height measuring instruments and
length measuring tape.
 Soil chart, pH testing kit
 Compass
 Altimeter
 Hand lens
 Seed bags
 Seed collecting instruments, saws, strings, ropes, ladders, etc
 Safety gear, e.g. steel capped boots, leather gloves, safety helmet, safety belts
 Water proof tags for labelling each lot
 Tags for botanical specimens
 Plant press for botanical specimens

Characteristics of the plus tree

Plus tree is generally a phenotypic ally superior tree.
 Superior trees should be enough to produce good quality seeds.
 Should be better than an average with rapid growth and volume
 Stem, farm and shape should be straight
 Plus tree should have apical dominance characteristics
 It should have no evidence of disease, insects, and fungal attack
 There should have well developed and good shaped crown and stem.
 It should have maximum branches equally well, developed on all the sites.
 Forking should be considered as the defect while selecting a plus tree.

Bagging and labelling

All the branches, twigs, and other impurities are removed as far as possible before
the seed is bagged. This is usually done by manual labour. The identify of each individual
tree sample must be maintained from the sheet to the bag. Each bag should be clearly
labelled both inside and out.

SEED EXTRACTION AND CLEANING

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EXTRACTION OF SEED:
It is the process of separation or removing out of seeds from the fruits.
Seeds of several types require no extraction, except removal from chaff or thrash.
Methods of Seed Extraction:
There are several methods of extracting seeds. Namely:
 By rolling seeds in the hands
 By beating, walking, feeding, kneading _ esp for pulpy fruit like mango,
mulberry, etc
 By direct sowing of seeds of some spp _ like in shisham, seeds are not separated
from the pods rather pods are broken down into pieces and each piece is sown
directly.
 By spreading in the sunlight _ especially for cones, capsules, and pods which
become open on sunlight.
 By winnowing _ to separate grain from its husks chaff by tossing it in the air or
blowing air through it
 By watering
 By floatation

CLEANING OF SEED:
 After extraction of seed from fruit, some debris ie parts of cones, capsules; pods,
etc are also with seed. Moreover, some diseased seeds are also present. So
cleaning of all the debris is necessary otherwise it will affect the germination.
 Seed collection from the field is rarely fit for immediate storage. Drying
extraction from the pods (in case of leguminous) and further cleaning are
required.
Pre-cleaning
After collection and before storage the seed collected must be inspected to
determine it conditions. In case of pods it becomes more expeditious. Moist and
fomenting pods must be spread out to dry and also require treatment with fungicide to
avoid further fermentation.
Methods of Cleaning:

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a) Water Method:
Put the seeds along with debris in water. Seeds will settle down and debris will
start floating on the surface. Remove the debris and let the dry.
b) Winnowing method:
Put the seeds along debris in the winnowing apparatus (ie Chujj _ in Brahvi).
Drop the material from some height in the direction of wind as a result seeds will
fall down on the ground and debris will blow off.
c) Hand picking:
If the debris which is mixed with seeds is easily removable then clean the seeds
with hands. See pic _ picture from Masroor Bhai’s Seminar.

d) Sieving method:
This method is applicable when the amount and size of debris is smaller than
seed. In this method, seeds along with the debris are put in sieves and then by
shaking, the debris pass through sieves and seeds remain in the site

DRYING:
Natural Dying: the seeds are spread in a thin layer on beds over the ground. The
layer of the seed is constantly distributed so as to permit the lower layers to dry. The time
required for natural drying depends on a number of factors including species, the degree
of maturity of the seed and weather conditions.
Seed having high moisture contents are likely to forgo. In this case the seed
should be dried it moderate temperature with good ventilation.
Artificial drying: the rapid, artificial drying of seed is especially useful during
rainy or humid weather. A temperature is 450C for a maximum period of 48-72 hours. In
some species a large proportion of seed remains enclosed in the pods e.g. Acacia nilotica,
Acacia aneura.

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SEED TESTING:
There are three things which are tested in seed:
1. Purity _ how much debris are present with seeds
2. Germination percentage
3. Seed availability
Seed Purity:
Suppose we have collected some seeds, naturally some debris will com with then
suppose their weight is 100 kg. Now clean the seeds and weigh the seeds again. Let the
weight be 50 kg which implies that purity of the seeds is 50%.
It can be shown by the following formula:

Where:
WO = weight of seeds + debris
W1 = weight of debris
TEST FOR GERMINATION PERCENTAGE:
For Small Seeds:
For this purpose we take the file clay plate and put is dish of water which has a
number of depressions and is covered with glass to maintain moisture.
Fig showing laboratory test for seed test _ picture from Masroor Bhai’s Seminar of Balochistan

For Large Seeds:

For this purpose a shallow box is filled with sand, saw dust or light soil.
Vermiculate mica is also used now-a-days and then germination is tested.
TEST FOR SEED VIABILITY:
1. By Direct Inspection:
Put the seed on table and if the seed has embryo, it is viable otherwise not.
2. Physical Test:

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Put the seed in water and if the seed is viable, it will settle down.
3. Chemical Test:
Put the seed in coloured chemical. The seeds which are dead become colorful and
others remain the same.

SEED STORAGE:
Definition:
“Seed storage may be defined as the preservation of viable seed from the time of
collection until they are required for sowing”

Importance of Seed Storage:

To preserve seeds finer conditions that best retain germinative energy during
the interval between collection and tome of sowing
To protect seeds from damage by rodents, birds, and insects.
To preserve qualities of seeds collected during year of heavy seed crops to
furnish a supply during years of little or no crop

Factors influencing Storage:

Fully ripened seeds will retain viability longer than seeds collected when
immature
Seeds of high initial viability will store better than those with low initial
viability
Seeds with hard, impermeable seed coats will retain viability longer than those
with soft, permeable seed coats.
Undamaged seed will retain viability better in storage than seed physically
damaged during collection of processing.
Lower the moisture content (i.e. 32%) and lower the temperature (i.e. 40 OC),
longer will be the period of viability.
Others Factors include:
1. Temperature
2. Moisture Content
3. Maturity of Seed
4. Oxygen and other factors
5. Longevity of Seed

Seed Store or Seed Bank:

 A permanent seed store should be built in any division where the raising
of large scale plantations is a part of normal work.
 Seed store should be well ventilated, with shelves for seed storing.
 The floor should be cemented and damp proof.
 The openings should be guarded with wire netting to exclude rats, mite,
and squirrels.
 Other facilities like water, electricity, should be available for seed testing
stratification etc.

