ISAAC NEWTON AND GOTTFRIED WILHELM LEIBNIZ

Introduction

Calculus, known in its early history as infinitesimal calculus, is a mathematical discipline focused on
limits, continuity, derivatives, integrals, and infinite series. Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
independently developed the theory of infinitesimal calculus in the later 17th century. But elements of it
appeared in ancient Greece, then in China and the Middle East, and still later again in Medieval Europe
and in India.

Isaac Newton

 Born on 25 December 1642, (Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Lincolnshire, England)

 Died on 20 March 1727. (Kensington, Middlesex, Great Britain)
 was an English mathematician, physicist, astronomer, theologian, and author (described in his time
as a "natural philosopher")

Early life

 His father, also named Isaac Newton, had died three months before. Born prematurely,his
mother Hannah Ayscough
 Newton's mother had three children (Mary, Benjamin and Hannah) from her second marriage.
 From the age of 12-17, Newton studied at The King's School Grantman
 He was removed from school and returned to Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth by October 1659.
 Henry Stokes master at The KIng's School, Persued her mother to send him back to school.
 The college was founded in 1546 by King Henry VIII. Trinity is one of the oldest and largest
colleges in Cambridge,

 In June 1661, he was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge, on the recommendation of his
uncle Rev William Ayscough, who had studied there
 Isaac Newton matriculated as subsizar at Trinity College (until he was awarded a scholarship in
1664)
 He also immersed himself in the study of Galileo and Kepler
 Newton had obtained his BA degree in August 1665,
 He was appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1669

The university temporarily closed as a precaution against the Great Plague. Although he had been
undistinguished as a Cambridge student, Newton's private studies at his home in Woolsthorpe over the
subsequent two years saw the development of his theories on calculus, optics, and the law of
gravitation.

Newton Invention

Newton’s Reflecting Telescope

Newtonian telescope, also called the Newtonian reflector or just the Newtonian, is a type of reflecting
telescope invented by the English physicist Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727), using a concave primary
mirror and a flat diagonal secondary mirror. Newton's first reflecting telescope was completed in 1668
and is the earliest known functional reflecting telescope. The Newtonian telescope's complex design has
made it very popular with amateur telescope makers.

Newton built his reflecting telescope because he suspected it could prove his theory that white light is
composed of a spectrum of colours. Colour distortion (chromatic aberration) was the primary fault of
refracting telescopes of Newton's day, and there were many theories as to what caused it. During the
mid-1660s with his work on the theory of colour, Newton concluded this defect was caused by the lens
of the refracting telescope behaving the same as prisms he was experimenting with, breaking white light
into a rainbow of colours around bright astronomical objects. If this were true, then chromatic
aberration could be eliminated by building a telescope which did not use a lens – a reflecting telescope.

Newton’s Discoveries in Theoretical Physics

Sir Isaac Newton contributed to many branches of human thought, among which physics and
mathematics were the fields in which he contributed substantially. In 1687, the sum total of his
discoveries in mechanics were published in the legendary book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia
Mathematica (Latin for Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy).

In this book, (fondly referred to as the Principia by scientists), he synthesized what was known, into a
logically whole and consistent theoretical framework, through his laws of motion and theory of
gravitation.

The Laws of Motion

First Law of Motion: An object will continue moving (or staying still) unless acted upon by an external
force

Second Law of Motion: Force = Mass x Acceleration. Newton’s second law of motion defines a ‘Force

Third Law of Motion: When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body simultaneously
exerts a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to that of the first body.
 First law of Motion

Second law of Motion

Third Law of Motion

The Law of Universal Gravitation

Is usually stated as that every particle attracts every other particle in the universe with a force that is
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between their centers. The publication of the theory has become known as the "first great
unification", as it marked the unification of the previously described phenomena of gravity on Earth with
known astronomical behaviors.
where F is the gravitational force acting between two objects, m1 and m2 are the masses of the objects,
r is the distance between the centers of their masses, and G is the gravitational constant

