PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 667 Chapter 19 PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS Proportional electrohydraulics dates back to the 1950s; as a matter of fact, apart from lab tests and the experiments carried out by the US Air Force during World War II, oil hydraulics and electronics were combined at that time. In the past ailerons and rudders were controlled via levers connected to ropes, tie rods or sheaves, but in the 1950s the pilots flying jets and new large powerful propeller planes needed a more reliable and precise system that could be easily managed automatically; oil hydraulic cylinders and rotary actuators were the ideal solutions and they still are. The main objectives were precise linear movements, absolute repeatability, pressure and flow constant control, fast and automatic correction of the mistakes that inevitably occur with on/off system controls. Traditional oil hydraulics cannot meet all these requirements since pressure and flow cannot be immediately corrected; what is more, tolerance ranges are seldom so limited as to respond to sophisticated needs. As a matter of fact, despite the use of high-quality valves, pressure and flow adjustment can be obtained step by step. Traditional oil hydraulics is suitable for the vast majority of stationary and mobile applications but some applications require higher adjustment parameters and servo- systems. For example, pressure drop due to the presence of an abnormal sheet during pressing is quickly corrected in a deep-drawing press controlled by an ordinary oil system and the terminal sensor signals the operation accomplishment; the consequence is a negligible delay in the manufacturing process. However, as far as planes are concerned, the situation is completely different: their ailerons and rudder must be permanently and perfectly inclined in order not to undermine aircraft attitude, not to mention takeoff and landing. Anyway, it is essential to note that proportional electrohydraulics is indispensable not only in high-precision devices like aircrafts, but also in stationary and mobile machines in order to enhance their characteristics. As a matter of fact, the press formerly described can be equipped with an electrohydraulic system in order to improve its operational flexibility. However, proportional electrohydraulic components are more expensive than manual control ordinary devices and on/off electromechanical control devices because design,668 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS repair and maintenance demand skilled personnel. Sometimes such sophisticated systems can even worsen the operational conditions of a system; as a result, simple oil hydraulic structures and structures subjected to considerable vibrations, water, mud, dust or other agents can undermine the electric current. This does not mean that electronics cannot be used under harsh conditions, but upgrade costs (like those for the enhanced insulation of components from contaminants and atmospheric agents) and the need for fail-safe electricity must be in line with the real requirements of the system. This chapter provides a description of electronic control valves and briefly deals with some proportional control techniques and the transducers suitable for them. If all the techniques were to be covered, a single manual devoted to them would be needed. ELECTROPROPORTIONAL TECHNIQUE Proportional electrohydraulics (note that some purely hydraulic systems such as Load Sensing — Chapter 17 — already ensure high-level controls) requires valves with special spools and solenoids; each valve is controlled by its adequately-dimensioned electronic board, which is built in the valve or placed in other areas such as the control board. Regardless of its position, this card is called ‘Electronic Control Unit’ (ECU). Tf there is more than one valve, a motherboard processes the data sent by each ECU, detection devices like limit switches, on/off sensors or pressure, flow and torque transducers, as well as the commands sent by buttons, remote controls and potentiometers. Motherboards manage the process by starting, stopping or adjusting flow in directional and control valves and in motor and pump compensators. In complex systems, motherboards are replaced by PCs (Personal Computers) with specific software or analogue-digital PLCs (Programmable logic controllers); the transmission system known as ‘Fieldbus’ has been used in Fluid Power too for about ten years. General information on directional and control valves Hydraulic directional components for pressure and flow control used in electronic control systems are divided into servo-valves and proportional solenoid valves. Servo-valves were the first control components used in proportional electrohydraulics. Servo-valves are now the most reliable components thanks to some major improvements. Still, their manufacturing costs are very high and they are not compatible with contaminated fluids because of their mechanical complexity. Consequently, these high-performance valves are suitable for sophisticated systems; that is the reason why other components known as ‘proportional solenoid valves’ are available. These valves are somehow a compromise between servo-valves and on/off solenoid valves. They are similar to ordinary poppet or spool valves operated by a solenoid and they also ensure good results in terms of adjustment, direction and controlPROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 669 with an electronic management system. Unlike on/off valves, the solenoid of these valves operates the spool proportionally, which means valve ports open up according to voltage/current supplied and the electric parameter depends on the input parameter. Proportional solenoid valves (Figure 19.1) are available in panel or cartridge versions. Proportional solenoid valves Figure 19.1 As stressed at the end of this chapter, servo-valves and proportional solenoid valves differ in their performances and type of operation. Electrical signals operate the torque motor in servo-valves and the solenoid in proportional solenoid valves. With few exceptions, servo-valves and proportional solenoid valves use DC signals only. In order to signal the variable position of the spool in the valve, the symbols of servo- valves and proportional solenoid valves consist of a line above and under the rectangles of the positions; the possible restrictor symbol on flow direction arrows stands for flow variability in that position. Oblique arrows on solenoids indicate the use of a variable voltage. The use of ‘fail-safe’ components is recommended: if an abnormal interruption of the signal or a voltage failure occurs, they immediately switch to the hydraulic safety position. Furthermore, in compliance with European standards, the use of feedback or any other electronic signal to disconnect the safety device of the machine is absolutely prohibited. Apart from specific cases, in this chapter the expression ‘output signals’ refers to both servo-valves and proportional solenoid valves. Open loop, closed loop and feedback In linear or rotary actuators, speed (flow) and force (pressure), the initial, final and middle position of the rod, the rotational speed of the drive shaft etc... are recorded by sensors and transducers that send real-time data (electric signals) to the ECU or the motherboard. This system is called ‘open loop’ or ‘closed loop’ according to the kind of electronic circuit.670 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS Open loop is simpler and cheaper. In open loop circuits the adjustment input, obtained through a potentiometer (variable electric resistance), is sent to the ECU, whose parameters like the rod advance speed (flow) have been previously set; the output signal from the ECU defines the movement of the related proportional valve. By acting on the slider of the potentiometer, workers can modify parameters at any time, whether the machine is working or not. e& ut rol * Figure 19.2 Open loop Variable speed Open loop systems cannot maintain the parameters set automatically whenever an external anomaly such as load changes occurs; a higher external force reduces the speed of the actuator and vice versa (Figure 19.2). It is up to workers to take action under these circumstances: as a matter of fact, as the speed of the actuator decreases or increases, they are supposed to act on the potentiometer accordingly. Closed loop has higher performances than open loop. External changes in speed and force in closed loop are compared by the ECU or the motherboard if there are many actuators: the result of this comparison determines the new signal that is sent to the proportional valve, thus controlling the actuator constantly and precisely (Figure 19.3). The signal from external sources, called feedback, is produced by a transducer (linear potentiometer, tachometric dynamo, encoder, LVDT, magnetostrictive or others...) placed near the actuator in order to constantly detect the position of the rod, the rotary shaft or the workpiece. In some systems, the feedback is detected directly inside the valve (to be precise on the spool position) in order to improve repeatability and dynamics. The feedback sent by the transducer to the ECU is constantly compared with incoming data. From an electronic point of view, the difference between the parameters previously set and the feedback is called ‘error’; the sooner a system picks up the error, the more reliable the system is. Since errors are automatically corrected, the system does not need to rely on the skills and the response time of the operator. Apart from the initial start and adjustment inputs, electronic circuits manage the machine by themselves. Besides manual speed adjustment devices, all systems must clearly be equipped with manual and automatic emergency devices in compliance with basic safety standards.PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 671 Closed loop ECU => ectron| ut trol unit Se Figure 19,3 What follows is an example aiming at summing up the basic concepts of open and closed loop. If a person closes her/his eyes and inflates a balloon with the force of his/her lungs, inflation and volume are not controlled; as soon as its maximum elasticity is exceeded, the balloon bursts: the same applies to an open loop system. Visual control instead allows to stop the inflation process in due time when the desired size is reached; as eyes are the feedback that transmits the signal to the central unit (brain), this situation reflects a closed loop system. That said, it could be easily thought open loop is never feasible. Actually, it is but after many attempts, that is to say time and experience tell people how much air is needed to inflate balloons without making them burst. This means inflating many balloons with different volumes: some of them will burst while others will be too small. The aim is fulfilled if the overall result can be deemed satisfactory. In visual control (closed loop) many balloons with equal size are inflated, none of the balloons bursts and the aim is achieved in a very short time, especially if a reference size, or better a reference maximum circle, is used. This