1.

INTRODUCTION

Most developed and many developing countries in the world have high speed
lines and they are preparing to update their existing lines as well as to create new high
speed railway routes. High speed rail travel is gaining its significance increasingly.
There is an increasing demand of track systems with the growth of traffic density.
Traffic density requires the development of new concepts on infrastructure which
should have a reduced rate of deterioration and advantages in terms of maintenance
and cost-efficiency. Thus, ballast infrastructure enters competition with ballastless
tracks. As a result of this, ballasted track concepts are losing its attractiveness in
favour of slab track systems. Presently all over the world, non - ballasted track
concepts are being applied.
A track is a structure which allows safe passage of train. It includes rails,
sleepers, fastenings and ballast or concrete laid on the formation. A track may be
ballasted or non ballasted. In ballasted track the rail is mounted onto a wooden or
concrete sleeper. The sleeper sits on a bed of ballast which distributes the loading to
the sub grade. Ballastless track is a modern form of track construction which has been
used successfully throughout the world for high speed lines, heavy rail, and light rail.
It is also known as Slab track. It was first developed and used in Japan in 1972. The
first ballasrless track in India was at Calcutta. Ballastless tracks have numerous
advantages over the traditional ballasted track, because of reduced maintenance costs,
longer life, and higher operating speeds. Slab track technology offers higher
performance in service and a longer life than traditional ballasted track.

2. BALLASTED AND BALLASTLESS TRACKS

Ballasted track can be defined as a track structure consisting of rails, fastenings,

and ballast bed supported on a prepared subgrade. The materials used as ballast are
broken stone, gravel, ashes or cinders, sand, kankar, mooram, brick bats, and selected
earth. The size of stone ballast usually varies from 20 mm to 50 mm with a reasonable
proportion of intermediate sizes. The ballast spread over the sleepers does not provide
any function and hence it is laid upto the top of sleeper. The depth of ballast is defined
as the distance between the bottom of sleeper and top of subgrade. The depth of
ballast in broad gauge, metre gauge and narrow gauge are 200 mm, 150 mm, and 150
mm respectively. In case of high speed trains, ballast can be churned up and causes

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serious damages to wheels and rails. It has high noise absorption. Ballasted track is
heavier and higher structure, demanding stronger structures and larger foundations in
case of viaducts and bridges.

In ballastless tracks, ballast is replaced by a concrete slab track, which transfers

the load. Due to this reason elasticity is severely reduced.Comparing to the ballasted
track; the slab track can ensure very good geometrical stability. But it has higher noise
emission. Since it provides a slab on top instead of ballast bed, growth of vegetation
can be controlled effectively and dust problem is eliminated. Comparing to the height
of ballasted track, ballastless track has less height. So these tracks can be used in
tunnels and viaducts. Thus overall cross-section of tunnels can be reduced. Number of
layers is provided below the rails. Therefore, load distribution is excellent. Thereby
pressure on subgrade is reduced. These tracks are more pleasing in appearance.

Fig. 1: Ballasted track

(Source: [Link]

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 Fig. 2: Ballastless track
(Source: [Link]

3. STRUCTURE OF BALLASTLESS TRACK ON EARTHWORK

The component parts of a ballastless track on earthwork are super structure,

and substructure. Super structure includes rails, rail fastenings, concrete or asphalt
slab layer, and hydraulically bonded layer. Substructure includes frost protection layer
and subgrade.
The major load distributing element of the track is the Concrete slab supporting
layer. For highly compacted soil the slab can be constructed in unit dimensions of
2.8m x 0.24m. The minimum strength of the concrete layer must be 30/37 MPa to
assure the quality. Minimum available thickness of 180 mm is required. Asphalt can
also be used as the top layer. The most important requirement of the top asphalt layer
is to have a perfectly flat and level surface in order to comply with the narrow
tolerances that are required for the rail level (+/- 2 mm). Asphalt layers can be applied
with a thickness of 300 mm. Modern asphalt laying machines can fulfill this
requirement because they make use of the most sophisticated levelling equipment.
The hydraulically bonded load bearing layer distributes the forces over a large
area. It is installed in order to conform the permitted levels of stress in the supporting

3
layers and on the subgrade. Typical thickness of hydraulically bonded layer is 300
mm. Minimum width of layer is 3.8m. Mix of mineral aggregates like sandstone,
crushed sand and stone chips is used as hydraulically bonded layer. But the maximum
grain size should not exceed the 32 mm. Portland cement is used as bonding agent,
and its content is around 110 Kg/m3.

