UNIT 8 TERRORISM
Structure
8.1 Introduction
Aims and Objectives
8.2 What is Terrorism?
8.3 Historical Perspective
8.4 Causes of Terrorism
8.4.1 Domestic Causes
8.4.2 External Causes
8.5 Characteristics of Terrorism
8.5.1 To Create Large Scale Violence
8.5.2 Global Access
8.5.3 Acquisition of Ideological Moorings of Fundamentalism
8.5.4 Non-state Actor Fighting War with State Actors
8.5.5 Acquired High –Tech Status
8.5.6 Adopted Posture of Jehadi War
8.5.7 Linked with Narcotic Drugs Trafficking
8.6 Types of Terrorism
8.7 Global Implications
8.7.1 Threat of Non-Conventional Nature
8.7.2 Boost to Fundamentalism
8.7.3 Close Nexus between Terrorism and Organised Crime
8.7.4 Linkages of Terrorists with WMDs and Grave Threat to Peace
8.8 Efforts at United Nations Level
8.9 Remedies
8.10 Summary
8.11 Terminal Questions
Suggested Readings
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Terrorism, in simple terms, can be defined as use of threat of violence by a group of
people against a constituted authority or state to create fear and panic among the masses
at large so that instability in the system is created. In the contemporary times due to
changed nature and magnitude of terrorism it has acquired greater significance. Due to
lack of consensual definition, numerous words are inter-changeably used for terrorism.
These words are – civil war, guerrilla warfare, insurgency, insurrection, liberation struggle,
low intensity conflict, proxy war, rebellion, revolt, counter-revolution, riots, sabotage,
secession, edition, treason etc.
84 Conflicts and Peace : Global Perspectives
Aims and Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to understand:
the meaning of terrorism and its basic characteristics;
different types of terrorism;
strategies required to meet out this challenge; and
the efforts being made at the international organisation level to mitigate terrorism.
8.2 WHAT IS TERRORISM?
Terrorism today has acquired importance due to its serious consequences and scope.
Simultaneously it can be considered as a very complex concept, which is very difficult to
define. Besides, the types of implications attached to this phenomenon are multi-
dimensional and very difficult to be handled by a single and straight forward strategy.
Broadly speaking it is an act of violence which seeks to instill terror in the minds of
people in general and the ruling establishments in particular. Usually the methods applied
by the terrorists are in the form of murder, threat to murder, bombing, kidnapping,
ransom, extortion, hijacking, attacking passengers of bus or train, looting of banks,
devastating railway tracks, demoralising people, police, judiciary, investigating agencies etc.
It is not a direct war, but rather a new kind of warfare waged by small groups of people
against the innocent or neutral persons working in the system. The very purposes of such
terrorists are to create instability in the system and finally to get the publicity of their
message to larger audience which was not possible otherwise. Hence in a way through
the cult of violence they want to get their so called wrongs righted. Thus, according to
Baylis and Smith, it can only be subsumed that:
a) Agreement on what constitute terrorism continues to be difficult given the range of
potential acts involving violence.
b) Terrorism, or acts of violence by sub-state groups, has been separated from criminal
acts on the basis of the purpose for which violence is applied, namely political
change.
c) Terrorist groups succeed when their motivations or grievances are perceived to be
legitimate by a wider audience. Disproportionate or heavy handed responses by
states to acts of terrorism serve to legitimize terrorist groups.
d) The definition of terrorism is open to subjective interpretations but the technologies
associated with this have improved terrorist capabilities.
8.3 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Terrorism, in the sense of motivated organised violence, is not new. Numerous examples
of different types of violence can be found in ancient and medieval times. The earliest
examples of terrorism could be found in the first century A.D. when Jewish groups like
the Sicari and the Zealots killed Roman government officials with the ultimate motive to
bring an end to Roman occupation in Palestine. Followers of other religions also resorted
to methods of terrorism. In the eleventh century, ‘Assassins’ an offshoot of a Shia Muslim
sect known as the Ismailis, killed their targets, usually politicians and government officials,
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who refused to convert to the assassins version of Islam. In the modern times it
originated in France in the late eighteenth century. In 1793-94, a new French Revolutionary
Republic, led by Maximilien Robespierre, used terrorism to deal with ‘subversive forces’.