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Storage Method:
From species to species there are great differences in capability to survive
storage some species may survive for long periods under all conditions.
Store only new, mature, healthy and well-dried seeds
Keep them in dry and cool place to extend their viability
Seed easily reabsorb moisture. To maintain dryness, keep seeds in air tight
container like tins, cans or glass jars with tight fittings.
Put in some moisture absorbing material. Dry wood ash, dry charcoal, or
small pieces of newspaper
The drying material should take up about one-forth of the container space
Label the containers with the type of seed, place and date of collection
If possible, include the initiate percent viability of the seeds. This
information will help you to learn about how much each type of seed loses
viability b/w collection and planting
Protect seeds from insects and fungi
Protect from rodents and birds during storage

Seed with Natural Longevity:

Acacia nilotica and Robinia pseudoacacia belong to leguminous spp that
can be stored for very long periods, these have very hard, impermeable
seed coat, and moisture content is normally low.

FACTTORS AFFECTING THE STORAGE LIFE OF SEED:

Genetic Effects
Pre Harvest Effects
There are some factors which also affect the longevity and viability of seed,
which are as follows:
1. Temperature
2. Photoperiod
3. Mineral nutrition
4. Rain fall
5. Soil moisture
KINDS OF SEED:
 Orthodox
Seeds that can be dried, without damage, to low moisture contents (5 – 10%)
Can be stored at sub freezing temperature 2 to 5 OC
Their longevity increases with reductions in both moisture content and
temperature
Examples: Pines, Acacia, Eucalyptus, Casuarina, etc.
 Recalcitrant
Seeds that do not survive drying to any larger degree, and are thus not amendable
to long term storage
Can’t be stored in air tight containers
Storage must be above freezing
E.g. Quercus, Aesculus, Mango, Neem, etc

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 Intermediate
Seeds those are more tolerant of desiccation than recalcitrant, though that
tolerance is much more limited than is the case with orthodox seeds
They generally lose viability more rapidly at low temperature
Can be stored at sub freezing temperature
E.g. Walnut, fir, Poplus, Salix, etc

TYPES OF STORAGE:
 Dry storage
 Good for orthodox seeds
 At room temp for few week or months or at cool temp for longer periods
 Store seed in piles, sacks, or containers
 Work well in cool climate with low humidity
 Optimum temp 32 – 41 OF

 Moist Storage
 Used for recalcitrant seed
 Used for short period
 Basic requirement is good ventilation to prevent heating and fungal
growth
 For uniform moisture conditions the seeds are mixed with moist medium,
like sand, cloth, charcoal, saw dust
 Moisture requirement 11 – 40%
 Temp requirements 32 – 50O F

List of Tree Seeds their seeding period, viability and no. of seeds per Kg.

Species Seeding Period Viability No of seed /kg

Acacia nilotica May – Jun Upto one year 6600 – 11000
Acacia modesta Dec – Feb Upto one year 32000-36000
Albezzia lebbek Jan – March Upto one year 4940 – 12430
Casuarina June – Dec 3 to 4 months 660000-990000
equisetifolia
Cassia fistula June – April Best upto 2 5500-6010
years
Cedrus deodara Sep – Nov - Do - 7050-9110
Dalbergia Dec – Jan Up to one year 13220 – 15870
sissoo

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Eucalyptus Oct – Feb Upto 2 years 330000 –

camaldulensis 660000
Morus alba Mar – may Best when 42300-46800
fresh
Pinus helepensis Oct – Nov Upto 2 years 48400-88000
Pinus Sep – Nov Upto 18 12340 approx
wallichiana months
Tamarix aphylla Sep – Dec Very low even 481000 approx
fresh

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Chapter Number 8
Nursery
NURSERY:
A place where plants are grown commercially, either for sale direct to the public
or to other retailers.
OR; an area where we grow and nurse young progeny (an offspring of a person,
animal, or plant) of plants is called Nursery.

Purpose of Nursery:
 Nurseries are used for artificial plantation. We raise nurseries in those areas
where natural regeneration is low or slow.
 Nurseries are raised to get plants of right size at right time.
 Nurseries are raised to get such plants which are good in health.
 Nurseries are raised to get plants of desired spp.
Importance of Nursery:
Establishment of a nursery is important for the following reasons.
Production of proposed size and age of seedlings.
Production of desired number of seedlings.
Production of healthy plants of desired spp.
Production of plants of superior quality.
Production of desired plants at right time.
Production of seedlings at cheaper cost.

Pine Tree Nursery

Forests cover nearly two-thirds of South Carolina’s land area. Pine, oak, and hickory trees are the most common trees in these forests.
Despite the state’s many forests, the forestry industry also relies on trees cultivated in nurseries throughout the state. Taylor Nursery in
Trenton, South Carolina, cultivates pine trees.
TYPES OF NURSERIES:
There are two types of nurseries:
1. Temporary Nursery
2. Permanent Nursery
1. Temporary Nursery:

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Those nurseries which are made for the time being ie for one or two years are
called temporary nurseries eg Shisham nurseries at Changa Manga.
These nurseries are usually made in felling coups so that after felling,
regeneration can be done easily or in those areas where afforestation work is
needed.
Soil for these nurseries should be fertile because we do not give fertilizers to
these nurseries.
These nurseries are raised along road side and canal side plantations.

Advantages of Temporary Nursery:

 Temporary nurseries are at time called flying nurseries ie these can be shifted
to any site.
 Low capital cost
 Reduced transport cost
 Within climatic site conditions
 Skilled labor is not required
 Near planting site

Disadvantages of Temporary Nursery:

 Water supply may be poor
 Soil may be poor
 Shortage of trained labor
 All can result in poor quality trees

2. Permanent Nurseries:
Those nurseries which are not temporary but remain year after year are called
permanent nurseries. E.g. nursery shown in the above figure
Such nurseries should be centrally located so that distribution of plants may be
easy.
It should be near head quarter so that it should be protected and supervised
during work.
These nurseries should be manure and fertilized from time to time.

Advantages of Permanent Nursery:

 It is well designed
 It has a good water supply
 Provide required no of plants
 Provide required size of plants
 Provide good quality of plants
 Has good soil
 Well managed and protected
 Planting material is always available

Disadvantages of Permanent Nursery:

 It requires high capital cost
 It requires high transport cost

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 Not always in climatic site conditions

 Not always near the planting site
 Permanent and skilled labor is required

CHOICE OF SITE FOR NURSERIES:

While selecting a site for nursery, the following conditions should be noted.
a) Soil:
Soil should be sandy loam, so that it can hold moisture and place should be
well drained so that irrigation water should not stand over there.
b) Transportation Facility:
It should be close to road so that approach to the nursery for the purpose of
mgt and protection can be made easily. Moreover, in planting season
transportation become easy.
c) Permanent Water Point:
It should have a permanent source of water so that in dry days there will be no
problem of water.
d) Centrally Located:
Nursery should be located near the planting area for easiness.
e) Nursery area:
For 6’ × 6’ planting, an acre of nursery is enough to keep plants of 1-2 years
and can serve to 200 acres of plantation.
A standard nursery bed (for bed nursery) 40’ × 4’ sown with about 20 lbs of
seed produce enough stump of suitable dia to 1 acre of teak plantation.
For deodar, 1 acre of nursery serves to 30 acres of plantation.

f) Clean area:
Area of site of nursery should be cleaned and free of weeds, diseases and
insects.

g) Availability of labour:

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Labour should be available for different operations such as sowing, plowing,

weeding, and planting, etc.
It should be close to village for frequent availability of labor. Labor should be
close to village for frequent available at reasonable wages and according to
the work required.
h) Nurseries in hills:
If we want to raise the nursery in hills, we should have proper consideration of
slope and aspect.
Slope means that terraces should be at 10 ft distances and the slope should be
gentle, not steep.
Aspect means elevation upto 7000 ft. Northern aspect is not suitable because
above 7000ft growth is short in northern aspects, so southern aspect should be
preferred under such elevations.