method requires a considerable initial cost (materials and time needed to create the reference) but the subsequent reduction in costs and time needed makes up for it. The inclusion of a feedback device that constantly monitors operational parameters is impossible or too expensive in some oil hydraulic applications: if this is the case, open loop is certainly better than on/off systems. When the machine is started and whenever new parameters must be set, setting must be performed scrupulously and the machine needs subsequent monitoring. However, this cannot lead to high-level results since many factors such as non-uniform materials, downstream increases or reductions in voltage, flow, pressure, temperature and viscosity changes, poor lubrication of mobile parts, dust cannot be detected and obviated as it occurs in closed loop. In brief, the electroproportional technique ensures a reliable processing of some parameters of linear or rotary actuators, that is to say position (direction), speed (flow) and power (product of pressure by flow). In open loop systems these parameters have to be set upon starting and during the functioning of the machine, though human intervention is necessary in case of anomalies since there is no feedback. In closed loop672 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS systems, all the parameters set upon starting are constantly monitored thanks to the feedback and there is no need for human intervention. These methods can be used to control the whole system or a single component, like a cylinder rod (if speed and the load do not influence its overall efficiency). In the former, for example in a press, ‘speed’ can be controlled during quick lowering, ‘position’ upon touching the sheet, ‘power’ during pressing via a pressure control and than ‘speed’ back again during quick lowering. At the same time, the electric input from the ECU can ‘dialogue’ with other control sections for endothermic motors, DC or three-phase electric motors, pneumatic automatism and any other technology through the PC, the PLC or special microprocessors. The same signals are used for the general control of the machine in order to ensure safety. While it is not possible to save on safety, costs and complexity are proportional to flexibility and the real technological and operational requirements needs considering. Besides costs, the choice between closed loop and open loop depends on the system features, that is to say: ¥ Control of the force exerted by the load = pressure. ¥ Control of the (linear or rotary) translation speed = flow. ¥ Control of the position = rod position, overall number of revolutions performed by a hydraulic motor shaft or subdivisions of a single revolution. Pressure (as well as all the other parameters) in a circuit can be limited by means of open loop, provided the system does not risk experiencing any ensuing anomalies. In case of many controls or incontrollable external reactions, only closed loop ensures reliable performances. Examples of application Open loop applications [oO (a) | ee Figure 19.4 Figure 19.4 shows two open loop applications. A hoist (a) is controlled by a remote joystick with a build-in potentiometer; the speed of the downward movement of a saw blade (b) is defined through flow control.PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 673 Closed loop applications Figure 19.5 Figure 19.5 shows six examples of closed loop oil proportional systems. In order to brake a reel (c), the feedback sends a rotary speed signal to the ECU; the spindle fastening control (d) avoids damage to the tools. In transfer machines (e), the position of tools is defined with high precision; two proportional valves with feedback ensure the perfect synchronisation of the two cylinders in the bending presses (f). In presses for plastic materials (g), parameters have to be set in order to obtain perfect injection; the actuators that control the shuttle of dynamic cinemas (h), typical of amusement parks and fairs, are coordinated according to the scenes. The Electrical Control Unit (ECU) An ECU consists of components and electronic circuits that receive inputs, process them (inputs are compared with the feedback in closed loop systems) and send them to solenoids or the valve torque motor. A good ECU plays also other roles, like minimising the dissipated power due to heat in the electronic circuit, dampening oscillations in the circuit, automatically making up for the resistance change of the solenoid when temperature changes (the resistance of the solenoid can change by about 40%), optimising valve performances (more gain, compensation, adequate dead band, ramp gradualness) and placing the valve in the central neutral position in case of anomalies or power drops. As stationary systems are supplied with alternating current (380V three-phase or 220 V single-phase), a power supply unit that reduces and converts AC to DC is mounted upstream of the ECU. This device is essentially made up of a transformer that reduces the voltage to the level expected, a full wave rectifier that transforms negative waves into positive waves (diode bridge), a dampening condenser and a stabilising circuit that provides a continuous terminal signal. Figure 19.6 shows this process in general terms.674 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS AC - DC Power supply unit Transformer Rectifier Condenser vo VV Figure 19.6 Stabiliser The key element of ECUs is the amplifier (shortened to ‘amp’); in fact, some people refer to the whole ECU as amp. It consists of a series of transistor stages that start from the very low input voltage (adjustment potentiometer and feedback transducers) and reach the ideal conditions for the electric signals needed to operate the proportional solenoid. Amplifiers are indispensable since a bulky potentiometer subjected to a power of 50 Watt (leading to serious heat dissipation problems) would be necessary in order to control a medium-sized solenoid directly. Each stage has a transistor that receives an input current and returns it amplified. It is made up of a base, a collector, an emitter and it acts as a switch: at rest there is no voltage on the emitter, but when a signal is sent to the base, the input current adds to the collector current on the emitter (Figure 19.7 on the left). From an electrical point of view this description is very simple, but no further explanation can be provided for space reasons. Transistor Amplifier symbol collector +)supply + output 1 base (Ovolty open ‘output 2 om (evel) ¥ on (Summing ~~ [supply position emitter Ib’+Ic position pon y Solenoid connection circuit + position —~ transducer adjustment potentiometer feedback Figure 19.7 The input cannot be amplified with just one element and that is the reason why the amplifier has many stages. For instance, given an input of | mA and a current to the solenoid of 3 A, the first transistor amplifies the input from 1 to 201 mA (input currentPROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 675 1 mA + collector current 200 mA), the second one from 201 to 402 and so on up to the 3 A valve needs. Figure 19.7 (on the right) shows the amplifier stages with a single symbol; adjustment and feedback signals reach the summing junction SJ. An error occurs when signals are opposite: the adjustment of the input produces a positive signal (+ x Volt) whereas the feedback entails a negative signal (- x Volt). The lower circuit shows the connection to the solenoid in general terms. The amplifier gain is the ratio of output to input: Output signal Gain = —————_ Input signal By acting on the dedicated potentiometer trimmer, the gain can be adjusted according to the valve needs. For example, a maximum input signal can correspond to too high an output speed of the rod; consequently, by modifying the gain (i.e. by limiting the voltage to the solenoid), the valve reduces the flow as it opens a minor hole Ramp curve al Ramp | 3 3| S 3 Ps -_ generator = 5 = 0 t 0 t 0 adjustment of the ramp angle Figure 19.8 The time the spool takes to move in electroproportional valves ranges from 30 to 100 milliseconds according to the size and the distance the spool is expected to travel (i.e. complete or partial opening). This time can be prolonged by several tenths of seconds by acting on the trimmer on the ramp generator, which converts an on/off movement into a gradual movement thus controlling the acceleration and the deceleration of the actuator. The chart in Figure 19.8 shows an on/off switching (on the left) whose real time is almost zero. As the input reaches the ramp generator, this time the spool makes increases. The plate or the documentation of valves specifies the maximum adjustment angle (chart on the right). In order to obtain a constant speed of the actuator regardless of peak pressures and load changes, it is advisable to add a pressure limiting compensator (Figure 19.9).676 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS Constant speed pressure limiting compension a > Figure 19.9 Another important factor is hysteresis (from the Greek word meaning ‘delay’). It is related on the one hand to the phenomenon of ferromagnetic elements that maintain their magnetisation even when they are far from the magnetic field (in other words, the drop in the coil voltage causes a drop in the magnetic field, but it is lower in iron magnetisation) and, on the other, to the mechanical friction between the spool and the body due to manufacturing tolerances, high viscosity and fluid contamination, thermal expansion, deterioration and so on. With the control to the solenoid, as the valve ‘sticks’ to it, it requires an increase in the current in the coil during rod return and advance phases. The hysteresis of proportional valves without feedback is quite high (from 2 to 8%). In short, hysteresis can be defined as the position error of the valve spool with respect to two consecutive input signals (the first one increasing from zero to a maximum level previously set, the second one decreasing from the maximum level to zero). The consequence is that the movement does not correspond to the electrical signal as far as the spool or poppet path is concerned. Figure 19.10 shows this phenomenon: as zis the reference point, the forward and return strokes of the spool differ. ; spool General hysteresis | me spool | ofa ideal t advance ! spool movement phase | ' ' pres — Bae 0 input * max Figure 19.10 Hysteresis can be considerably reduced by electrically overlapping the output and a dither signal in high-frequency alternating current (50-100 Hz): this produces a microvibration in the spool that prevents adhesion aiding its operation. Figure 19.11 shows output signals (to the solenoid) with and without dither.PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 677 Dither va va Output with dither Output without dither Figure 19.11 In overlap directional valves (Chapter 8 — Paths and positions in valves — Spool lap conditions) and in adjustment valves (in the beginning), the fluid cannot flow as long as overlapping occurs. This condition, known as ‘dead band’, is necessary for two reasons. First, failing voltage to the solenoid valve, the spool moves back to the neutral