Frost protection layer is provided below the hydraulically bonded layer. It is

resistant to weathering and frost. It consists of fine gravel to prevent water from rising
from the subsoil. It’s typical thickness is 500mm.

Frost protection layer is followed by subsoil. The subsoil should be almost free
of deformation and settlement. It should be stabilized to a depth of atleast 2.5m. The
ground water should be atleast 15m below the head of the rail. Alternative layers of
cohesive and non cohesive soil should be avoided.

Fig. 3: Cross-section of ballastless track

(Source: [Link]

4. TYPES OF BALLASTLESS/SLAB TRACK SYSTEMS

There are four types of slab track systems. They are

 Booted sleepers

 Resilient base plates

 Floating slab

 Embedded rail

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4.1. Booted sleepers track system

The rail is mounted on a pre-cast concrete twin-block sleeper via a

conventional rail fastening system. The sleeper block sits on a resilient elastic sole
pad and is surrounded by a hull, into which additional lateral resilient pads can be
placed. The sleeper and hull are recessed into a concrete screed. The elasticity in the
system is provided by the rail pad beneath the rail and the resilient pads and elastic
sole pad beneath the sleeper. The sleeper/ hull/ concrete interface is sealed to prevent
ingress of water.

Fig. 4: Twin block sleeper

(Source: [Link]

4.1.1. Performance

The key problem with using a booted sleeper system is the ingress of water.
The water penetrates between the sleeper and the boot and between the boot and the
concrete surround. Over time, the action of passing train traffic causes wear and
deterioration of the concrete surfaces. This can affect the stability of the track. The
water ingress problem can be eliminated by applying polyurethane seal around the
sleeper. Problems have also occurred with the corrosion of the tie bar in the twin-
block sleeper. A twin-block sleeper is used to improve lateral stability by its twin
abutments.

4.1.2. Maintenance issues

The whole sleeper unit can be exchanged. Where renewals are required, the
old sleeper is lifted out and a new sleeper with the rail fasteners already pre-
assembled is slotted in. This is advantageous in case of derailment and reduces the

5
time for reopening of the track. If necessary the sleepers can readily be lifted out of
the sockets to replace the resilient sole pads if necessary.

Adjustment can be made to track levels by placing a layer of grout underneath

the sleeper. If necessary, the level of concrete surround would be increased once the
sleeper has been lifted, to maintain a good embedding depth. Alternatively some
fastener systems allow placing of shims beneath the rail seat. These methods could be
used if high settlement is expected.

The booted sleeper system offers considerable advantages for simplicity of

construction and maintenance. The low capital cost and experience of use of the
system makes it a relatively low risk option.

Fig. 5: Booted sleepers track system

(Source: [Link]

4.2. Resilient base plates track system

The rail is fixed to the reinforced concrete plinth or slab by means of a base
plate assembly. The rail is fastened to the base plate by a clip and the base plate is
held down to the plinth by a holding down bolt, usually grouted-in or fixed with
epoxy resin. Within the base plate assembly a rail pad beneath the rail and a resilient
pad are provided for elasticity. Bottom-up construction method was adopted in the
traditional construction for base plate systems, where the concrete slab is cast first.
Base plates and rails are then set up to the correct alignment before fixing by drilling
and grouting beneath the base plate. “Top-down” construction allows the slab to be
cast in situ around the base plates and fixings. As an alternative to in situ slab or
plinths, pre-cast sections can be used. Pre-cast slabs are manufactured and then
finished to the required alignment tolerance using laser technology. The slab sections
are aligned and fitted together using a locking bolt system on the site.