LAYOUT OF NURSERY:
While establishing a nursery, it is better to keep a few things in mind.
1. Orientation of Site:
Normally, square shaped site is good but if it is not available then rectangular site
is selected.
2. Division of Nursery:
After selection of site, divisions of nurseries into blocks are carried out. This
division is done by establishing road network. Roads are prepared for the purpose
of transportation. Usually roads are established at the end of bed or b/w every 6 –
10 beds. The width of road should be 3 – 5 meters.
3. Preparation of Beds:
Beds are of two types:
1) Sunken Beds 2) Raised Beds
These types are considered according to purpose. Their orientation should be
towards sun so that sunlight should be available for photosynthesis.
The best size is 1m × 10m. Length can be increased or decreased, width cannot be
increased because it creates problem in weeding and hoeing.
The nursery bed size for Eucalyptus is 3ft × 10ft.
4. Miscellaneous Factors:
Before planting or sowing, it is necessary to establish water supply system after
preparation bed. It is necessary to make sure that they are leveled and if they are
not leveled, soil work should be done again.
In case of nursery in irrigated plantation, these are:

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5. Preparation of Shade:
Near the entrance, shade should be prepared under which riverain soil is placed,
used for filling bags. Newly transplanted plants are put under shade for 15 day for
root development eg Eucalyptus spp.

PROTECTION OF NURSERY AGAINST PESTS AND FUNGI:

Constant watch should be kept on nursery for fungal or insect attacks. Moreover,
consider other problems ie grazing, wind and burrowing animals.
1. Protection against burrowing animals:
A wire mesh is buried in the soil or passed under the ground in such a way that
half of it should be in air. The depth under soil is 2ft.
2. Protection against birds:
Thorny bushes are placed over seed beds. Frame of wire gauze is also used which
is usually placed on the seed beds.
3. Protection against grazing animals:
Grazing trenches are dug up or wire fencing is done.
4. Protection against rain fall and hail:
A wire cover should be provided over seed bed.
5. Protection against wind:
Hedges are raised which are normally tall. In winter they are cut down for
sunlight.
6. Protection against insects and diseases:
Spray and fungicides or herbicides should be made if the crop is attacked by some
fungus, etc.
7. Protection against frost:
Polythene sheet covers are used which also control the temperature and helps in
growth.

SOIL PREPARATION FOR NURSERY BED:

The soil of nursery bed should have the following characteristics.
It should be light
It should be cohesive _ sticking, holding, or working together as a united
whole
It should have enough organic contents
It should be fertile
It the soil has such characteristics; it can be used for seed sowing.
Soil preparation involves the following steps:
a) Plowing:
After selection of soil, it is plowed with the help of tractors or buffaloes. It
will loosen the soil.
b) Discing:
The plowed or tiled soil is then properly discited.
c) Manuring:

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Discing and plowing are done before seed sowing and then from yard manure
or animal dung is added in it in order to increase the fertility and water
holding capacity of soil. Then seed sowing is done.
d) Fencing:
Fencing may of the following types:
(i) Live fencing _ hedge of thorny spp like Prosopis juliflora
(ii) Brushwood fencing _ used esp for road sides or canal sides of spp like
Zizyphus spp or Acacia spp
(iii) Stone wall _ dry wall of about 4ft is effective against horned cattle
(iv) Trenches _ it can be effective protection at lower cost usu of 4 ft
depth.
(v) Strand wire fencing _ poles at corners at 12 ft; in between barbed
wires at 4ft distance
(vi) Wove wire fencing _ to strengthen the Strand wire fencing, diagonal
bared wires are used to make a cross like shape from above of the top
of the first pole to the bottom to the other.

MAINTAINANCE OF FERTILITY:
If appropriate steps are not taken for maintenance of fertility in the soil, the crop
percentage may fall.
Following steps are taken to improve fertility.
(i) Fallowing:
Every year some areas of nursery are kept on rest. This rotates in the whole
nursery but it is not a good method.
(ii) Manuring:
In temperate forests, leaf moulds are used as organic manures. In planes large
pits are filled with leaves. Cattle manures are more satisfactory than horse
dung.
(iii) Composing:
Composite or artificial farm yard manure is obtained from vegetable wastes
from clearing fire lines.
(iv) Green manures:
An alternative method is to raise a suitable crop and turn it into a soil as green
manure leguminous crops are preferred.
(v) Mineral fertilizers:
Organic fertilizers are added in the soil to make it more fertile.

TECHNIQUES FOR PLANT PROTECTION:

By plant protection it is meant providing such conditions to plants in which they can
grow vigorously or keeping away the plants from different hazards.
Different techniques were adopted in the past for different types of damages at different
plant stages, which are as under:
1. Protection measures against grazing
2. Fire protection and controlled burning
3. Protection against frost
4. Special measures against climbers

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5. Protection against defoliators

1. Protection measures against grazing
appointment of few cattle guards
enclosing the plantation areas
Repellants _ wood tar and asafetida (a bitter brownish acrid-smelling
plant resin) are smoked on the leading shoots on plants which are liable to
be browsed
Fencing _ see above page

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Chapter Number 9
Afforestation
GENERAL CONSIDERATION:
- Most of the Artificial regeneration work now a days is being done is
concerned with the propagation of more valuable spp
- Afforestation (to convert land not previously forested into forest by
planting trees) has got much more attention on account of the increasing
demand in the country, to overcome the deforestation, to control the
cutting of forests for timber and fuel woods, to control grazing habits and
finally to give a hand in the economy of the country.
- Needs for soil and water conservation also call for the afforestation of the
catchments areas of hydro-electric and irrigation reservoirs
- There are sites such as areas of shifting sand or swampy land, where
afforestation is demonstrably the best method of remedying the
unfavorable soil conditions and bringing the land into production
- In arid tracts, where forests cannot be raised economically the
improvement of grasses, herbs and shrubs are aimed at to make better use
of the land for grazing.
- It has recently been estimated that the more or less idle land capable of
being planted to trees in the plains of Pakistan is about 1 million acres
consisting of 500,000 acres of riverain land, 400,000 acres of coastal land,
and 565,000 acres of scrub. There is in addition a very large area of
treeless hill land. _ Champion, Seth and Khattak