position blocking the actuator; secondly, overlapping reduces valve manufacturing costs since the spool has a low degree of precision vis-d-vis its matching holes. Dead band compensation, that is a temporary increase in the amplifier gain, reduces response times considerably. Figure 19.12 shows the hysteresis of a hypothetical on/off valve with dead band compensation. Dead band compensation On/off solenoid valve Proportional solenoid valve 1 z 2 zg é & dead band € ae band 3 2} || Input Input Figure 19.12 A solenoid through which current passes is inevitably subjected to overheating resulting in a change in its internal resistance (the internal resistance of a coil of 20 ohm at an environmental temperature of 60 °C can increase by 20 ohm). Consequently, the current inside the element changes its intensity modifying the hydraulic parameters previously set. When this phenomenon is not controlled, the pressure previously set can drop by as much as 30%. By adding an amplifier and other resistive components, it is possible to control the current on the coil and to ensure it is constantly proportional to the input voltage. This process is commonly known as ‘current feedback’. In order to respect all the parameters formerly set, the amplifier must constantly change the output voltage with the consequent production of heat. By using the PWM (pulse-width modulation) modulator usually built in the amplifier, the problem can be678 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS solved reducing the space occupied by heat dissipation plates. This modulator sends an output sequence of constant-voltage on/off impulses with a usual frequency of 1 kHz. Since this voltage is alternated with real and zero pulsations, the voltage to the solenoid does not correspond to the maximum voltage but to its average value. Figure 19.13 shows two different output situations. In the chart on the left, as the width of the signal period is lower than the width of zero level period, a 12 Volt signal corresponds to an average voltage value (that is the real voltage on the coil) of 4 Volt. In the chart on the right, the width of the signal is equal to width of zero period; consequently, the output amounts to 6 Volt. PWM “pulsation width | Isation width SAM: ae Ry. | pulsation widt! voltage | voltage 6N.L _average value ay. || average v Figure 19.13 The adjustment signal and the feedback are usually voltage type (Volt). However, it is advisable to use a current type system (Ampere) in machines requiring control/adjustment inputs and long-distance feedbacks because if the wires are too long it can cause interferences or voltage drops. In order to allow the perfect alignment of the spool whenever it moves back to the neutral position, the current bias on its trimmer needs calibrating. The repeatability of an electroproportional system, which is indicated as a percentage, is the difference between the hydraulic parameter recorded before sending other signals to the solenoid valve and the hydraulic parameter recorded after this operation. Electronic circuits are contained in appropriate cards covered with a layer of protective resin. They are assembled in Eurocard format (the card has a multiple connector on one side while the other side is equipped with a control board), on panels or with base connectors to snap on an omega drive in multifunction modules (Figure 19.14).PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 679 ECU versi ‘CU versions | Set —} cnt, | Card ea on the valve DaaxTeg "|p EN Eurocard Figure 19.14 Derivative and integral control signal The essential phases of a linear actuator with closed loop are as follows: as the rod moves, the signal corresponding to the feedback transducer is sent to the ECU where the summing junction takes place. This means that the signal of the transducer rod is constantly compared to the potentiometer signal (input). Since the input is positive and the feedback is negative, the error signal is proportional to the input minus the feedback signal. Consider a cylinder for object positioning has a stroke of 1000 mm. The stroke only is taken into account assuming the load is unchangeable. The electroproportional control occurs in closed loop with a valve without internal feedback. The related electrohydraulic diagram is showed in Figure 19.7.680 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS The input ranges between 0 Volt (retracted rod= 0 mm) and + 10 Volt (rod totally extracted= 1000 mm). Therefore, an input of +1 Volt causes 100 mm of stroke. The same principle applies to feedback: the rod is retracted at 0 Volt and totally extracted at +10 Volt and a feedback of +1 Volt correspond to 100 mm of stroke. In the summing junction the feedback signal is transformed into an opposite signal (the polarity is converted from plus to minus), that is to say a positive input with negative feedback. If the operational conditions require a rod movement from 0 mm to 500 mm, the position of the input potentiometer and the feedback will be set at +5 V. In brief, this means that the operator has set the maximum stroke through the input potentiometer. Actually, it is the feedback transducer that compares its data with the input and stops the process as soon as 5 Volt are reached (rod=500 mm). Upon sending the start signal, the input equals 5 Volt and the feedback is equivalent to 0 Volt. The speed of the rod depends on the amplifier gain (the current it can supply to excite the solenoid adequately), the flow of the valve (according to its size) and the pressure drop between the valve inlet and working ports. Ifa 5 Volt input produces a rod speed of 200 mm per second, 500 mm are travelled in 2.5 seconds. It is now important to consider what happens after one second. If the rod has a constant speed (200mm/s), after 200 mm the feedback signal is: 500 mm : 5 Volt=1 mm: x Volt ae Sy = 0.01 Voltmm Therefore, 200 + 0.01= 2 Volt per 200 mm. The error signal in the ECU changes to 5 Volt — 2 Volt = 3 Volt. The attraction force in the solenoid decreases since the voltage of the amplifier has dropped; the spool moves back restricting the fluid passage and slowing the rod down: Somers 5 Volt = 120 mm/s As the error signal decreases, the speed diminishes from 200 to 120 mm/s. In the following part of the stroke and until 500 mm are reached, the error of the first second adds to the following errors. Consequently, the rod starts at the maximum speed but it slows down as signals change. Figure 19.5 shows this problem: the goal that was supposed to be reached within 2.5 seconds is actually achieved with quite a major delay (theoretically an infinite time). In order to keep the speed constant almost up to the rod reaching its final position, the spool of the solenoid valve must not change its position despite the imbalance between input and feedback that develop in the summing junction. This can be done by adequately managing the amplifier gain, in other words by sending an output that is higher and proportional to the error signal consequences. However, this leads to oscillations of the rod, like sudden accelerations and decelerations. It is thereforePROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 681 necessary to produce a control signal that takes the error and all the changes due to the gain increase into account. 4 Rod slowdown 5 volt 500 mm 4 volt —»400 mm 3,2 volt »320 mm 2 volt 200 mm feedback 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 v time (seconds) Figure 19.15 The device that allows this process is called ‘proportional plus derivative control’ (‘derivative’ because of the ‘derivative’ mathematical definition that determines the variation speed of a certain quantity). Besides cross-piloted check valves, a proportional plus integral controller (PI) can be used in actuators subjected to extreme external forces like a motionless suspended load: the solenoid slightly moves the spool (closed centre) when it receives the signal in order to reduce leakages. These electronic circuits are often combined in a single device known as ‘proportional-integral-derivative controller’ (PID). ECUs equipped with this kind of control are used for the management of complex systems whose problems are not necessarily the same as those covered in this text. In general, PIDs can be briefly described as follows: P= control proportional to the error, I= control proportional to the amplitude of the error change D= control proportional to the error change speed. Notes on loops A system where the feedback is detected on the actuator or the load is referred to as a primary closed loop system whereas in secondary closed loop system the feedback is on the sensor that controls the position of the spool inside the electrohydraulic valve (internal feedback). In the latter, the ECU, which is often held in a special casing directly on the valve, controls the valve opening, i.e. the position of the spool: the unit respects the parameters previously set through the feedback sent by the transducer placed inside the valve despite the external changes of the load. For example, in a flow control electroproportional valve, the quantity of flow needed at a certain speed is set on the potentiometer placed on the control board; the transducer inside the valve detects the position of the spool and confirms the achievement of the right position to the ECU.682 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS Main and secondary feedback adjustment Figure 19.16 When external forces change, the spool tends to move: the feedback (voltage variation) signals this anomaly to the ECU so that it repositions the spool according to external changes. Complex systems often require primary and secondary loops even for a single actuator: a cylinder could be controlled by the primary loop when it is in position (of the rod) or subjected to strain (pressure), while the movement speed (flow) is guaranteed by the secondary loop. It is precise enough only when a pressure compensator is added as well (Figure 19.16). Notes on overall gain Physical factors must be considered scrupulously in order to design electroproportional systems, especially if they are intended for high-speed actuators with complex cycles. The compressibility of the hydraulic fluid is a negligible factor in traditional applications provided with small/medium volume actuators whereas it is extremely important in electroproportional systems if the structure is subjected to a considerable dynamic load that moves at a high speed: in order to determine volume reductions due to fluid compressibility (Chapter 2 — Properties of hydraulic fluids), the overall volume of delivery tubes must be added to that of actuators. Another problem is the fact that, despite their advantages, accumulators reduce dynamic performances. Loop gain (Kv) g Ky> 0.5 0) amplifier valve actuator 2 Ky = 0,3 0) 100%}---f 7---- 2 66%) ff Ky =022 @) feedback TRESOT a] G — Figure 19.17PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 683 The expression ‘loop gain’ (Ky) refers to the non-dimensional product of each component gain in an electroproportional system (Figure 19.17). In brief: a. Gamp — Amplifier gain — the amplifier produces an output current