It can be considered as the first example of modern state terrorism. During the period
of American Civil War (1865-1900) also a group called Ku Klux Klan (K3) used
violence against the blacks in the country. Later, in the 1930s, Hitler’s Nazi Government
resorted to state terrorism when thousands of Jews were brutally assassinated.
Simultaneously the atrocities of Mussolini’s fascism and Stalin’s communism can be placed
in the category of large scale violence. In the 1960s the large scale violence in Italy and
West Germany to a great extent resembles earlier activities. In the 1980s a new
dimensions of terrorism originated in the name of Islamic fundamentalism or Jehadi
Terrorism which has its centre of activities in Afghanistan and Pakistan. The prominent
among such groups is Al Qaeda that worked under the leadership of Osama Bin Laden.
8.4 CAUSES OF TERRORISM
The causes of terrorism are found both in domestic and external factors prevailing in the
nation state or at the international levels. These two fold causes can be summarized as
under:
8.4.1 Domestic Causes
i) Alienation from the Political System
ii) Existing Problem of Poverty, Illiteracy and Development
iii) Religious Sectarianism in the Plural Societies
iv) Secessionist Tendencies Existing in Plural Systems
v) Instability of Political System
8.4.2 External Causes
i) Role of External Powers
ii) Proxy War
iii) Narcotic Drug Trafficking
iv) Jehadi Fundamentalism
v) Negative Consequences of Globalisation
8.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF TERRORISM
Before the basic features of terrorism are explained, it must be made clear at the outset
that contemporary terrorism is neither limited to small scale violence nor is restricted in
terms of time and space. Even its actions have a far-reaching consequence affecting
people at global level. Besides, the means/strategies/weapons applied by them are of so
powerful nature that it has acquired very high-tech nature. This changed type of terrorism
has the capacity even to face regular state armed forces in a very convincing manner.
Due to these emerging trends following prominent features of contemporary terrorism can
be deciphered.
86 Conflicts and Peace : Global Perspectives
8.5.1 To Create Large Scale Violence
First and foremost the nature of terrorist organisation is to create large scale violence and
panic among civilians or common masses so that credibility of political system is eroded.
Besides such events also create instability in the political system so their very purpose of
dethroning or ultimate demise of the system can be ascertained. The arrival of new
weapons technologies and its access to the terrorist-groups have further enhanced such
types of threats. With the emerging nature of ‘high-tech’ terrorism the violent actions by
them have acquired global repercussions. Therefore, impact of these organisations
became wide spread having spillover impacts beyond the boundaries of nation states.
8.5.2 Global Access
Earlier the scope of terrorist activities remained limited to a small area in the country or
to one state itself. Now it has developed large scale linkages not only with the
organisations in its home state but have spread beyond its borders and across countries
and continents. Hence the impact of their action reaches different parts of the world.
Besides, new strategies are being adopted by them. Latest-techniques available in any part
of the world become available to them. These trans-national characters of terrorism
restrict the working of government beyond some level. Besides, some terrorist-groups
can take refuge in one’s enemy territories. Moreover, legal actions cannot be pursued
against them at all times. This nexus of one country’s terrorist-organisation with other
national groups makes them more aggressive and deadlier than before. Hence this
changed character is more dangerous in magnitude and scope of their activities.