AFFORESTATION OF DRY AREAS WITH IRRIGAION:

GENERAL: IMPORTANCE OF WATER

 Common chemical substance: H2O.
 Found in all three states simultaneously: solid, liquid and gaseous.
 Collective mass of water on planet is called Hydrosphere.
 Covers about 71% of the Earth’s surface.
 Total mass is: 1021 kg.
 Total volume: 1.36 billion km3.
 3% is usable.
 Glaciers, polar ice caps, rivers, lakes & ponds.
 Water moves continually in a cycle: Hydrology Cycle.
 70% of fresh water is consumed by agriculture.
 Covers more than two-third of earth’s surface.
 Makes up 50-90% of the weight of living things.
 Constitutes 75% of human body.
 More than 80% of human brain consists of water.
 Water regulates all the functions & activities of living things.
 Aids in metabolic processes.
 Industry, agriculture and forestry totally depend upon water.
 Every field of life cannot exist without water.
 Water can alter human cultures and civilizations.

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IRRIGTION
Irrigation:
“Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in
growing crops”.
 Grow crops with minimum amount of water required.
 Supplement water/rainfall shortfalls.

History of Irrigation:
 Evidence of irrigation in Egypt in 6th B.C.
 Archaeological evidence of irrigation dates back to 6th millennium B.C in Egypt
to grow Barley.
 First water gauge was discovered in Korea I 1441 A.C.
 Pakistan has one of the world’s largest irrigation systems.
 Irrigation water is a very precious commodity now.
 Its conservation & economical use for optimum utilization is a matter of great
importance.
 We have to incorporate methods to conserve it & not over use it.
TYPES OF IRRIGATION
 Surface Irrigation.
 Sub-irrigation.
 Localized irrigation.
IRRIGATION IN IRRIGATED PLANTATIONS
Surface Irrigation has Two Types:
 Flood Irrigation.
 Flow/Trench Irrigation.
Flow irrigation is very economical than flood irrigation.
Flood Irrigation
 Simple, low-tech.
 Cheap.
 Gravity feed.
 Plots of 0.5 or 1 Ac.
 Species which are raised: Populus spp, Eucalyptus spp.

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Advantages:
 Very low running cost.
 Easy to operate.
 No high skills are required.
 No mechanical or pumping equipment is required.
 Easy maintenance of water channels.
 Flush out salts.
Disadvantages:
 50% of water evaporates.
 Flooding causes anaerobic conditions resulting in de-nitrification.
 Highly leveled field is required.
 Reduction in capillary oxygen.
 Can cause run-off & erosion.

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Trench Irrigation
 Trenches/channels.
 Main, Khal, Passel, Trench System
 Slots.
 Usual spacing: 10’.
 Better utilization of water.
 Species raised: Dalbergia sissoo, Bombax ceiba,
Acacia nilotica, Eucalyptus spp.

Advantages:
 Reduces loss of water.
 Increases efficient use of water.
 Less weed growth.
 No run-off and erosion.
Disadvantages:
 Tail-water losses.
 Movement of equipment.
 Fair leveling.
 Volatile irrigation pattern.
 Re-opening is required.

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AFFORESTATION OF CANAL BANKS:

Introduction:
- Canal bank plantation enhances the beauty of the landscape and provides a
ground frame for the creation of a network of tree shelter belts for the
protection of farm crops against the prevalent hot, desiccating and dust
laden winds
- Afforestation on such sites provides a considerable quantity of timber, fuel
wood, and other minor products
- The total length of canals is about 31,800 miles, 9250 of which is already
planted _ Champion, Seth and Khattak
Site Conditions:
- Much of the conditions like of climatic and edaphic are similar to that of
irrigation

AFFORESTATION OF DENUDED HILL SLOPES AND RAVINE LANDS:

General Considerations:
- To reduce siltation of dams
- Rising of water level in river beds due to siltation
- Reducing floods
- Timber and fuel wood production
Site Condition:
- Slopes are either wet slopes and dry slopes
- Wet slopes are found in cold region eg Temperate dry slopes in areas of
15in – 20in rainfall
- On dry slopes, no or thin soil is found except depressions
- Soil is shallow, stony and poor in nutrients
- Completely exposed to sun and no retention of water
- Diseases are more and mortality is high
Choice of Spp:
- Indigenous spp are selected
- Spp should be hardy, having coppicing power and should cover the ground
eg Ailanthus spp
Soil Preparation:
- Since soil is in undulations, spacing can not be recommended
- Sowing should be in patches
- For ridge and trench sowing shallow pits are to be dug
- Planting and sowing is cracks and near boulders is favorable
Tending:
- Weeding is done to reduce transpiration
- Weeding is not done in interspaces
- Mulching is also done to reduce evaporation
- Protection against grazing and browsing is very important
- Grass cutting can be allowed

AFFORESTATION ON HIGHWAY PLANTATION:

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General Considerations:
- Main purpose is shade
- Other purposes include:
 Camouflage
 Beautification
 Timber Production
 Soil compaction
 Shelter belt, etc
Site Condition:
- Highway run through dry tropical as well as temperate zone
- Mostly pass through populated areas and usu water is available
- There may be some inhospitable sites like waterlogged and saline areas
Choice of Spp:
- Adaptable as well as indigenous spp should suit to available space
- Select a spp which shades on road as well as on strip
- Always plant two to three avenues
- tree which are moderately fast growing and provide dense shade should be
selected
- The trees selected should provides shade not on the side, but also in the
centre of the road
- trees with an umbrella or sub-umbrella crowns like Neem, imli, and
Mango are more suitable then trees with linear elongated crowns
- Brittle trees and thorny should be avoided on the road side avenue because
brittle trees have weak wood and break easily in the wind storm. The
result is the heavy block of traffic for considerable lengths of time and
during a storm
- This tees as a positive be avoided as their thorns are nuisance for the
pneumatic tires of small cars, cycles and motorcycles.
- Trees should be fruit less
- Trees should not be planted over pipe lines, transmission or phone lines
Irrigation:
- It is needed in arid areas
- Best method is flow irrigation, in some areas trench irrigation is also used
- In scarcity of irrigation, water tanker can be used and manually irrigation
can also be done
Protection:
- Supervision is required against children, grazing animals, offender, etc
- The fixture of drum around plant or open brick alls with holes are also
frequent
- Thorny bushes and mud walls are also used for the purpose.

AESTHETIC PLANTATION:

“As conscious planting of the flora with the object of beautifying the area from the
artistic point of view is termed as Aesthetic Planting.”