that is proportional to the input voltage. The amplifier gain is the ratio of the output mA to the input voltage (mA/V). G, — Servo-valve or solenoid valve gain — the valve produces an outlet flow that is proportional to the input current of the amplifier. The valve gain is the ratio of the outlet flow in cm’/s of to the input mA (cm*/s/mA). Gi — Cylinder gain — the cylinder transforms the hydraulic fluid flow into output mechanical speed. Its gain is the product « of the output speed in cm/s to the inlet flow in cm’/s [(cm/s) + (cm’/s)"' or 1/cm’]. Gr) — Feedback gain — the feedback transducer converts a mechanical input motion (s/cm) into an output voltage (Vs/cm). Kv =Gamp * Gy * Geit * Gry The higher Kv is, the better the system performances are to some extent since an excessive Ky causes the instability of the system (Figure 19.17). The ideal gain that guarantees systems stability and a satisfactory adjustment time mainly depends on: v v M: load mass. The higher the mass is, the higher inertia is. As it is difficult to stop a large moving mass, the system tends to oscillate. As: mechanical (clamps, anti-vibration elastic components) and hydraulic (fluid compressibility) stiffness of actuators. Actuators with low stiffness tend to oscillate. Given a medium (hence negligible) mechanical stiffness, hydraulic stiffness depends on the bulk modulus E (compressibility inverse, 1/B; see Chapter 2 ~ Properties of hydraulic fluids — Compressibility) and the surface S concerned by the pressurised fluid and its overall volume V in the actuator and 2 in the delivery tubes As = . It is important to consider also the stiffness of the outlet chamber and tubes that require the same calculation used before, but in this case the return pressure has to be considered instead of the delivery pressure. The overall stiffness results from their sum. Furthermore, the calculation concerning differential cylinders must take the annular difference into account (overall area of the piston minus the area occupied by the rod). C is the damping coefficient and it is mainly linked to dissipation. The natural dissipation in the system reduces oscillations and limits loop gain. This coefficient ranges from 0.05 to 0.3 in hydraulic systems and it depends on the valve features and the actuator.684 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS The ideal gain Kv can be obtained considering the natural system frequency ©, which is the lowest frequency of the following ones: Y qv: natural frequency of the valve. It can be determined with the diagrams included in the technical documentation supplied with the valve. Ym: natural mechanical frequency. It can be calculated as follow om= 5% Tolerable levels usually range between 10 and 100 Hz. ¥ qafb: natural feedback transducer and amplifier frequency. As it is higher that the previous two frequencies, it has to be ruled out. The system is stable enough if Kv is lower than 2 Ga. The maximum speed Vinax of the actuator depends on the rod stroke C (or drive shaft revolution), time t, needed to complete the cycle and the minimum ramp time tin, which has to be lower than 0.1 s. In general: The maximum acceleration is: amax Indirect feedback So far it has been supposed that the primary feedback transducer is placed next to the rod or the drive shaft or that it interprets flow or speed data. However, the signal must be detected in an independent manner in many systems since functionality does not directly depend on speed, force, a specific stroke or the number of revolutions but on many other factors such as the device alignment vis-a-vis the reference axe. The following examples are intended to clarify this concept. Figure 19.18, taken from the catalogue of a manufacturing company, shows the outline of a closed loop circuit for the planar control of an air ‘shuttle’ in a self- propelled machine. In these applications, the feedback of the primary closed loop (proportional solenoid valves are not equipped with secondary feedback) is generated by an angular transducer (a sort of electronic ‘spirit level’, i.e. a sophisticated evolution of mercury switches) that signals any angular change in real time regardless of the inclination of the self-propelled machine. The horizontal position is ensured by a cylinder placed between the parallelogram or the lifting booms and the shuttle: the ECU changes the input with the ensuing rod extraction or retraction whenever the inclination tends to change due to slopes or bumpy roads.PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 685 ECU for the horizontal control of the platforms of self-propelled machines s2/20voe qu] Figure 19.18 These proportional systems on machines requiring a constant control of the horizontal and/or vertical position have recently been tested with fairly good results. The long arms (the best versions are made of aluminium and sometimes their radius exceeds 20 metres) of trailer weedkiller sprayers (Figure 19.19), which by the way are equipped with a sophisticated on/off electrohydraulic system for arm handling (road transport), are often subjected to unacceptable inclinations. Weedkiller sprayer On/off oil hydraulic control of arm movements. Arm inclination adjustment with closed loop and angular transducer road work transport Figure 19.19686 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS ECUs equipped with an angular transducer mounted on the arms detect abnormal inclinations and sends an output to the proportional solenoid valve in order to restore the perfect horizontal alignment via the adjustment cylinder. Another example of the numerous applications where feedback is indirectly derived from the oil hydraulic system is land-levelling equipment (Figure 19.20). Some fields, such as those subjected to intensive irrigation or rice crops, needs accurate levelling in order to ease water running. In this case, feedback transducers consist of a laser emitter supported by a tripod positioned next to the field and a receiver on the machine Whenever the machine is confronted with a pothole or a bump, the transmission of the signal is interrupted: the ECU controls the cylinder through the opposite valve and in turn the cylinder lowers or raises the blade that levels the field accordingly. It is important to underline that many manufacturers prefer in any case to use on/off valves along with lasers and electronic control circuits. Like the previous example, this machine too is equipped with an on/off electrohydraulic system for blade control. Farming levelling machine a) Work gear b) Movement gear ©) Detail 4) Different version Figure 19.20 Complex systems management Systems based on simple management logics can be controlled by adding simple electromechanical devices between the start and the adjustment input. For instance, a timer is sufficient in a single actuator that requires a break between cycles; if cycles have to be interrupted after some operations (in other words after manufacturing a specific number of workpieces), a device that counts workpieces is added along with the timer. The same applies to a machine with two or more actuators, like a hydraulic motor that needs starting after receiving the signal from an actuator or when the workpiece reaches a certain temperature. These are generally on/off electromechanicalPROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 687 management systems; timers and thermostats too fall into this category since their parameters are preset and they cannot be modified during operation. Their output signal simply corresponds to an open contact that is turned into a closed contact or vice versa. Circuits that include traditional electromechanical devices like relays, counters, timers, interlocks, etc. demand an installation on rather bulky panels; moreover, components and cabling have exorbitant costs. The current alternative solutions are on/off PLCs, which are available in many versions; in fact, they are easy to programme and cheaper than relays. Complex systems made up of more actuators (not necessarily all hydraulic type) that demand I/O signal (input/output) comparison and processing need an analogue/digital unit to manage all the controls and to perform cycle adjustments. The position, the speed and the force of each actuator is controlled by its specific ECU; the master has to order sequences, make sure that operations are performed properly, obviate imperfections, stop the system in the event of serious anomalies and display the problem on the screen. Masters can be PCs (Personal Computer) provided with a signal adapter and specific programming software, compatible microprocessors usually supplied by ECU and proportional valve manufacturers or analogue/digital PLCs (Programmable Logic Controller; see Figure 19.21). Unlike microprocessors, analogue/digital PLCs are suitable for a wide range of conditions and they offer many options in respect of time, counts, variable outputs and much more. Like all the units that can receive and send signals, these masters are equipped with some inputs (sensors, start, stop, reset, etc.) and outputs (solenoid valve control and any other electronic control component). Many masters are controlled by a powerful PC that monitors sequential operations in very complex automations. Master management PLC or microprocessor Figure 19.21688 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS Fieldbus Fieldbus is a complex electronic system that connects the master units to each operational unit in series. This means it decodes the output signals from the control device (PC, microprocessor, PLC...) and sends them to the terminal devices for the control of actuators; at the same time, it receives the inputs from sensors and transducers and sends them to the main master. Furthermore, it provides real-time visual information (on the display and/or via LEDs) about the signal sent to the sensor or the solenoid valve, the presence of voltage, the active state of the component as well as any malfunction and anomalies of each operating component. The devices that ensure all these functions are referred to as ‘slaves’. Slaves are made up of a decode node and J/O (input/output) modules connected to the operational units: they can be assembled in different ways: there can be a single slave that controls the whole system or many slaves placed near one or more valves/actuators. The advantage of the former is the use of a single cable rather than a multitude of them. Electrical connections for data transmission from masters to slaves rely on cables with two or four conductors, like in cable telephone transmissions where verbal dialogues are transformed into electrical impulses that run on a two-thread cable. Figure 19.22 shows the Fieldbus technique in general terms. Example of an operational system controlled by Fieldbus i & i £ z 3 Figure 19.22PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 689 Fieldbus versions differ in protocols. Nowadays the most popular protocol in oil proportional systems is CANopen (known as CAN-Bus); still, some applications are equipped with the simple AS Interface or the complex Profibus and Interbus protocols. Unlike pneumatic transmissions where Fieldbus has