8.5.3 Acquisition of Ideological Moorings of Fundamentalism
Another important characteristic of terrorist-groups has been the acquisition of changed
ideological moorings in terms of religious fundamentalism. Day by day to increase the
influence of their activities religious fundamentalism is gaining predominance among its
followers. The camouflaging of religious teaching provides them easy access to common
people to devise affinity for their strategies. This not only provides support of larger
population but also work as a convincing tool for them to be associated with their
actions. A study by Rand Corporation of USA has revealed that numbers of religious
terrorist-organisation are increasing among the terrorist-organisations. For instance, in
1980 the total such groups were listed as 64 out of which only 2 were religious based,
in later years share of such groups has enhanced with greater pace, i.e. in 1992-11 out
of 48, 1994-16 out of 49, 1995-26 out of 1956 and in 1999-64 out of 996.
8.5.4 Non-state Actors Fighting War with State Actors
Terrorist-groups are non-state entities fighting against the recognised state actors at the
international level. Not only they are fighting against state system and de-stabilizing them,
but are also making efforts towards the acquisition of such elements which are related to
states. For instance, some groups like LTTE in Sri Lanka or Al Qaeda in Pakistan and
Afghanistan, Islamic state in Syria are acquiring control over certain territories and running
parallel governments in their respective areas. Similarly they are maintaining regular armies
to fight against the states. These armies are also well equipped to the extent to fight war
like between two nations. Consequently, a dangerous trend has emerged regarding
competition and conflict among state and non-state actors creating situation of civil war
within the nation state systems.
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8.5.5 Acquired High-Tech Status
Another feature of terrorism is the changing nature of strategies of these groups. Earlier
the scope of terrorism used to be limited to certain areas or specific region, now its
activities are being carried out with small arms and traditional tactics of warfare. With
the changing times the impact of terrorism can be witnessed across borders or even at
global levels; there has been change in their strategies also. These international terrorist
activities have become very high-tech. They are using all types of weaponry and machine
as used by highest-military apparatus in the country. Even apprehensions are being raised
that they may not catch hold of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs). They are using
guns, tanks, bombers, fighter-aircrafts etc, to run their activities. Besides, the use of all
types of means of communications has further enhanced the lethal capabilities of these high
tech groups.
8.5.6 Adopted Posture of Jehadi War
A very recent phenomenon that has influenced terrorism is its dimension of ‘jehadi’ war
or use of concept of ‘just war’. Earlier terrorist activities were engulfed in various socio-
economic and political discriminations and for the rectification of those fight with state
system was planned. In contemporary times a new conception of justification of terrorist
activities has been made on the name of ‘jehad’ or religious warfare. This type of
warfare is declared as war fought for a just cause. In this context, fundamentalism
especially Islamic fundamentalism has emerged very strongly in West, Central and South
Asia in particular where there is large number of Muslim population. This in a way limits
the questioning of right and wrong about these activities and simultaneously linking it to
a broad geographic area and demographic region in the realm of terrorism.
8.5.7 Linked with Narcotic Drugs Trafficking
Finally, terrorism has acquired serious dimension due to changed pursuit of these activities
in modern times. It has already been discussed as to how means of communication and
access to high tech weaponry have changed the gravity and intensity of terrorism. This
has been further enhanced through its linkages with organised crime, smuggling of small
weapons and funding of these activities by the earnings of narcotic drug trafficking. The
huge drug trafficking in two important regions in Asia, i.e. triangle of crescent and golden
triangle, have provided solid economic support base for the running of terrorism in this
region and at global levels. Simultaneously all kind of organised crime had joined hands
with them to further enhance their deadly deals. These dangerous consequences are
manifest during working of these groups during in last two decades in this area.
Thus, international terrorism is not a new phenomenon to the world in general and India
in particular. Terrorism is fundamentally an attack on the state. It may be described as
an act of violence, committed against innocent people to create fear, with an underlying
political motive. It is different from insurgency or revolutionary / guerrilla warfare, as it
is an overwhelmingly criminal act rather than merely a political offence. In present times
it has undergone tremendous change due to the technological revolution. It enables instant
transmission of ideas and information at a global level, by the terrorist outfits who can
now exploit ‘cyber’ terrorism as well as the deadly and sophisticated Precision-Guided
Missiles (PGMs), and other weapons of mass destruction. The rise of religious
fundamentalism has introduced a new ideology which sanctifies ‘Jehad’ (holy war) and
‘Fidayeen’ (suicide) attacks. Terrorism today, therefore, has been transformed into a
trans-national, high-tech, lethal and global phenomenon.