6
 Fig. 6: Resilient base plate track system
(Source: [Link]

4.3. Floating slab track system

Trains cause vibrations to be transmitted through the ground and causes

damage to adjacent structures, buildings and their occupants. The best way to reduce
these problems is to isolate the track bed from the surrounding structure by using a
heavy mass support on low modulus materials to give a mass-spring-system.

Floating slab track FST consists of a concrete slab being placed directly on to
discrete natural rubber bearings. Maxi-slab systems require the construction of
concrete slabs of 6-20m in length, which after curing, are jacked up to permit
bearing placement under the slab. Whereas mini-slab systems involve shorter slabs
(1-2m long), constructed off-site, to be positioned directly onto the rubber bearings
located on the track bed.

The FST rubber bearings are specifically designed and manufactured to strict
quality control standards for each project. Floating slab track utilizes a variety of
different type of bearings. Vertical or support bearings provide the vibration
isolation, in conjunction with side bearings, end bearings, restrained bearings, key
bearings. All these will control and limit the lateral and longitudinal movement.

Rubber support bearings are generally 225-315mm diameter with a thickness

of 40-75mm. These support bearings can be plain rubber or with surface

7
reinforcement of steel plates or Kevlar reinforced rubber for wear resistance and
durability. Side, end, restrained and key rubber bearings tend to be rectangular in
shape.

Fig. 7: Floating Slab Track system

(Source: [Link]

4.4. Embedded track system

The construction method is beginning with preparation of rail subgrade.

Equipments used for this purpose are rubber tired excavators, loaders, rubber tired
compactors, graders, small bull dozers and water trucks for dust control. Construction
is then proceeded by placement of reinforcement bars and then the first layer of
concrete. The rails would then be positioned over first layer, supported on steel ties.
The rails would be lined in an elastomeric boot (rubber boot, or rail boot) thereby
encapsulating the rail surfaces except for the head and gauge face. The second layer
of the track slab would then be placed between and to the sides of the rails.
Equipment requirements would include transit mix, concrete trucks, concrete pumps
and trucks to deliver the rails and reinforcing steel. The rails and ties would be placed
with specialized rubber tired equipment.
The characteristic principles of the rail fixation in this concept are the
following
• An elastic strip provides continuous support under the rail.
• The rail is guided in a groove by elastic fixation.
• Top-down alignment of the rail.
• The rail profile is fixed by an elastic compound.
• Optimization of the elastic compounds, the groove dimensions and strips for specific
elasticity
The advantages of this concept are the following:
• Less noise emissions.

8
• Increases rail life span.
• Overall reduction of maintenance.
• Construction height can be reduced.

Fig. 8: Embedded track system

(Source: [Link]

5. SLAB TRACK REQUIREMENTS

There are several specific requirements that need to be addressed before the
design and construction of a slab track. These requirements are shaped mainly in
accordance with the following:

 Subsoil conditions

The slab track requires stable subsoil basically free of settlements in order to
perform adequately. This is why most times slab track is found in tunnels and bridges.
In case of ballastless track on embankments, alternative layers of cohesive and non
cohesive soil should be avoided. The subsoil has to be compacted to avoid long term
settlement. If soil with required parameters is not available, subgrade treatment or
methods for acceleration of settlement must be taken. The soil has to be exchanged, if
the bearing capacity of existing soil is insufficient. Soft, cohesive soil should be
replaced.

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  Concrete bearing layer

The concrete bearing layer should satisfy the following features:

• The cement content of the concrete should be between 350 and 370 kg/m3

• The necessary reinforcement to limit the formation of cracks must be between 0.8
and 0.9% of the cross section of the concrete. By this, width of the concrete will not
exceed 0.5mm.

• The concrete layer in case of precast slab can be mounted after it has achieved a
minimum resistance to pressure of more than 12 N/mm2.

• A minimum allowable thickness of 180mm should be observed in concrete layers.