been used with simple and high- definition protocols for a decade, this high-tech system is used in few hydraulic stationary applications (e.g. presses for plastic material injection). This is mainly accounted for by the nature of these systems: a complex machine with pneumatic control has many valves and actuators and all of them are connected to a single energy source (compressor-tank), so they are compatible with Fieldbus. Conversely, the few components of a single hydraulic system are successfully managed by the technologies previously described whereas Fieldbus would be too expensive. Problems arise when different oil hydraulic systems (not necessarily all proportional type) are connected to a single complex system. Under these circumstances, pressure, flow, position, level and temperature sensors and transducers as well as many other devices must all be mutually connected and, despite its high costs, Fieldbus can be the ideal solution because of its numerous advantages (easy assembly, high-definition detection, versatility, expandability and no need for interface electronic boards). Fieldbus is essential in systems combining oil hydraulics, pneumatic automatisms and other technologies not related to fluid power (DC or three-phase electric motors, etc.). Adjustment, start, fail-safe potentiometer Potentiometers for the adjustment of the input signal are made up of a simple ohmic resistance that can be regulated through a lever, a slider or a control knob. When there are voltage signals, the maximum resistance must not be higher than 1/10 of the input resistance of the amplifier (this can be checked in the technical documentation supplied along with the amplifier); if there are current signals, it is advisable to have an adjustment ranging from 4mA (zero signal) to 20mA (maximum signal). Figure 19.23 shows the different types of potentiometers. Input potentiometer f } * { = lever Se = potentiometer 1 rotary potentiometer Linear potentiometer Figure 19.23 In many applications, the variable input signal is preceded by a start on/off control. This allows avoiding the continuous calibration of speed, position or force. This control in simple systems is sent by a bistable switch or start/stop buttons with a self-retaining690 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS relay; in stationary automatic machines, after sending an initial on/off input (almost always by pressing a button), starts and input adjustments to the ECUs are directly sent by the control unit (PC, PLC or microprocessor). The operational system of sophisticated mobile machines (cranes, excavator, etc. with electroproportional systems) is piloted by special devices with multiple functions that look like those described in Chapter 9; several input potentiometers and on/off start functions can be built in a single device. As it has already been stressed, emergency stop signals must not be derived from the electronic control system. As a result, components with an NC contact and a bistable head button (with rotational release) need connecting to the supply line (if direct current is supplied by the batteries of self-propelled vehicles) or downstream of the transformer (in industrial electrical plants). FEEDBACK TRANSDUCERS, Closed loop feedback involves the control of force, pressure, flow, speed, position, acceleration and deceleration depending on the system needs. As this last control in electro proportional oil hydraulic systems is already set through the adjustment of the ramp step, it hardly requires an additional feedback control. Pressure and flow transducers have already been described in Chapter 15. Special devices known as ‘load cells’ that measure the force acting on the load are available; however, load force changes and characteristics are usually controlled through pressure in fluid power. For this reason, the transducers we are going to describe concer position and speed only. Linear potentiometer Linear potentiometers are simple variable resistances whose operational features are the same as those of the input signal adjustment devices previously described; the only difference lies in the variation slider, which is somehow moved by the mobile part of the actuator in linear potentiometers. Because of their design, they can be applied only to cylinders or in case of rotary actuators only if their revolution angle is lower than 360°. Detection linearity depends on the versions and is limited by coil pitch in coil versions whereas it is virtually unlimited in the carbon potentiometers or potentiometers provided with resistive plastic. Nowadays, most potentiometers have a maximum resistance of 1 kOhm. Even though these transducers were created quite a time ago, they are still the most popular because of their low price despite the short working life of their sliding contact. Figure 19.24 shows three ordinary positions of linear potentiometers; it can be parallel to the rod (the double rod that is not subjected to load is exploited) or built in it. Like LVTDs (see below), their arrangement in hollow rods is the most widespread solution because there no need to position them outside the cylinder.PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 691 Linear potentiometer positioning Figure 19.24 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) LVDTs too can be placed outside cylinders or in hollow rods but they have a longer average life than linear potentiometers since they have no sliding components. They are widely used as transducers in built-in feedback valves. An LVDT (Figure 19.25) contains three axial coils (one primary central coil and two secondary lateral coils), inside which a ductile iron core slides. A high-frequency alternating current signal (1000 Hz), generally produced by a direct current oscillator built in the LVDT, is sent to the primary coil where it develops a magnetic field. Like in transformers, this field develops voltage in the secondary coils that are mutually connected in series. When the moving core is in the centre, the voltages in the secondary coils are exactly equal resulting in an output of zero V. If the core is not in the centre, the voltage of a secondary coil increases while it decreases in the other coil. This produces a voltage gap that is proportional to the position of the core; the output from the secondary coils is692 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS then sent to a built-in demodulator that transforms the alternating current signal into a direct current signal (the final feedback), movement component <---> Figure 19.25 Some manufacturers provide another type of inductive transducer known as VRVTs instead of LVDTs. The voltage gap vis-a-vis the excitation current in VRVTs varies according to the core movement. Magnetostrictive Magnetostrictive transducers are also known as magnetosonic transducers (Figure 19.26). The probe of these transducers is inside the hollow rod and fastened to the rear head of the cylinder; a ring-shaped permanent magnet solidly connected to the piston moves along with it. As the piston moves, the ring magnet slides along the probe. The probe consists of a pipe made of a magnetostrictive alloy (an alloy that produces voltage when there is a magnetic field); a conductor wire (waveguide) is inside the pipe. WG i Magnetostrictive transducer Generator/Receiver Figure 19.26 A generator-receiver placed on the external wall of the cylinder head constantly transmits high-frequency electrical inputs to the waveguide (start input); when the inputPROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 693 intercepts the magnetic filed, a return signal is generated in the waveguide (stop input). The interval between the input signal and the stop signal (the operating principle is similar to radars) determinates the position of the magnet and hence the feedback. These transducers provide high-precision rod detection and they have a long working life since they have no metal sliding parts. Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT) RVDTs (rotary variable differential transformers) are the rotary version of LVDTs. They share the same operating principle, except for the ductile iron core that is replaced by a shaped cam that ensures a rotary position of non-contact. Resolvers and synchros are other types of analogue alternating current transducers with a sinusoidal output. Encoder Encoders are digital transducers that consist of a rotary disc with many equidistant holes placed along the external circumference. The disc is between a photodiode (light- emitting diode) and a phototransistor receiver that detects light. A fixed disc is placed near the rotary disc in order to improve clogging between holes. The spaces on the rotary disc alternatively interrupt the light of the diode. The phototransistor receives the ray and generates a series of pulsations, each of them indicating a certain rotation degree. The more holes there are the higher the precision is. The transformation of the linear motion the rod exerts on the actuator into a rotary motion is made possible by the combination of a screw and a female thread (Figure 19.27) or a pinion and a rack. Encoder Photodiode @ Fixed dise Encoder * Elastic joint Rotary dise Figure 19.27694 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS Tachogenerator Angular speed can also be detected with a tachogenerator, i.e. a direct current generator with a permanent magnet. Like any other generator, it does not require any supply and the output voltage (direct current) is proportional to the rotary speed of the shaft. Figure 19.28 shows its assembly in a general hydraulic motor. Fa tach-gen 2 5 ts Figure 19.28 Hydraulic motor with coaxial tachogenerator Tachogenerators are rarely used in oil proportional systems since they have an alternating current output and require an additional transformation into direct current before entering the ECU. PROPORTIONAL SOLENOID VALVES Proportional solenoid valves are designed for flow, pressure and direction control and reduction. In order to understand their hydraulic principles of the valves described below, it is important to know the notions provided in the chapters about directional and adjustment valves. Proportional solenoid The AC solenoids of on/off valves require an initial power (the product of voltage by current) that progressively decreases to the end of the stroke. Solenoids intended for proportional systems have different features. The initial power similar to on/off, needed to guarantee the intermediate continuous movements defined by the ECU, must be followed by a constant power throughout the stroke of the push rod; furthermore, this power has to be proportional to the current sent, which determined the speed of the valve spool (Figure 19.29). It is important to remember that proportional solenoids are designed for direct current.PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 695 Solenoid force/movement charts a a ‘| current at 100% waa 2 & 2 0 efectve stroke “| 2 2 £ |\U current at 50%] = £ £ é | sl &\\ es I effective stroke current at 257) \ stroke (mm) stroke (mm) stroke (mm) Onioff solenoid Proportional solenoid Proportional solenoid at its maximum operability