Opticks
Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light, including its
interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it

Optics began with the development of lenses by the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians. The earliest
known lenses, made from polished crystal, often quartz, date from as early as 2000 BC from Crete
(Archaeological Museum of Heraclion, Greece). Lenses from Rhodes date around 700 BC, as do Assyrian
lenses such as the Nimrud lens

In 1666, Newton observed that the spectrum of colours exiting a prism in the position of minimum
deviation is oblong, even when the light ray entering the prism is circular, which is to say, the prism
refracts different colours by different angles. This led him to conclude that colour is a property intrinsic
to light – a point which had, until then, been a matter of debate

Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles, which were refracted by accelerating
into a denser medium. He verged on soundlike waves to explain the repeated pattern of reflection and
transmission by thin films (Opticks Bk.II, Props. 12), but still retained his theory of 'fits' that disposed
corpuscles to be reflected or transmitted (Props.13)

In 1704, Newton published Opticks, in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light.

In his book Opticks, Newton was the first to show a diagram using a prism as a beam expander, and also
the use of multiple-prism arrays

Newton had committed himself to the doctrine that refraction without colour was impossible. He,
therefore, thought that the object-glasses of telescopes must forever remain imperfect, achromatism
and refraction being incompatible. This inference was proved by Dollond to be wrong
 Calculus
His work on the subject, usually referred to as fluxions or calculus, seen in a manuscript of October
1666, is now published among Newton's mathematical papers

Newton later became involved in a dispute with Leibniz over priority in the development of calculus (the
Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy). Most modern historians believe that Newton and Leibniz
developed calculus independently, although with very different mathematical notations.

Newton published almost nothing about it until 1693, and did not give a full account until 1704,

Method of Fluxions
Method of Fluxions (latin De Methodis Serierum et Fluxionum) The book was completed in 1671, and
published in 1736. Fluxion is Newton's term for a derivative. He originally developed the method at
Woolsthorpe Manor during the closing of Cambridge during the Great Plague of London from 1665 to
1667, but did not choose to make his findings known (similarly, his findings which eventually became the
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica were developed at this time and hidden from the world in
Newton's notes for many years

7 years after Newton had developed the basis for differential calculus, as seen in surviving documents
like “the method of fluxions and fluents..." from 1666. Leibniz however published his discovery of
differential calculus in 1684, nine years before Newton formally published his fluxion notation form of
calculus in part during 1693

The calculus notation in use today is mostly that of Leibniz, although Newton's dot notation for
differentiation x for denoting derivatives with respect to time is still in current use throughout
mechanics and circuit analysis.

Fluxion
 A fluxion is the instantaneous rate of change, or gradient, of a fluent (a time-varying quantity, or
function) at a given point. Fluxions were introduced by Isaac Newton to describe his form of a time
derivative (a derivative with respect to time). Newton introduced the concept in 1665 and detailed them
in, Method of Fluxions. Fluxions and fluents made up Newton's early calculus.

Differential calculus
Differential calculus is a subfield of calculus that studies the rates at which quantities change. It is one of
the two traditional divisions of calculus, the other being integral calculus—the study of the area beneath
a curve, The primary objects of study in differential calculus are the derivative of a function, related
notions such as the differential, and their applications. The derivative of a function at a chosen input
value describes the rate of change of the function near that input value. The process of finding a
derivative is called differentiation.

In calculus , the differential represents the principal part of the changes in a function y=f(x) with respect
to changes in the independent variable. The differential dy is defined by

The derivative at a point is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function at that point,
provided that the derivative exists and is defined at that point. For a real-valued function of a single real
variable, the derivative of a function at a point generally determines the best linear approximation to
the function at that point.

Derivative
The derivative of f (x) at the point x=a is the slope of the tangent to (a, f (a) ). In order to gain an intuition
for this, one must first be familiar with finding the slope of a linear equation, written in the form y= mx +
b. The slope of an equation is its steepness.