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 It includes the planting of ornamental flowering trees along city road, in park
public places and compound of house
 Development of national parks for the preservation of beautiful non-carnivores
animals and the creation of bird sanctuaries
 Aesthetic planting of course embraces landscape gardening; as well but it is much
wider term
BACKGROUND HISTORY:
 Started 175 years ago in Europe
 75 years ago in Subcontinent
 55 years ago in Pakistan

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CHOICE OF SPECIES FOR AESTHETIC PLANTATION

The following factors should be however governing this choice:
I. The tree should be well adapted to the climatic conditions of the locality.
II. The tree may be chosen for the colour of their flower.
III. The tree planted should not drop untidy litter.
IV. It is not advisable to plant fruit trees on the town road sides for the same
reason as for highway planting.
V. The tree should be moderately fast but not very fast grown.
PLACES SUITABLE FOR AESTHETIC PLANTATION
 Public places which belong to the community
 Public parks
 public roads
 platforms of railway stations
 compounds of hospitals
 universities, colleges and schools
 ancient historical buildings
AVENUES FOR NATIONAL AND STATE HIGHWAY
 main function of a roadside avenue is shade
 tree which are quick growing and provide dense shade should be selected
 The trees selected should provides shade not on the side, but also in the centre of
the road
 tress with an umbrella or sub-umbrella crowns like Neem, imli, and Mango are
more suitable then trees with linear elongated crowns
 Brittle trees and thorny should be avoided on the road side avenue because brittle
trees have weak wood and break easily in the wind storm. The result is the heavy
block of traffic for considerable lengths of time and during a storm
 This tees as a positive be avoided as their thorns are nuisance for the pneumatic
tires of small cars, cycles and motorcycles.
AVENUES FOR TOWN WAYS
 Some experts recommended double avenues of trees on the outer sides of the
footpaths
 where wider roads are available and outer row of shade trees and an inner row of
ornamental flowering trees
 The function of outer row is shade only so it should be ornamental flowering trees
PLANTING FOR HOME GARDEN
 Ornamental trees should be planted only on the outer boundaries
 A number of trees and shrubs which emit fragrance at night time, especially
during rains such as Gardenia lucida, G. Florida, G. latifolia. These can be
planted to their best advantage opposite window and doors, of bed rooms, so that
one ma enjoys their fragrance in the evenings particularly in the summer months
 Hedges form an important component of the garden in the compound of a house.
 A variety of cypresses and Thuja (Mor-pankh) forms excellent hedges.
DWARF ORNAMENTAL TREES SUITABLE FOR SMALL COMPOUNDS
a. Flowering Trees
Bauliminia variegata, Butea frondosa, Cassia fistula, Crataeva religiosa, Jacaranda
mimosaefolia, Brownea coccinea, B. ariza, Lagarstoramia spp, Mesua ferrea,

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Ponogatima glubra, Saraed indica, Sapthodea nilotica, Stercua colorata, Tecommella

undulta. Fragrant Trees and Shrubs:
a. Trees with ornamental fruits:
Hazara orange
ORNAMENTAL TREES SUITABLE FOR BIG COMPOUNDS
a. Beautiful flowering trees:
Lugerstroemia flosreginae, Bombex ceiba, Millingtonia hortensis, Cassia nodosa,
Peltophorum ferragineum, Poinciana regia, Colvillsu rascemosa.
b. List of Hedges:
Citrus medica, Dodonea viscose, Gardenia augusta, Murraya exotica, Susbenia spp,
Durranta alba, Ligustrum lucidum, Thuja orentalis.
RAILWAY STATIONS
 Avenues of Amaltas, Perian lilae, and larger stroemia will give them a touch of
colour.
 A platform without trees will add to the discomfiture of passengers who often
have to wait for long on it for their trains
 By planting flowering trees on platforms of stations, we will not only be
beautifying them but will also be educating the citizen in aesthetics.

AFFORESTATION OF COASTAL AND INLANDS AND SAND DUNES:

Description:
- Riverine and inland are two forests in Sindh
- Forests lying in vicinity of Riverine Forests are called Inland forests _ fig

- Similarly forests situated near the border of sea are coastal forests. These
are sandy so called Coastal lands
- Coastal sands have moderate temperature, high humidity, water table near
the surface, and more lime content in comparison with inland.
- Salinity of water is less if it is close to mouth of river,
- Instability is frequent, the sands are blown away by winds or from other
areas accumulated here

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General Consideration:
- These coastal sands are the result of the deposition of the silt and sand
particles
- Same is the process with Cholistan and Rajhistan Deserts
Soil Preparation:
- On sea coast make pits for planting for holding irrigation water
- In desert no need of pits just removes the grasses and weeds around the
plant but not from interspaces because these help in protecting form wind
pressure.
Planting:
- The first step in this direction is the growing of grasses and shrubs like
Acacia jaequemanti, Tamarix spp, Calligomium spp, Saccharum spp, etc
are preferred.
- Plant everything across wind direction.
- Sometimes gully bags are hanged across wind direction.
- Oil or tar coal or bitumen can be sprayed over sand. Once soil is stabilized
then spp are selected.
- Near sea, Casuarina equisetifolia is planted while in Sindh Coconut is
successfully planted.

AFFORESTATION OF FARM LANDS/ CULTIVATED LANDS:

General Considerations:
- This is not meant for planting trees instead of agriculture but to help the
later
- For instance, in dry areas to reduce loss of moisture
- However, following purposes are our objectives:
 Conservation of soil moisture
 To stop erosion in arid areas.
 In dry areas, seedlings are killed by sand blast
 To neutralize the condition for animals and working people in
fields
 To obtain additional income
 Trees are necessary against deposition of sand
Site Conditions:
- Comparatively favourable
Choice of Spp:
- Trees should be deciduous
- The line of trees should be like a wall against wind directions
- Taller the trees, better the safety (it height is 10ft it will protect 200ft; if ht
is 20ft, then it will protect 400ft)
- Trees should be single because mixed spp cause management problems
- Trees should be valuable like Dalbergia sissoo in irrigated areas whereas
Tamarix spp in dry areas. Acacia spp can also be used
Site Preparation:
- No need as soil is already worked

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Method of Stocking:
- Shisham is raised in pits from Stumps
- Tamarix from root cuttings
- Poplar from second stage nursery
- Trees are planted in belts perpendicular to wind direction
- Areas where wind direction is not constant, cross belts serve the same
purpose (separated by a distance of 40 times the height of tree)
- If trees are in single row, they are Wind Breaks and obviously the Shelter
Belts when grown in multiple queues

AFFORESTATION ON WATERLOGGED AND SALINE AREAS:

General Considerations:
- Waterlogging: When land is thoroughly soaked with water, it is called
water logged. Water logging has two categories:
 Perpetual Waterlogging:
Land remains water logged all the year. Water table merged into
surface soil and accompanied by salts at times. Perpetual
Waterlogging and salinity together occur in an area which receives
less rainfall. The salts creep up the surface. These salts accumulate
and form a pan. In perpetual Waterlogging, no spp can be grown.
This also depends upon degree of salinity that may make possible to
grow something.
 Seasonal Waterlogging:
In some areas, it is confined to few months via water table sinks
down or water drained away. Here some spp can survive like Willow
spp.
Control:
- Situation for Waterlogging is drainage
- Deep channels should be dug to take away water.
- Irrigate the area to dissolve salts and decrease salinity
Afforestation of Saline Earth:
- Salinity is due to Na, Mg, and K.
- It depends upon nature of Salts.
- In less saline areas, Tamarix is grown
- For heavily saline areas, first get rid of salts by irrigation and the plant
- Pseuda fruticosa, Salix spp, Terminalia arjune and Syzigium cumuni, is
also grown.
- In deserts, salts are thrown away first then Ricinous communis etc are
grown

LAND SLIPS STABALIZATION:

General Consideration:
- The collapse of part of a mountainside or cliff so that it descends in a
disintegrating mass of rocks due to the movement of underground water
and earth is called land slip.