depending on current Figure 19.29 The quality of the materials proportional solenoids need is higher than that of on/off solenoids and they need a more accurate design of the sleeve, the mobile core and the polar expansion. What follows is a description of the design and the features of these major electromagnetic devices (Figure 19.30), while their fundamental principles have already been explored in Chapter 8 — Solenoid valves Proportional solenoid 1, Solenoid body 2. Mobile core 3. Pole expansion 4. Valve body 5. Perforated dise 6. Push rod 7. Bearing 8. Sleeve 9. Coil 10. Channel for fluid passage 11. Core stroke 12. Non- magnetic disc 13. Bush 14. Spring Figure 19.30 Like in state-of-the-art on/off solenoids, the internal part of proportional solenoids is in an oil bath (lubrication and cooling). This oil flows from port T inside the valve through a disc (5) supported by a spring (14); one or more channels (10) inside the sleeve (8) and the mobile core (2) ensure the passage of the fluid, which reaches the other end of the valve (4). The coil (9) and the sleeve are contained in the body (1), usually made of polyester and glass; the sleeve is made of ferromagnetic and diamagnetic materials (diamagnetic = a substance whose magnetization is opposite to696 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS the magnetisation of iron, hence with negative magnetic susceptibility) in order to concentrate the magnetic field in the air gap. The non-ferrous material of the non- magnetic disc (12) prevents the mobile core from adhering to the pole expansion and the air gap from closing totally, thus limiting the maximum force exerted by the mobile core and the coil. In order to reduce hysteresis, a ball bearing (7) and a low-friction bush (13) are respectively downstream and upstream of the push rod (6) in the best versions; the core and the push rod are welded together, tightened or fastened in other ways. The energising and operation of the solenoid can be briefly described as follows: the current managed and sent by the ECU to the solenoid coil generates a magnetic force that moves the core towards the pole expansion. The stroke and the speed of the core are proportional to the coil voltage and current. The push rod transmits the movement to the mobile element (spool or poppet) held in the valve. This movement is countered by the forces generated by the spring(s) inside the valve, the flow from the supply port to the working port and the friction between the spool and the body. Pressure limitation The hydraulic operating principle of proportional solenoid pressure relief valves is the same as mechanical valves. The only difference lies in the solenoid as it replaces the spring in pressure relief proportional solenoid valves ensuring higher adjustment accuracy. In direct-acting electroproportional pressure relief valves (Figure 19.31), it is the solenoid that applies a force that contrasts the pressurised fluid. According to the input set in the ECU, the push rod (5) of the solenoid (6) compresses the springs (3 and 4), which in turn push the poppet (2) into its seat (1). Parameters can be accurately set when the system is working by acting on the ECU potentiometer in accordance with the level displayed by the pressure gauge connected near the valve. Direct-acting proportional solenoid pressure relief valve 1238 1. Poppet seat 2. Poppet 3. Front spring 4. Back spring 5. Push rod 6. Proportional solenoid Figure 19.31PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS These valves are available in simple versions or versions with an in-built transducer; the ECU can be placed on the valve or elsewhere with a Eurocard. Figure 19.32 shows two direct-acting electroproportional relief valves by two different manufacturers. The valve on the left is equipped with an LVDT transducer and an independent board connection is needed, whereas the ECU on the right is on the valve and feedback is performed through a pressure transducer. In order to ensure fail-safe functions (see the first paragraph of this chapter), the fluid contrasts the force of the springs alone, opens the poppet and puts the valve in the by- pass position (P fully connected to T) when there is no voltage or the ECU is off. Two different direct-acting electroproportional pressure relief valve with feedback transducer ie) de = pressure transducer Ta LybT Figure 19.32 The charts in Figure 19.33, taken from the catalogue of a major manufacturer, show the operating features of a standard direct-acting electroproportional pressure relief valve.698 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS Characteristics of direct-acting electroproportional pressure relief valve ‘Typical curves p-Q in respect to the reference voltage Pressure level 25 bar cae 2s 4 ‘time (ima x» Ly ‘ue 4 z Uy 3 fi 6 re ear ee reference voltage (°%) psi rtm Pressure level 210 bar iri a ret 1 et wo} {ttt} 2 120 ye g E © oo °q 10 1 % «0 we 70 80 00 WO reference voltage (°) Minimum pressure set in respect to flow Pressure level 25 bar ee T Bes 20 aie gto g B os| Fo bemdertI it a a ee reference voltage (6) Pressure level 210 bar ei ect El | = | Te 23= t t Be { { g. f el 4 ! i on as eS aa reference voltage (%) Figure 19.33 [pam saoPtessure level 140 bar 1/1 ume, pressure set (bar) Je 8 O10 2 2 0 8 e) 70 G0 80 100 reference voltage (%) umn Pressure level 350 bar Jenin pressure set (bar) O10 20% 40 6 wo 70 80 90 WD reference voltage (°%) Pressure level 140 bar ace | LT pressure set (bar) 0 Os 0 15 20 28 30 reference voltage (%) Pressure level 350 bar el | oss reference voltage (%) pressure set (bar) 20PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 699 Two-stage electroproportional pressure relief valve Pilot electrostage Mechanical relief valve Figure 19.34 Comparison between two two-stage electroproportional pressure relief valve with feedback transducer ean LVDT f pressure ZZ transducer mechanical relief valve’ main stage = = Figure 19.35700 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS Two-stage solenoid pressure relief valves (Figure 19.34) have a pilot stage that includes the direct-acting proportional pressure relief valve just described and a purely hydraulic stage that has the same design as mechanical valves. An additional direct- acting pressure relief valve with mechanical operation is mounted between these two components in order to limit maximum pressure in case of incorrect piloting of the proportional circuit. This type of valve is obviously set to higher levels than electroproportional valves. Except for electronics, its operating principle is the same as mechanical valves (Chapter 10). — Pressure setting in respect to reference voltage Characteristics of a RavPos / 08 / 10, two-stage electroproportional pressure relief valve Pet tt “Aa ° a Inlet pressure in ow mm «0 0 = reo ary refetenge vollage (29) neveos raveoo - paves - Pressure level 140 bar _Pressure level 210 bar Pressure level 380 bar “ Sai===— 2s] iad 1 = leis. esSe | i ee 2 |—— fz 2 a” 1 oe oe i | a 7 — === * gow cLiminy gow (Limit) * flow (Liminy ravrosri09 nevro0r10) - eveosri09 ‘ae Pressure level 140 bar ads Pressure level 210 bar Pressure lev a 380 bar Pee ++ a jf flow (Limin) flow (L/min) flow (Limin) Figure 19.36PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 701 Like direct-acting valves, two-stage valves too are available with or without an in- built transducer and their ECU can be on the valve or Eurocard format (Figure 19.35). The charts in Figure 19.36 show the features of standard two-stage pressure relief valves without pressure transducer feedback, otherwise P-Q curves would be nearly horizontal. Pressure reduction Proportional solenoid pressure-reducing valves have the same operating principle as mechanical valves. Unlike proportional solenoid pressure relief valves, these valves are equipped with port P for pressure inlet, working port A and the outlet port T for fluid drain. 1. Cone 2. Solenoid a/b. Spool ¢. Piloting channel m. Spring pl. Inlet pressure p2. Outlet pressure T. Drain port Figure 19.37702 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS Their simplest version is similar to mechanical pressure-reducing valves but the pilot unit (cone or ball and opposing spring) is replaced by a proportional solenoid and a push rod ending with a cone on the seat. In Figure 19.37 the main unit is similar to the unit showed in Figure 10.17 (pilot-operated pressure-reducing valve — Chapter 10) while the electroproportional unit acts as the pilot. Under normal conditions (the inlet pressure equals the working pressure), the pressure of the fluid that acts on the cone of the push rod (1) — derived from p2 through the channel (d) inside the main spool (a/b) — is not sufficient to overcome the force of the solenoid (2). As the inlet pressure increases and exceeds the outlet pressure, the fluid overcomes the force of the push rod (1), which thus moves back allowing the fluid to reach port T. The main spool (a/b) lifts up and restricts the passage towards t2 without affecting the pressure on the secondary component. As the force exerted by the push rod (1) depends on the current/voltage previously set on the ECU in input potentiometer, the outlet pressure p2 is proportional to the setting. The component can be equipped with a feedback with an inductive or pressure transducer. The ECU can be on the valve or Eurocard format. These devices are deemed direet-acting valves despite the presence of two units Two-stage electroproportional pressure-reducing valve xv Figure 19.38 Two-stage versions include the unit just described on another mechanical stage (Figure 19.38). Apart from feedback, it is possible to opt for an additional mechanical control fail-safe valve (right drawing in the figure) or a non-return valve in the main stage (left drawing in the figure).PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 703 Flow control Like in traditional control system, flow electroproportional control can be performed by means of adjustable restrictions or compensations. In addition, electrocontrol devices differ from one manufacturer to another: some companies use pressure-reducing valves while others opt for a throttle directional valve. In any case, flow control valves consist ofa unit made up of an electroproportional control and an operational mechanical valve. The only exceptions are simple direct-acting flow control valves, which consist of a push rod and are controlled by a proportional solenoid that directly acts on the adjustment spool. Figure 19.39 shows its basic operating principle. When the solenoid is not operational, flow is blocked in both in-to-out and out-to-in directions because the spring retains the spool in a retracted position. Upon starting, depending on the ECU input setting, the solenoid moves the push rod solidly connected to the spool, which opens a clearance that is proportional to the force of the solenoid, which contrasts the spring force. Direct-acting electroproportional Slow control valve Bq tte cu out proportional in “solenoid spring spool Figure 19.39 Two-stage flow control valves can be restrictor type or compensated type. Two-stage electroproportional restrictors consist of a stage controlled by the ECU and a mechanical non-compensated main stage (Figure 19.40). The hydraulic signal due to the proportional movement of the mobile element in the pilot stage (see the figure: pressure reducer on the left and directional valve on the right) counters the spring and pushes the spool of the main stage downward.704 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS Slip-in cartridge electroproportional restrictors 1, Transducer ECU on the valve Spool 4. Spool seat 5, Pilot (pressure reducer) 6. Pilot (directional valve) Figure 19.40 By combining a direct-acting electroproportional restrictor and a mechanical two-way compensated valve, the outlet flow is much more stable even in case of major load variations (Figure 19.41). Two-way compensated flow control electroproportional valve Operating principle Pilot electrostage Compensated mechanical main stage Figure 19.41PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 705 Like in traditional systems, three-way compensated flow control valves (Figure 19.42) avoid excessive flow release from the main relief valve (see Chapter 11). Three-way il compensated | flow control | electroproportional cc valve J i out in a ‘f Figure 19.42 Spool valves for direction and flow control Direct-acting or pilot-operated (two-stage) electroproportional spool valves have two simultaneous effects: 1) Linear or rotary direction of the actuator, determined by the direction of the spool movement. 