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8.6 TYPES OF TERRORISM
Terrorism can be classified in terms of its scope and dimension of its activities. Though
it is very difficult to put those in specific categories yet a broad division can be made
in terms of their activities. It is because terrorist activities overlap both in terms of their
working as well as consequences. In terms of its scope it is usually divided into following
categories:
1) Religious Terrorism
2) Regional Terrorism
3) Political Terrorism
4) Ideological Terrorism
5) Urban Terrorism
6) International Terrorism
7) State Terrorism
However, some critics are of the view that working of old terrorist groups also differ in
terms of the magnitude and type of violence created by them. As a result they can
broadly be classified into six categories:
1) Civil disorder
2) Political terrorism
3) Non-Political terrorism
4) Quasi-terrorism
5) Limited political terrorism
6) State sponsored terrorism
The perpetrators of acts of terrorism can be individuals, groups, or states. According to
some definitions, clandestine or semi-clandestine state actors may also carry out terrorist
acts outside the framework of a state of war. However, the most common image of
terrorism is that it is carried out by small and secretive cells, highly motivated to serve
a particular cause and most of the deadly operations in recent times have been executed
by such groups.
8.7 GLOBAL IMPLICATIONS
The nature and magnitude of terrorism prevalent today has serious implications for the
world at large. It has affected global peace in numerous ways and poses grave threat
to humanity.
8.7.1 Threat of Non-Conventional Nature
Terrorism has created grave threat of non-conventional nature, which is very difficult to
be identified and resolved. Due to trans-national roots of terrorist its activities are found
in different countries and even to some destinations beyond the imagination of the states.
Terrorism 89
The changed characters of its operation and its high tech nature have made it difficult for
the states to handle the challenges posed by such groups in an adequate manner.
Moreover, target of such groups are civilian population that creates more panic and
instabilities for any political system. Thus, it is a grave threat for the society, as well as,
for the state systems.
8.7.2 Boost to Fundamentalism
Contemporary linkages of terrorism with religious moorings have turned it into fundamentalism.
This type of terrorism is manifested in the form of ‘Jehad’ and ‘Fidayeen’ attacks which
are very difficult to be controlled. They not only make the backward or lesser developed
societies more vulnerable by recruiting people from them on the pretext of serving
religious tenets, but also create cleavages among different societal groups to be divided
on religious lines. As a result, some communities, especially Muslim, have been marginalised
in many parts of the world. Since it is situated in proximate region of India, therefore,
the latter has suffered most due to spill over impact of such activities in its neighbourhood.
This situation becomes all the more grave when activities of such nature are sponsored
by the states in the form of proxy war.
8.7.3 Close Nexus between Terrorism and Organised Crime
A close nexus between terrorism and organised crime have led to the erosion of state
authorities in many part of the world. States sometimes are facing the problems even of
parallel government being run by these groups. Now-a-days, the dangerous consequences
are arising as they are being funded by the earnings through the smuggling of narcotic
drugs. Besides, threat to global peace, nearer home the Indian state is more exposed
to such activities. The funds raised through drug smuggling activities have made it
possible for the terrorist groups to acquire latest and highly lethal category of arms in
huge quantity.
8.7.4 Linkages of Terrorists with WMD’s and Grave Threat to Peace
The race for the acquisition of weapons of mass destructions (WMDs) by the non-
democratic states, poses serious threats to their stability and governance, subsequently
adding to further complexities. In these unstable polities the chances of acquisition of
such weapons by the terrorists can create havoc for the world. Recent proliferation of
nuclear technologies by some states through clandestine route has exposed the concerned
societies to greater danger as the same route can be used by these groups to export such
technologies abroad. These developments have endangered the safety of not only one or
two states; rather has created grave threat which can lead to annihilation of all humanity.