 Asphalt bearing layer

• The asphalt bearing layer is applied in four different layers with a total standard
thickness of 300 mm.

• Running on the asphalt bearing layer is allowed when the temperature is below
50°𝐶.

• The asphalt surface has high sensitivity to UV-rays, hence the surface must be
protected by spreading stone chips, gravel etc.

 Hydraulically bonded bearing layer

Some key features of this layer are the following:

• The typical thickness of the layer should be 300mm.

• The laying of the hydraulically bonded bearing layer is carried out by a road finisher
usually in two layers of thickness ≥12 𝑐𝑚 and their connection should be obtained
while they are still wet.

• A mix of mineral aggregates is used like sandstone, crushed sand and stone chips.
The maximum grain size should not exceed 32 mm.

• Portland cement is used as bonding agent, and its content is around 110 Kg/m3.

 Frost protective layer

This layer is protecting the upper layers from frost; it can also compensate the
differences in stiffness of the various layers towards the subsoil and leads the surface

10
water away rapidly. It is resistant to weathering and frost and is consisted of fine
gravel to prevent water from rising from the subsoil. This layer should have very low
permeability values (1×10−5 or 1×10−4𝑚/𝑠) to serve adequately.

 Slab track in Tunnels

Most slab track constructions take place in tunnels where the ground is stiff and
stable. The application of slab track in tunnels is very efficient in terms of
construction, durability, strength and economy. The slab track can be built directly on
the tunnel base with a thickness of 15cm. Tunnel in areas of rock fall or soil with
possibility of swelling and expansion could exclude the application of slab tracks. In
tunnels hydraulically bonded layer is rejected.

 Transition requirements

Special attention should be given in transition areas. Transition points occur in

substructures between embankments, bridges and tunnels. There are also
superstructure transitions between slab track and ballasted track. Transitions can be
found also between embankments and culverts as well as between reinforced and
unreinforced areas in a slab track system. The transitions points are the areas where
the rigidity of the track shifts due to the different elastic properties between the
dissimilar track structures. The transitions are able to affect the smoothness and the
safety of a ride as well as it will damage the superstructure of the track.

The most common techniques to deal with this problem are the following:

 The application of two extra rails over a length of 20 meters. The extra rails
should be positioned 5m on slab track and 15m on the ballasted track.
 Reducing settlements through stabilization of ballast by chemical binders.
 The use of geo-piers (stone columns, concrete piles, sand and timber columns)
is an effective way to stabilize and strengthen weak subgrades in transitions.

6. LOAD TRANSFER OF BALLASTLESS TRACK

Concrete bed is chosen to be used in ballastless track to transfer dynamic and
static loads from vehicles because of its superior stability. Elastic deformation caused
by vehicles is provided by, precisely defined material allocated under track and
fastener. The deformation of substructure of ballastless track after sleeper-laying is

11
rigorously controlled in design. So it has good long-term stability in high speed
condition, and seldom needs maintenance.
Subgrade structure of ballastless track needs to provide enough bearing
capability and stiffness in order to guarantee the anti-fatigue safety of track bed and
supporting layer. As one of the input parameter of roadbed mechanics, the secondary
deformation modulus of subgrade bed surface can explicitly express this requirement.
Control of fillings material, gradation and constructing quality can help to improve
this parameter.
Another requirement for subgrade is to guarantee the smoothness and stability
of subgrade and its transitional sections with rigid structure, and to keep railway track
continuously in designed elevation. It is not easily measured or quantitatively
expressed in mechanics. This requirement can be seen from the harsh control of
subgrade and foundation settlement, and it directly influence the basic structure of
subgrade and its treatment measures.
Generally speaking, ballastless track subgrade is comprised of surface layer of
subgrade bed, bottom layer of subgrade bed, subgrade main body and foundation.
German railway gives special attention to a 3-meter area below rail top, which is the
subgrade bed in our system, and call it as the security area. Subgrade bed suffers most
from dynamic loads and natural forces, so it’s filling material and compaction quality
needs to meet higher standard. Theoretically, thickness of subgrade bed should be
determined by designed loads, influence depth of frost heaving, stiffness of bottom
layer of subgrade bed and bearing capability.
Compare with surface layer, bottom layer of subgrade bed is less affected by
frost heaving. However, influence of traffic loads still can not to be neglected. Since
surface layer of subgrade bed is relatively thin, mechanic parameters of bottom has a
significant impact on whole subgrade rigidity under dynamic loads. Normally,
designed thickness of bottom layer in China is 2 or 3 meters. Material of bottom layer
fillings is controlled by restricting maximum particle diameter and percentage of fine
particles. By doing this, the long-term stability, water stability, compactibility and
uniformity of subgrade bed can be guaranteed fundamentally.