2) Linear or rotary speed of the actuator, which means the quantity of outlet flow (determined by the movement of the spool) that is proportional to the current/voltage the solenoid receives. It is crucial to underline that since these valves are not self-compensated, they are sensitive to pressure changes. A pressure compensator must be added if flow rates that are not affected by pressure changes are needed (see first paragraph of this chapter, Figure 19.9 — Constant speed). The larger portions of the spools of these valves have triangular or semicircular notches resulting from milling. These notches not only dampen hydraulic vibrations (Chapter 16, last paragraph) but they also reduce the dead band. In this manner, the passage of the fluid in over lap spools is fostered by the input almost in real time and gradually; these over lap spools act almost like zero lap spools. Triangular or semicircular notches have different impacts on flow; as a matter of fact, the latter allow slightly higher flows (Figure 19.43).706 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS Directional spools for electroproportional valves oe tt Triangular notches Semicircular notches e RF oD @ ar TT T } P 2 | / = = ht L| i e = "NX 1 T S o | | | | 4é ° Zw | 4, 2 * LENT LA . Reference voltage (%) Reference voltage (%) Figure 19.43 Directly-operated electroproportional spool valves 4/3 have one or two solenoids. The core of these solenoids is equipped with an axial push rod solidly connected to the spool; centring is ensured by side springs that press on the spool heads (Figures 19.44 and 19.45). The position of the spool changes according to the voltage applied to the solenoid, which is thus opposed by the spring: the higher voltage is, the more the spring is deformed. This results in opening a precise flow section between working ports A and B. Directly-operated ss electroproportional gf =] valve 4/3 == for direction and flow control o En M7 crn © Ne San | One solenoid Figure 19.44PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 707 Directly-operated electroproportional valves 4/3 for direction and flow control - Two solenoids Figure 19.45 Electroproportional valve c N with internal feedback — Transducer (LVDT) Solenoids Figure 19.46708 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS These valves can be equipped with LVDT feedback transducers. Figure 19.46 shows a cut-away view of an electroproportional valve for direction/flow control provided with a built-in LVDT. Monostable valves 4/2 with one solenoid are mainly used for restrictions (Figure 19.47). Electroproportional 1AN LTO spool valve 4/2 Sor restrictions Figure 19.47 Electroproportional devices with and without internal feedback are also known as respectively ‘stroke control valves’ and ‘force control valves’. Two-stage flow control and directional valves (Figures 19.48 and 19.49) consist of a pilot-operated electroproportional valve and a mechanical valve with a notched spool centred by side springs (some versions have a single spring that presses on one side and retracts on the other). Two-stage electroproportional valves 4/3 Sor flow control and direction a stroke Es force ] sil control control Figure 19.48PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 709 Unlike the homonymous on/off valves, the hydraulic control of the main stage spool in these valves is performed through a proportional pressure-reducing valve with one or two solenoids and two poppets or a directional restrictor spool. According to the voltage the solenoid of the pilot valve receives, the fluid acts on one or the other head of the main spool. Pilot pressure must not exceed 100 bar in most versions, otherwise a pressure-reducing valve between the main stage and the pilot stage is essential. Feedback results from the inclusion of two LVDTs, one in series with the spool of the main stage and the other one on the pilot. Two-stage valve Sor direction and Slow Figure 19.49 Figure 19.50 shows some popular electroproportional valves 4/3 for flow control and direction. Flow control and direction electroproportional valves 4/3 porate MAPEsiN, Minnie Arai, Mireeet aN APM Two-stage ie co Mich aii TRMa Figure 19.50710 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS Cartridge versions Cut-away view of a screw-in cartridge electroproportional valve Figure 19.51 Screw-in cartridge electroproportional valves for flow and _ pressure adjustment/control are widely used both as single elements held in a block and in manifold versions. The final part of Chapter 12 (Screw-in cartridge valves) shows the versions available on the market, Slip-in cartridge electroproportional valve for pressure control Figure 19.52PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 71 Slip-in cartridge versions share the same principle as the similar mechanical directional and control valves dealt with in the last paragraph of Chapter 12. Figures 19.52 and 19.53 show some popular types of these valves. Slip-in cartridge electroproportional valve for flow control Figure 19.53 SERVO-VALVES Oil hydraulic servo-valves control direction and flow simultaneously. Their performances are higher than those of the electroproportional valves described previously in this chapter, especially in terms of response-time, hysteresis, repeatability and gain. Furthermore, as their pilot electromagnetic unit requires less energy, their ECUs have a much more simple design. Even if this cuts electronic costs, servo-valves are much more expensive than electroproportional valves since they need very precise manufacturing processes. In the beginning these devices were based only on hydraulics and mechanics and they were used on machine tools like copying devices: by following the profile of the model, a feeler pin monitored the position between the spool and the mobile bush inside the directional valve; consequently, the rod of the cylinder connected to it moved the tool slide. Workpieces were thus identical to the prototype. Figure 19.54 shows a basic example of this kind of servo-valves. Drawings (a) and (b) show a servo-valve at rest (closed centre) whose internal pilot spool (2) and mobile bush (3) are perfectly aligned. As drawing (c) shows, the feeler pin (1) subjected to an external force pushes the rod (2) to the right, thus connecting the left712 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS chamber to port P through the valve ports. The pressure in this chamber (drawing d) acts on the head of the mobile bush (3) moving it to the right; ports P and A are now connected respectively to B and T. The opposite connection occurs when the pilot spool and the bush move to the left. Hydraulic tracking servo-valve HEIR” 1. Feeler pin 2. Pilot spool 3. Tracking bush —4. Valve body Figure 19.54 These valves are usually replaced by electroproportional valves, which provides better control thanks to their high-level design and their perfect combination of oil hydraulics and control electronics. Servo-valves are mainly employed in bending presses, machines for the injection of plastic materials, glassblowing machines, wood processing machines, high-precision automations and robotics, hydrostatic power steering, simulation benches and systems, tunnel boring machines as well as in the oil industry. Because of their lower costs and their constant enhancements electroproportional valves are used instead of servo-valves in Europe, though servo-valves are widely used in high-precision systems with a high level of repeatability, where electroproportional valves are not suitable for such systems. Trends are different in the USA, where designers prefer servo-valves to electroproportional valves. Figure 19.55 shows the symbols of electroproportional servo-valves according to ISO 1219-1 ‘Fluid power systems and components — Graphic symbols and circuit diagrams’. Note that these symbols are almost the same as those of proportional solenoid valves. As a matter of fact, the symbol in the lower right corner in the figure is used in many diagrams in order to distinguish them from solenoid valves; however, this symbol comes from the USA and it is not in line with the ISO standard mentioned above.PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS GAS: Electroproportional servo-valves single stage - Symbols - rr me =X two-stage valve two-stage valve with mechanical interlocking and hydraulic interlocking US general symbol = ie MED, rele Figure 19.55 General data on servo-valves Servo-valves fundamentally consist of an electrostage (or first stage) controlled by the ECU and a mechanical-hydraulic main stage (or second stage). Torque motor rest state 1, Permanent magnets N [Link] 3. Core “> 4, Push rod g 5: Flexure tube Figure 19.56 The electromagnetic devices of the pilot stage differ from solenoid valves in movement dynamism: their push rod does not perform any linear movement but a slight rotation depending on the voltage applied. This device is known as ‘torque motor’. Their electronic control shares the same principles explained in the paragraph ‘Electro proportional technique’ in this chapter, except for a few modification torque motors714 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS need; servo-valves too are equipped with an ECU with a ramp generator, a dither and so on. The frame of torque motors consist of two opposite permanent magnets whose upper and lower parts are respectively north polarised and south polarised. The push rod (4) (the element that controls the spool in the second stage) is perpendicular and solidly connected to the central mobile core (3); two coils (2) are arranged between the magnets and the core and they can be solidly connected to the core or fixed to the frame (Figure 19.56 reflects the latter). A