8.8 EFFORTS AT UNITED NATIONS LEVEL
The UN has focused on two way solution for the problem of terrorism i.e. legal and
political solutions. In legal sphere, UNO and its special agencies have developed a
network of international agreement, which concentrates on preparing fundamental legal
documents to curb organised terrorism? These specialised agencies like: Civil Aviation
Organisation I.A.E.A. and others are making efforts in this direction. The United Nations
Office on Drugs and Crime has collated the 12 Universal conventions (international
agreements) and protocols against terrorism signed since 1963. Although many states
have not signed them, all seek to create consensus that certain acts count as terrorism
(for example hijacking a plane), in order to create the means to prosecute them in
90 Conflicts and Peace : Global Perspectives
signatory countries. The important agreements to create fundamental legal framework are
given below:
“Tokyo Convention”, 1963, Aviation Safety – Convention on offences and certain
other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft.
“Hague Convention”, 1970, Aircraft Hijacking – Convention for the Suppression of
Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft.
“Montreal Convention” 1971, Aviation Sabotage – Convention for Suppression of
Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation.
New York, 1973, Outlaws Attacks on Government Officials and Diplomats –
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crime against Internationality
Protected Persons.
New York, 1979, Hostages Convention – International Convention against the taking
of Hostages.
Nuclear Materials Convention, 1980 – Convention on the Physical Protection of
Nuclear Materials.
Rome, 1988, Terrorism on Ships – Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts
against the Safety of Maritime Navigation.
Rome, 1988, Terrorism of fixed off share platforms – Protocol for the Suppression
of unlawful Acts against the safety of fixed platforms located on the Continental Shelf.
“Montreal Convention”, 1991, Facilitating Detection of Plastic Explosive – Convention
on the marking of Plastic Explosives for the purposes of Identification.
UN General Assembly Resolution, 1997, Terrorist bombing – International Convention
for the Suppression of Terrorists Bombings.
UN General Assembly Resolution, 2000, Terrorist Financing – International Convention
for the Suppression of the financing of Terrorism.
In terms of political solution, the UN General Assembly tried to present the first text to
curb terrorism on 18th December, 1972 which was supported by the then Soviet Union
and its allies, but was opposed by the USA-led group. Thus, no exact definition was
agreed upon. Later in 1973 UN established an ‘Adhoc Committee on International
Terrorism’ along with three separate sub-committees. This committee gave seven draft
proposals to this effect but no agreement was reached. However, in 1986 an important
step in this direction was the ‘Convention against Recruitment, Use, Finance and Training
of Mercenaries’ which can be considered as the first step to curb international terrorism
as this convention got approval of the UN in 1989 December. After this another mile
stone has been declaration of 9th December, 1999 which provided for taking measures
to eliminate terrorism. Though numbers of resolutions have been passed by the UN since
then, no agreement on the definition of terrorism has been arrived so far. Thus, UN
has only set the agenda and innumerable prescriptions for the elimination of terrorism but
no solution has been provided to stop terrorism at the regional and global levels.
Terrorism 91
8.9 REMEDIES
To resolve the problem of terrorism following steps can be considered:
1) Terrorism is a battle of mind than a physical might, hence there is need to resolve
it through the efforts towards change of mind set along with strong media policy to
propagate against this menace.
2) Government should not fall prey to the designs of the terrorists to retaliate against
their actions, because that will serve the very purpose of those groups.
3) There is need to enhance democratic culture both at national and international levels
so that marginalised groups can find space for themselves.
4) This problem should not be resolved through the use of force; rather an effort should
be made to resolve through political processes of dialogue and diplomacy.
5) Government should make effort to eliminate the deep rooted causes of alienation
prevalent in the society. The problem- like poverty, illiteracy, non-development and
fundamentalism- must be curbed at the very grass root level.