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- If vegetation is removed, then slopes are suspected to move downward

causing erosion.
- The main agent involved is underground water which when causes upper
layer of soil to slide downward aided by gravity.
- We can plant trees to increase transpiration and to remove subsoil water.
- Engineering techniques may be helpful
- Diversion channels, Nalahs and channels should be lined with stones
- Check dams will be constructed but the bottom bed or foundation of check
dam should reach the rock
- Breast walls to hold the uphill slope
- Make slope less steep
Choice of Spp:
- All engineering works should be accompanied by afforestation and
reforestation practices
- Selection of indigenous flora is logical to decrease the wetness of sub-soil
layer.
- Spp will be fast growing, deep rooted and evergreen and hardy as well
- Vegetative growth like from stakes, root suckers, cuttings, etc should be
preferred like for poplar, willow, robinia, etc
- Prevent from grazing and browsing.

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Chapter Number 10
Cultural Operations
CULTURAL OPERATIONS:
Cultural operations are carried out to assist the crop to complete regeneration. If
some operation before planting or sowing is done it will also be cultural operation. No
income in turn of money received in cultural operation.
Cultural operations even involved some tending operations. Removal of saplings,
weeding, soil working or operations excluded in tending operations is also involved in
cultural operations.

COVER CROP:
Cover crop is meant for covering soil. Interspaces are not covered specially in
case of light demanders. Since crowns hardly touch each other, the soil is either occupied
by weeds or exposed to light wind and rains. So it needs protection against erosion hazard
and improvement in fertility as well.
For this purpose some leguminous shrubs, small trees or herbs are grown but until
now there is no good cover crop available in Pakistan and almost all crops compete with
actual spp.

NURSE CROP:
 These are mean for tender spp and tenderness is usually in younger age. So for this an
additional crop is raised under which the actual crop is grown. The guardian crop is
grown first after which the actual crop is raised.
 Some spp are shade bearing. Such spp are so tender that they are killed by direct
sunlight, some are less shade bearing, and others are more. For instance, some firs
have open wide forest in hill. This is due to reason that seedlings are hypersensitive
but in later ages they become hardy and light demander.
 For Abies pindrow nurse crop is Pinus wallichiana (blue pine) is required. Walnut
and Poplar can also serve the same purpose.
 Another example is in IP of Punjab where Shisham is serving as a nurse crop for
mulberry.

BEATIG UP OPERATIONS:
- 100% Success can not be expected in sowing or planting. These blanks are
to be filled immediately. This is called as Filling.
- If planting was accomplished in Feb-April, start replacement after April.
The process should not be delayed as the crop grown first will gain height
and infilled will become suppressed.
- Soil may be cause of this failure. So before beating up failures soil will be
rectified.
- Infilling should be of same spp.

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Chapter Number 11
Crop Tending Operations
TENDING OPERATIONS:
Operations carried out for the benefits of forest crop at any stage of its life. It
essentially covers operation on the crop itself and competing vegetation and include
weeding, cleaning, thinning, felling, pruning, climber cutting, girdling but exclude soil
working, drainage, irrigation, and burning, etc.
NEED FOR TENDING OPERAITONS:
Two major needs:
(i) Sanitation:
(ii) To provide growing space to trees.
- The act of reducing the chanced of insects and other diseases in sanitation.
The trees which re susceptible, injured, broken, weak, diseased, or
infected by insects are removed.
- Looking for space in which trees extend their masses, lastly tending
operations are essential for providing, tree with more light water nutrients,
etc.
- Tending operations result in the achievement of a form which conforms
the human sense of liking.

WEEDING:
- The removal or cutting back of any sort of weed growth that is interfering
the growth of crop is called weeding.
- Removal means uprooting the entire weed even Morus alba if not
required.
- Cutting back is meant by cutting the upper portion but this does not
control weeding.
- When plants are 3feet high or less, the stage is seedling. In seedling stage
usually the side braches have yet t come out and light frequently falls upon
open interplant spaces and then weeds become active, start competing and
start sucking food, hence they are removed.
- Weeds usually come from indigenous spp, some are persistent for example
Imperita cylindrical (drub) constantly refuses to leave the land because it
is deep rooted and even plough can hardly do harm to its one feet deep
rhizome.
- Weeds mainly appear from seeds, others from coppice and still others
form suckers.
- In natural forests Vibernum spp creates problem by appearing again and
again.
- Weeding should be in early ages because seedlings have to suffer when
the weeds surpass them in height.
- For shisham plantation, weeding is done twice in first year.
- In addition weeding continues with cleaning as well.

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CLEANING:
- Tending operations done in sapling crop particularly just before or with
the first thinning are involving the removal or cutting back of all inferior
growth, climbers, etc” including excess of coppice shoots and sapling if
interfering with better one.
- Sometimes cleaning and first thing are done simultaneously or sometimes
separate.
- Since the sapling branches shade up the ground then weaker type of
seedlings may appear, they are undesired and removable.
- Bela plantations of Shisham raised from root suckers and coppices
demands cleaning. Here hundreds of coppice shoots are reduced. Here
some diseased shisham will also be removed.

CLIMBER CONTROL:
- A plant that attaches itself to other plants or objects such as posts and
walls as it grows is a Climber.
- This difficulty is faced in nurseries usually seedlings are twined by
climbers. Afterwards the internode increases in length. The climber pulls
the head of seedling. Since this host climber can’t be extended, shoot of
seedling is broken.
- Sometimes it completely girdles the shoots and plants die of suffocation.
The climber may ravel itself around crown, so victim is devoid of light
and food.
- Their removal is necessary.