flexure tube (5) allows the push rod to move but it avoids the ingress of the fluid inside the electromagnetic device. By supplying voltage to the coils, the core is magnetised and it bends in one direction or in the other according to the polarisation of the current; in the example in Figure 19.56, the core bends anticlockwise and the push rod thus moves to the right; when the ECU reverses the current, the push rod moves to the left. The intensity of the current defines the inclination and consequently the movement of the push rod is proportional to it . The main stage essentially consists of a distributor 4 with a zero lap spool and side control chambers that communicate with the first stage; the spool is controlled by the pressurised fluid flowing from connection channels between the two stages. Centring is seldom ensured by the side spring; the spool is subjected to hydraulic counterbalance in most versions. Spool lap is the problem: in over lap versions, the dead band is rather considerable and servo-valves are less efficient since their performances equal those of proportional solenoid valves. Furthermore, in order to ensure the perfect immobility of the spool in the central position, it is vital that the pressure between piston faces Ey || Cx and Fx|<|Dy is the same, otherwise the spool would be unstable (Figure 19.57). The solution is zero Jap, which guarantees stability because the pistons have almost the same profile as ports A and B, provided the spool and the body are manufactured accurately (this partially accounts for their high costs). However, this situation does not block flow between ports P, A, B and T totally. Despite high-level coupling, /eakages, albeit limited, still occur, but this does not affect stability thanks to the uniformity of the pistons and the ports. Figure 19.57 can clarify this concept. A small quantity of fluid from P flows from face Ey to face Ex through port A, reaching port T; the same occurs from Fx to Fy through port B; the pressure drop in E equals the pressure drop in F and the balance of the spool is thus ensured. When the spool moves to the left because of the hydraulic pilot from the first stage, ports P and A are connected respectively to B and T or vice versa if it moves to the right. What has been described also applies to flapper/nozzle and jet/pipe versions while servo-valves with tracking bush require a special counterbalance with a differential spool (see next paragraphs). Furthermore, whenever the spool moves, a new hydraulic balance is necessary.PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS TAS: Spool of the second stage of a servo-valve Figure 19.57 Two-stage servo-valves are designed for flows up to 100-150 I/min. Higher flows (even as high as 800 l/min) demand three-stage servo-valves. In these valves, the second stage of the two-stage servo-valve previously described controls the third stage 4/3 (with zero lap spool), which is connected to the actuator. Like electroproportional valves, servo-valves too can be equipped with internal feedback with a LVDT that is axial to the spool of the second stage. Filtration plays a fundamental role for both the delicate channels of the first stage and the high precision of the zero lap spool coupling. Some manufacturers recommend ISO 15/13/10 for fluid decontamination in servo-valves. The system for the pilot stage results from torque motors. At present several control systems are available, which are by the way the same as, similar to or obtained from the fundamental types (single-stage mechanical version, two- stage version with flapper/nozzle, two-stage version with jet/pipe, two-stage mechanical tracking version). Single-stage mechanical servo-valves The only single-stage versions are single-stage mechanical valves (Figure 19.58). They are suitable only for low flows, ranging from | to 20 I/min only. When the push rod moves (for instance to the left), the rod hinged on it makes the spool move resulting in the connections of ports P to B and A to T. The angular section travelled by the push rod is proportional to the current sent to the torque motor; the movement of the spool is proportional to the current the ECU sends to the torque motor (the less the current is, the less the angle is and vice versa).716 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS. Design of a single-stage servo-valve Figure 19.58 The reversal of the current that powers the coils of the torque motor causes the inclination of the push rod to the right, with the resulting proportional connections P-A and B-T. Servo-valves with tracking bush Tracking pilot servo-valve Ti. | spool at rest Mobile bush we Counterbalance rod ~_ Rod fulerum __Rod of the “main spool Figure 19.59 The pilot stage of tracking servo-valves consists of an ordinary central spool with three pistons that slide in a hollow bush. The bush has many radial holes so as to communicate with the ports of the valve body, which are indispensable for pilot fluid flow; a counterbalance rod connected to the main spool of the second stage on the one hand and to the bush on the other enables it to slide along the valve body. When it is at rest (Figure 19.59), i.e. when the valve is in the central position, the pilot fluid enters a very restricted port through the pilot spool and reaches the piston $;. The spool of thePROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 717 pilot stage is hydraulically balanced (in other words it is perfectly centred) and blocks ports P, T, A and B. Under these conditions, since ppi2 is less than ppi because of the restriction, the pressure on the outer heads of the main spool is pS:> pS). Nonetheless, the spool is hydraulically balanced since the area S, is larger than S;, where the rod that connects the spool to the counterbalance rod occupies a considerable space (the same phenomenon occurs in differential cylinders). Tracking servo-valve (P with B) phase I: torque motor operated and movement of the pilot spool to the left phase II: movement of the main spool to the right and repositioning of the mobile bush Figure 19.60 When the push rod that is perpendicular to the torque motor moves to the left, the rod hinged on it moves the pilot spool, widening the restricted section (hence increasing pressure) to the chamber that corresponds to S; (Figure 19.60). Because of the higher pressure on S;, the main spool then moves to the right and opens ports P—»B and A>T: their opening is proportional to the pressure of the fluid, which depends on the push rod inclination determined by the current the ECU is supplied. At this moment, it is necessary to restore the hydraulic balance of the main stage718 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS spool. The counterbalance rod pushes the bush to the left and restores the static condition of the ports: the pressure on S; decreases and the main spool is balanced. The inclination of the spool to the left opens the passages PA and B—T: the pilot spool closes the port concerning S;; in this manner, the pressure acts on S; only, fostering the movement of the spool to the left. As the counterbalance rod is inclined, the bush restores the hydraulic balance. Flapper/nozzle In flapper/nozzle servo-valves, pilot pressure is limited by the openings between the central flapper and the side nozzles (Figure 19.61). Flapper/nozzle servo-valve atrest Torque __— motor / / Counterbalance spring Figure 19.61 The flapper consists of a small cylinder that prolongs the push rod of the torque motor; its surface next to the nozzles is smooth. At its end there is a counterbalance spring that is perpendicular to it and solidly connected to a ball placed in a seat in the centre of the main stage spool; this tubular spring has a very limited diameter. Depending on the versions, one or two small channels with restrictors are obtained from P; downstream of the restrictors, the channels are connected to the side chambers of thePROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS 719 main spool and the related nozzles (it is advisable to supply the two nozzles with an external pilot if the pilot pressure is very low). phase I: increase in pilot pressure on the left and the spool (P with A) moves to the right Flapper/nozzle servo-valve counterbalance spring repositions the push rod thus restoring the hydraulic balance on the spool Figure 19.62 The pressure of each side chamber of the main spool is affected by nozzle restrictions. When there is no electrical signal, the flapper is in the middle of the two nozzles. Consequently, they are equally restricted and the pressure of the two pilot chambers of the spool is identical: the spool is thus hydraulically balanced and in a central position. By supplying voltage to the torque motor coils, the core moves the flapper to the right; by inverting the current, the magnetic field is reversed and the flapper moves to the left (Figure 19.62). When the flapper moves to the left, the left nozzle closes (partially or completely according to the ECU input); the pilot pressure p,i); increases while the fluid in the right nozzle is sent to port T; pressure p2 is now substantially reduced. The higher pressure in720 HYDRAULICS IN INDUSTRIAL AND MOBILE APPLICATIONS chamber C, determines the movement of the spool to the right with the ensuing opening of ports PA and BT. Like in the type previously described, a new hydraulic balance is needed, which is ensured by the counterbalance spring that moves the flapper back between the two nozzles. In other words, the spool of the main stage moves until the force of the torque motor on the flapper is equivalent to the force the spring generates on the torque motor; when the two forces are equal, the spool stops. When the flapper moves to the right, the opposite process occurs. Jet/pipe Jet/pipe servo-valves differ from flapper/nozzle servo-valves in the control system only, while the movement of the spool in the main stage is based on the same principle (Figure 19.63). Jet/pipe servo-valve torque motor ~~ a nozzle counterbalance spring filter Figure 19.63 The pilot fluid flowing from the restrictor enters the mobile push rod. Since the internal channel at the push rod lower end gets narrower, this component acts as nozzle from which the fluid exits in the shape of a tiny high-precision jet. The intermediate stage has two small channels that end next to the nozzle on the one hand and into the extreme chambers C, and C) corresponding to the main spool on the other.PROPORTIONAL ELECTROHYDRAULICS fA When there is no signal on the torque motor, the push rod/nozzle is centred vis-a-vis channels p,i; and ppi supplies them with the same pressure, resulting in the hydraulic balance on the main spool. The push rod moves according to the input sent by the ECU: in this manner, the push rod increases the pressure in one or the other pilot channel and controls the movement of the spool. For instance, when the nozzle is on the right, the flow in ppiz2 pushes the spool to the left leading to P-+-B and A—+T connections. When the opposing spring restores the initial position of the nozzle, it creates a new hydraulic balance. Servo-valves two-stage versions three-stage versions Figure 19.64