As for subgrade main body, the primary aim is to keep static stability since the
influence of dynamic loads is relatively small. Correspondingly, design code has
lower requirement for fillings’ material and compaction factors in this area. For

12
instance, C group material can be used in subgrade main body. Expect for some
special conditions, in design of subgrade main body, the major concern is to ensure
that subgrade settlement under dead loads can meet requirement of laying track. Many
kinds of foundation treatment methods can be used based on mechanical properties of
soil, height of subgrade, environment and geological conditions. Technology,
economy and time limit should all be taken into consideration when choosing
treatment method.

7. DRAINAGE FACILITY

Slab track shall be designed to provide for transverse drainage to the edges of
the slab to reduce infiltration of water. Under the slabs a paved ditch shall be provided
between individual slab tracks .drainage water shall be collected in paved [Link]
shall be discharged to an external discharge system for an upgrade concrete [Link]
concrete slab on embankments, drop inlets shall be provided in the embankment
discharging to a positive drainage system. In the following figure, 1 represents
drainage pipes.

Fig. 9: Drainage facility of ballastless track

(Source: [Link] )

8. BALLASTLESS TRACK IN INDIA

Indian railways have drawn up ambitious plans for developing high speed
train systems in India. In India adoption of ballastless tracks for new high-speed lines
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is almost inescapable in view of the environmental problems, likely to be faced, with
ballasted tracks. These are:
 With the heavy rainfall during monsoon months, it will be difficult to maintain
the desired track tolerance on ballasted tracks. Extensive tamping operations
will be needed during monsoons and after, to restore normal conditions.
 Ballasted tracks at high-speeds are a great environmental hazard by raising a
huge cloud of dust following the movement of high-speed trains. Such tracks
will be a nuisance for the habitants residing in the villages/towns located
adjacent to the high-speed lines.
 Ballast contamination by dust and its churning, will need more frequent ballast
cleaning operations.
Introduction of ballastless track in India started decades back, first by Calcutta
Metro followed by Konkan Railway, Chennai Metro and Delhi Metro. The scope for
development of the system is increased due to Mumbai Metro, Bangalore Metro and
introduction of high speed Routes.

Fig. 10:
Kolkata
metro rail
(Source:

[Link]

9. ADVANTAGES OF BALLASTLESS TRACK

The advantages of ballastless track are given below:

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• Lower maintenance is needed during its life cycle. There is no need for
tamping, ballast cleaning and track lining. It results in a reduced cost.

• Lower traffic hindrance costs.

• Life cycle is around 50-60 years and possibility of almost full replacement at
the end of the service life.

• No ballast or solid particles are whirled up on slab track.

• The eddy current brake can be applied without any problems at any time such
as signals and stations.

• Emergency vehicles and fire brigade vehicles can drive on the slab track in
tunnels easily.

• Vegetation can be controlled effectively

• Optimum design for high speed trains since it does not experience any
problems such as drag forces at ballast.

• The slab track can compensate any excess in super elevation and in cant
deficiency with freight trains or passenger trains without fears for dislocation
of the track. Possible corrections up to 26 mm in vertical and up to 5 mm in
horizontal position can be applied to counterbalance minor displacements.

• Reduced height and weight of the structure.