Question:
What is meant by Pruning? What precautions will you take while making
pruning?
Answer:
- Pruning is defined as, “the fresh removal of branches to improve wood
and maintaining vigor of plants/trees.”
- It must be commenced at an early stage at the second or third thinning,
and completed in about three stages upto the height adopted.
- It is generally held that at least few inches of knotless timber must be put
on after the pruning to justify the operation, so that it is of no use to do it
late is rotation.
- For this purpose saw or blade can be used.
Forked Stem:
- It is very difficult t remove one fork of a desirable leader except at a very
early stage, especially in a hardwood and it should not ordinarily be
attempted
Height of Pruning:
- Height varies with spp, but in young age plantation 1/2 to 3/5 of the total
height.
For the Case of Pakistan:

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- In Pakistan this practice is in vague at mulberry trees and in avenue

plantation.
Bud Pruning:
- The object of pruning being to obtain a knot free core, and the most
effective way of doing it would be to remove all lateral buds before they
have had time to develop into woody branches.
Lopping:
- The cutting or removal of tree branches without any scientific research as
done for lac culture, manufacture of livestock resting purposes, fuel wood,
sheds, etc.

THINNING:
PURPOSE/ AIMS OF THINNING:
- To reduce competition in root and crown
- Discourage weed growth
726 shisham planted at 6ft × 10ft or 200 at 20ft × 20ft. But in case
of 726, spacing is less, interspaces covered, which discourage
growth of weeds. Later on completely trees are thinned.
- Improve quality of wood
When trees are far apart, the crowns develop lot of branches,
particularly throughout bole length which is not like. So less
spacing and thinning afterwards, less spacing provides natural
pruning.
- Regulation of rate of growth
Thinning controls rotation. Closer the trees, smaller is the rate of
growth longer is the rotation and vice versa. So thinning is done to
increase rate of growth and reduce rotation.
Trees on ridges are exposed to hazards, so they are heavily
thinned. Greater snow will be accumulated in dense crop and
smaller amount in open crop. Bigger the crown, larger is the
production of resin. Wider the crown, greater is seed/fruit
production.
Thinning is also a determinant of quality. Wider space provided
give wider annual rings.
- To increase seed production
- Reduction in the net cost of growing
Whatever spending is done on growing stock, thinning pays some
of it back as fuel wood, etc.
- Reducing the risk of fire and diseases
- Encouraging the advanced growth
- Fulfilling the market demands
Thinning is always conducted for even aged crops.

CLASSES OF THINNING:
a. Statistical Thinning:

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When forester goes for marking trees to be felled, his opinion never
matches with other. So a statistical method has been advised called
thinning schedule.
Open up it where ht, BA, mean dia, and no of trees retained for any
thinning are given. Eg if height is basis and it is 50ft against which 150
trees are written, retain 150 and remove the remaining.
b. Mechanical Thinning:
In this case instructions are given to machine which goes on cutting trees
and no brain is taxed eg in Shisham plantations first thinning is
Mechanical. Each alternate tree is removed. However if some one is dealt
with a gap, then leave this next tree which is to be cut.
Mechanical thinning is applied where growth rate is unigorm and there is
nor or less mortality. The plants will be equally high. Still some
unevenness can be provided due to difference in site quality.
For fuel wood production, thinning should be completed within ¾ of
rotation. Eg in Shisham, it is completed in 15 – 16 years as rotation is 20
years. Fuel wood grown at closer spacing is slim, narrow and less calorific
which ultimately fetches less revenue. So far the timer qualities, thinning
should be accomplished.
c. Wolfing:
It is an advanced growth which dominates the occurrence of vegetation
under it; consequently the seedling can not survive. Such earlier
appearances are due to genetically quality to grow abnormal. Such trees
should be removed to avoid loss of crop.
d. Ordinary Thinning:
It is common throughout the world. Stick thinning is also conducted in
Shisham. However all other thinnings are carried are ordinary. Such
thinning is carried out from lower classes, therefore also called low
thinning.
e. Selective Thinning:
If trees are classified into Dominant – D (the upper most leaf canopy),
Dominated – d (smaller in size than D), Suppressed – S (trees shaded from
all sides), Diseased – K and Dead or Crooked – m classes and no
mathematical formula is used, this will be selective thinning

f. Free Thinning:
Suppose there are 1000 trees in one acre, one method to reduce is:
Age: 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 ------- 100
No of plants 1000 500 350 250 200 150 100 ------- 70

The requisite of trees were obtained gradually after several thinnings, but
if we concentrate only on those 70. These selected trees are called “alpha
trees”. They are good trees but how to proceed.
Such selection is made at first thing, and selected trees will reach maturity.
If some tree is competing with selected tree, go on removing it. This is
called free thinning, but Heck’s proposal about it is worth mentioning.

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Heck’s Free Thinning:

He inflicts some restrictions on the selection of alpha trees.
1. The no of trees should be based on size or age. Shisham should
have 200 trees in 10 years age, 80 in 15 years.
2. Condition within the crop ie alpha trees should be evenly spaced
3. According to Heck, some dominated trees can also be selected
provided it is at regular spacing and had good stem form. If
crown is small or clumsy it can be improved by giving right
space.

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Chapter Number 13
Silviculture of Forest Species
_ Privileged Thx to Sagheer Jan Baloch (Lala)

1. SILVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF DALBERGIA SISSOO:

 Common name : Shisham, Tahli, rose wood
 Description:
 Medium to large size deciduous tree
 Height 30m
 Branches Spreading and diameter of 3m recorded
 Trunk: crooked
 Leaves compound with 3-5 leaflets
 The bark is gray; in older trees bark may peel off in strips
 Flowers in groups and are of small size
 Flower colour dull white, yellowish white to pinkish
 Flowers appear in March to May
 Pods/ Fruits are small ripen from June to February
 1 – 4 seeds in each pod
 Distribution:
 Native to Sub-continent along sub-Himalayan tract
 Common in river banks and streams
 Successfully planted
 Habitat and Ecology:
 An important tree
 Occurs in a dry sub-tropical, dry temperate climate
 Well drained sandy loamy soil but tolerate saline soil
 Occurs at elevation range of 900 – 1500 m
 Precipitation b/w 300 – 2000 mm (ie 12in = 18 inches)
 Frost hardy
 Has a temperature range of 0 – 50 OC
 Intolerant, susceptible to root diseases in IPs
 Young trees heavily grazed and browsed
 Reproduction:
 Both by seed and vegetatively
 Vegetatively by Stumps (ie root and shoot cuttings), by root suckers,
etc
 Productivity:
 In IPs, height of 11m and dia of 20 cm recorded during 15 years period
 Mean annual increment MAI is 7.7 m3/ha/yr
 Management Implications:
 Under irrigation, it is grown extensively in Punjab, NWFP, and parts
of Sindh (Balochistan un toup lagga ne ta)
 Leguminous therefore good for farm forestry
 Grow slow than Eucalyptus and Poplar
 Good shade tree
 Wood Properties:

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 Grains: interlocked and coarse texture

 Color: Sapwood white to pale brown
 Heart wood: golden brown to dark brown
 Density: Heavy with Specific Gravity of 0.85and caloric value of 5000
Kcal/g
 Strength: Hard and strong
 Uses:
 Fodder, Furniture, Fruits and Charcoals
 Medicinal root and barks
 Railway carriage
 Sport goods and farm implements
 Shade

2. SILVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CEDRUS DEODARA:

 Common name:
 Deodar, Diar
 Description:
 Large evergreen tree 45 – 60 m tall with dia of 0.8 – 1.1m
 Crown extends with branches forming conical shape
 Leaves are three sided, needles 205 – 4 cm long
 Needles occur in groups
 Bark grayish or reddish brown
 Monoecious
 Male flower solitary on the end of branches, small in size
 Female flower erect along the top of branches 10 -15cm long, large
than male
 Fruit is female cone
 Blue green when young
 Cones bloom b/w June and September
 On ripening cone turn brown
 Seed take one year for maturity and 2 years to complete reproductive
cycle
 Seed shed in November
 Distribution:
 Native to Himalayas of Sub-continents
 In Pakistan, found at high elevations, in AJK, Murree hills, Hazara,
Swat, Dir, Chitral (Keem ja Soo!!)
 Habit and Ecology:
 Tolerant tree grow freely well in shade
 Grows on verity of deep rich soils
 Growth is poor on rocky soils
 Grow on steep, cool, northern exposures
 Adopted to precipitation zone from 1000 – 2000cm (ie 40in –
80inches)
 Temperature range form -20OC t0 30 OC
 Elevation 1200 – 3000m

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 Susceptible to wood rotting fungi

 Reproduction:
 Produced from seed
 Production:
 Slow growing: MAI = 6 – 9 m3/ha/yr
 Management Implementation:
 Valuable member of Conifers
 High demand result in over cutting
 Harvesting should be curtailed until regeneration method have been
perfected
 Wood Properties:
 Grain: Straight, even, fine textured
 Color: White
 Density: SG = 0.57 with caloric value of 5400 Kcal/gm
 Strength: light and soft
 Uses:
 Construction
 Fuel
 Railway sleepers
 Watershed protection
 Medicinal

3. SILVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PINUS ROXBURGHII:

 Common name : Chir pine , Nakhtar
 Description:
 Large evergreen tree
 Height 21 - 33m
 Diameter of 0.6m recorded
 Needle in threes, 20 – 30 cm long
 Monocious
 Male flowers or cones crowded in clusters 1.3 to 1.8 cm long
 Female flowers or cones are erect solitary with 2 – 5 clusters at the
end of branch
 Cones bloom b/w January to April.
 Fruit is female cone.
 On ripening turn to shiny reddish
 Seed takes one year to maturity and 2 years to complete reproductive
cycle.
 Seed shed September to October.
 Distribution:
 Native to Pakistan, Bhutan, Nepal and India
 In Pakistan, it is found in Himalayas, AJK, Murree, and Orakzai
agencies.
 Successfully planted in northern areas of Punjab
 Large plantations are raised in Mansehra, Abotabad, and Balakot.
 Habitat and Ecology:

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 Intolerant tree that grows on a variety of soils from shallow to

limestone, granite, and sandstone.
 Occurs in humid, sub-humid, cool, moderately monsoon climate.
 Well drained sandy loamy soil but tolerate saline soil
 Occurs at elevation range of 500 – 2500 m
 Drought hard therefore, well adopted to the precipitation zone of b/w
450– 1645 mm (ie 18in = 65 inches)
 Frost hardy and Fire resistant
 Has a temperature range of -5 – 40 OC
 Free of diseases and insects.
 Reproduction:
 Both by seed
 Productivity:
 Fast growing
 Mean annual increment MAI is 7 - 14 m3/ha/yr
 Management Implications:
 Valuable for reforestation and afforestation
 Nature stands have been heavily overcut and will need to be replanted
and protected.
 Wood Properties:
 Grains: straight or spiral, medium form and uneven textured
 Color: Sapwood white
 Heart wood: light red turning to reddish or yellowish brown
 Density: Heavy with Specific Gravity of 0.6and caloric value of 5015
Kcal/g
 Strength: Hard and heavy
 Uses:
 Construction
 Fuel
 Resin
 Sleepers
 Edible seeds
 Furniture, match sticks
 Tar, etc.

4. SILVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PINUS WALLICHIANA:

 Common name Kail, Blue pine
 Description:
 Large evergreen tree
 Height 30 - 45m
 Diameter of 1 – 1.5m recorded
 Crown conical
 Needle are five, 10 – 20 cm long
 Bole straight erect
 Monocious
 Male flowers or cones crowded in clusters 1 cm long

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 Female flowers or cones are erect solitary with 2 – 3 clusters at the

end of branch
 Cones bloom b/w April and June
 Fruit is female cone which is 15 – 20cm long
 On ripening turn to shiny reddish
 Seeds take one year to maturity and 2 years to complete reproductive
cycle.
 Seed shed September to October.
 Distribution:
 Native to Pakistan, Bhutan, Nepal, India and Afghanistan
 Two varieties, wallichiana, and karakrona found in Pakistan.
 Wallichiana in Moist Temperate
 Karakrona in Dry Temperate
 Habitat and Ecology:
 Moderately intolerant tree that grows on a variety of soils best on
fertile, well drained, sandy clayey to sandy clayey loam.
 Occurs in humid cool temperate, moderately cool temperate climate.
 Occurs at elevation range of 1200 – 3700 m
 Precipitation zone of b/w 300– 1500 mm (ie 12in = 60 inches)
 Temperature range of -20 – 35 OC
 Reproduction:
 Both by seed
 Productivity:
 Mean annual increment MAI is 5 - 8 m3/ha/yr
 Management Implications:
 Valuable for reforestation and afforestation
 Nature stands have been heavily overcut and will need to be replanted
and protected.
 Wood Properties:
 Grains: straight or spiral, medium fine and textured
 Color: Sapwood white
 Heart wood: pink
 Density: Heavy with Specific Gravity of 0.48and caloric value of 4995
Kcal/g
 Strength: Moderately hard
 Uses:
 Construction
 Fuel
 Sleepers
 Wood products

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IMPORTANT TERMENOLOGIES:

Low forest - forest from coppicing

High forest - forest from seed either by natural or artificial
Pollarding - when the ht of stump is more than usual ie greater than 3 ft upto 5 or 6 ft
Normal forest – trees of all age classes are present
Two storied high forest:
- The major spp grown in the irrigated plantation are at present Shisham and
Mulberry
- The former is pronounced light demander while the later is shade bearer
- Shisham produces good fire wood and also very good timber if retained;
while mulberry is mostly used in sports industry and besides used for
timber production.
- Shisham is raised and after 6 years mulberry is raised with shisham.
- On 18th year, both are clear felled

With Paramount Esteem:

Naeem Javid M. Hassani
Of Mastung, Balochistan
M. Sc (2007 - 2009)

~~~~~~~~~~~~U2~~~~~~~~~~~~

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