6) A cooperative strategy, addressing the existing pluralities should be prevalent at both
domestic and international levels.
Thus, a multi-prone strategy is required to handle this complex, high-tech and globalised
nature of terrorism prevailing in contemporary times.
8.10 SUMMARY
The international terrorism has become a serious menace for world peace. This problem
is very grave and arduous. Terrorism has attained global reach. It now is able to use
sophisticated weapons and high tech information technology. There also have emerged
linkages between drug-trafficking arms smuggling and crime. Justifications are also being
provided by religious fundamentalism like Jihad. There is a serious need to bar these new
phenomena of conflicts. It needs multi-pronged strategies to tackle this. For the resolution
and control of such activities efforts are to be made both at national and at international
levels. States have to address the issue at the bilateral, regional and multilateral levels.
At national level, states need to follow secular, democratic and federal norms to take care
of the diversities prevailing in their societies. Besides, socio-economic and developmental
needs all strata of society in a more equalitarian and just manner. Finally, the negative
fallouts of the process of globalisation need to be handled in such a way that ‘human
face’ of development can be ensured.
At international level, concerted efforts by the states in their collective forums and at
international organisation levels are to be made. Major Powers must ensure that principle
of peaceful co-existence is followed in their dealing with different states both rich as
well as poor. Efforts are also required towards the establishment of just and equalitarian
world order in true spirit. At international organisational level, consensus is to be built
on the definition of ‘international terrorism’. Besides earlier resolutions passed by the UN
regarding non-recruitment use, finance and training of mercenaries be observed sincerely.
Extra efforts are required in preventing terrorist outfits from having access to WMDs and
funds available through narcotic drug smuggling. Thus, time has come for policy makers,
92 Conflicts and Peace : Global Perspectives
public, states, civil society etc. to address the problem of terrorism with utmost urgency
as it is not a problem of a state rather it has became the problem of humanity. Since
it is global concern, it needs collective efforts by all to resolve the same.
8.11 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1) Define terrorism. Discuss about its evolution from the earliest times till present.
2) Describe the basic characteristics of terrorism.
3) Analyse various forms of terrorism prevalent in the contemporary world.
4) Discuss various implications of terrorism on the global politics.
5) Examine the role of the United Nations towards curbing the menace of terrorism.
6) Suggest important remedies to resolve the problem of terrorism.
SUGGESTED READINGS
D.P. Sharma, Countering Terrorism, Lancers Publications, New Delhi, 1992
Annek Chatterjee, International Relations Today: Concepts and Applications, Pearson,
Delhi, 2010
Kulwant Kaur (Ed.), Global Terrorism: Issues, Dimensions and Options, Kanishka,
New Delhi, 2005
Tapan Biswal (Ed.), International Relations, Macmillan, Delhi, 2009
John Baylis et. al. (Eds.), The Globalisation of World Politics: An Introduction to
International Relations, Oxford, New York, 2008
B.P. Singh Sehgal (Ed.), Global Terrorism: Socio-Politico and Legal Dimensions, Deep
& Deep, New Delhi, 2000
Sridhar K. Khatri and G.W. Kueck (Ed.), Terrorism in South Asia: Impact on
Development and Democratic Process, Shipra, New Delhi, 2009
Ramesh Chandra, Global Terrorism: A Threat to Humanity, Kalpaz, Delhi, 2004
V.D. Chopra (Ed.) Global Challenge of Terrorism, Gyan, New Delhi, 2005
Wilson John and Swati Parashar (Ed.), Terrorism: In South Asia, Pearson, Delhi, 2005
Pravin N Sheth, Global Terrorism: Melting Borders, Hardened Walls, Rawat, Jaipur,
2005
Jaideep Saikia and Ekaterina Stepanova, Terrorism: Patterns of Internationalization,
Sage, New Delhi, 2009
K.P.S. Gill and Ajai Sahani, Terror and Containment Perspectives on India’s
International Security, Gyan, New Delhi, 2001