• The lack of suitable aggregates for a ballasted track in a certain area can also
lead to a slab track design.
• Slab track maybe also more suitable in cases where the noise emissions and
the vibration nuisance do not cause problems and are acceptable.
• In places where the release of dust from the ballast bed must be prevented for
environmental reasons, the slab track is a good solution.
• Excellent riding comfort at high speed
• Better load distribution, hence reduced dynamic load of subsoil.
• Excellent load distribution, thereby reducing the pressure on unconfined soil
layers and the subgrade.
• Lower wear of vehicle running gear through good retention of track geometry.
• The higher braking forces enable for shorter braking distances.

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10. DISADVANTAGES OF BALLASTLESS TRACK

Ballastless track has various disadvantages also. They are listed below:

 Small adaptability to large displacements in the embankment. Large

displacements in track can be compensated only by significant amounts of
work.
 Slab track has an estimated life cycle of 50-60 years. Of course this is valid
only if the presupposition that the expected acceptable settlements will occur.
In case of a derailment or any other unforeseeable events which could cause
greater damage than the expected one (damage in sensitive fastening elements)
can result to long term and expensive track closures. Unfortunately due to the
short age of slab track there is not enough information on the actual
performance during its life time in order to assess and examine this issue with
high validity.
 Slab track by its rigid structure it is ensured that its life time will be at least
50-60 years. The nature of the slab track does not allow for easy adjustments
and repairs after its construction. That means that its quality during the
construction must be checked and reassured carefully because any defect on
its quality would either remain for the entire life cycle or high costly measures
should be taken in order to eliminate it.
 Not many possibilities to apply any innovation or future updates after
construction.
 Slab track cannot be built in soft clays, earthquake areas or embankments on
soft peat layers.
 Ballastless track requires homogeneous sub layers which are capable to carry
the imposed loads with minor or no settlements. This means that in many
cases and especially in earth structures special attention should be given in the
foundation preparations. The high costs which are associated with the above
mentioned fact is the main reason for the limited use of the slab track.
 Higher noise emissions (5dB). Extra treatment is needed to handle the
increased noise which results to higher construction costs.
 Very expensive repair concepts and long term closures due to the curing and
hardening procedures of the concrete.

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 The frost protective layer in earth structures must be applied in any case and it
is much thicker comparing to the ballasted one. This is a prerequisite in order
to reassure a lengthy life cycle.
 The cost of the reconstruction (after it has reached the end of its life cycle) of
the slab track is not considered. One or two standardized types of slab track
seem to be optimal solutions.
 Transitions between ballasted track and ballastless track require special
attention.

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11. CONCLUSION

Past projects were mainly assed on the basis of investment costs, whereas
today the principle of life cycle costing is strongly emerging. As a result of this new
attitude, ballasted track concepts are losing its attractiveness in favour of slab track
systems. Presently, all over the world non-ballasted track concepts are applied.
Ballastless track is built on earthwork consisting of a structure with reinforced
concrete pavement or an asphalt slab.

The ballastless tracks are gaining more and more popularity in railway
projects as the railway speed increases. The main advantage of ballastless track is the
lower maintenace. This fact alone show that in the following years the knowledge
about the ballastless track systems will increase rapidly allowing for much more
accurate comparisons with the ballasted systems. So ballastless tracks will be
dominant tracks in the future high-speed railways.

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REFERENCES
• Coenrad Esvald, “Recent developments in slab track”, [Link]
com., accessed on 23/05/03
 Konstantinos Giannakos, Spyridon Tsoukantas (2012), “Transition Zone
between Ballastless and Ballasted Track: Influence of Changing Stiffness on
Acting Forces”, Elsevier, Vol. 48, PP. 3548–3557.
 Mundrey, “HighSpeed Track”, 4thedn, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2010.

• Rangwala S.C, “Railway engineering”, 23rd edn, Charotar, (2012).

• Xueyi Liu, Pingrui Zhao, Feng Dai, “Advances in design theories of high-
speed railway ballastless tracks”, Journal of Modern Transportation, Vol.19
(No.3), PP. 154-162, (2011).

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