It can be found by picking any two points and dividing the chnage in y by the change in x, meaning taht
slope = change in y

change in x

Derivative of a function
The derivative of a function is then simply the slope of this tangent line

defining the derivative of a function, meaning that the 'slope of the tangent line' now has a precise
mathematical meaning. Differentiating a function using the above definition is known as differentiation
from first principles. Here is a proof, using differentiation from first principles, that the derivative of y=
x^ is 2x

Newton Notation
Newton's notation for differentiation (also called the dot notation, or sometimes, rudely, the flyspeck
notation for differentiation) places a dot over the dependent variable. That is, if y is a function of t, then
the derivative of y with respect to t is
Newton had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared controversy and criticism. He was
close to the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier. In 1691, Duillier started to write a new
version of Newton's Principia, and corresponded with Leibniz. In 1693, the relationship between Duillier
and Newton deteriorated and the book was never completed

Starting in 1699, other members of the Royal Society accused Leibniz of plagiarism. The dispute then
broke out in full force in 1711 when the Royal Society proclaimed in a study that it was Newton who was
the true discoverer and labelled Leibniz a fraud; it was later found that Newton wrote the study's
concluding remarks on Leibniz. Thus began the bitter controversy which marred the lives of both
Newton and Leibniz until the latter's death in 1716

Gottfried Wilhlem Leibniz

 Gottfried Leibniz was born on 1 July 1646, (Leipzig, Electorate of Saxony, Holy Roman Empire
 Deid on November 14, 1716 (Age of 70) Hanover, Electorate of Hanover, Holy Roman Empire
 Was a German mathematician, philosopher, scientist, and diplomat
 He is a prominent figure in both the history of philosophy and the history of mathematics.
 Early life of liebniz
 Leibniz was baptized on 3 July of that year at St. Nicholas Church, Leipzig
 His father died when he was six years old
 Leibniz's father had been a Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Leipzig
 He also composed 300 hexameters of Latin verse,
 In April 1661 he enrolled in his father's former university at age 14
 December 1662 completed his bachelor's degree in Philosophy (Metaphysical Disputation
on the Principle of Individuation)
 After one year of legal studies, he was awarded his bachelor's degree in Law on 28
September 1665.
 In early 1666, at age 19, Leibniz wrote his first book, De Arte Combinatoria (On the
Combinatorial Art)the first part of which was also his habilitation thesis in Philosophy, which
he defended in March 1666. De Arte Combinatoria was inspired by Ramon Llull's Ars Magna
and contained a proof of the existence of God, cast in geometrical form, and based on the
argument from motion.
 His next goal was to earn his license and Doctorate in Law, which normally required three
years of study. In 1666, the University of Leipzig turned down Leibniz's doctoral application
and refused to grant him a Doctorate in Law, most likely due to his relative youth
 Leibniz then enrolled in the University of Altdorf

Altdorf was briefly the centre of Socinianism in Germany.

Socinianism is a Non-trinitarian Christian belief system named after the Italian
 Leibniz quickly submitted a thesis, which he had probably been working on earlier in
Leipzig.
 Disputatio Inauguralis de Casibus Perplexis in Jure (Inaugural Disputation on Ambiguous
Legal Cases).
 Earned his license to practice law and his Doctorate in Law in November 1666. He next
declined the offer of an academic appointment at Altdorf, saying that "my thoughts
were turned in an entirely different direction"
Thus Leibniz went to Paris in 1672. Soon after arriving, he met Dutch physicist and
mathematician Christiaan Huygens and realised that his own knowledge of mathematics and
physics was patchy. With Huygens as his mentor, he began a program of self-study that soon
pushed him to making major contributions to both subjects, including discovering his
version of the differential and integral calculus
Gottfried Leibniz Invention

Leibniz Pinwheel Calculator

for its calculating engine, a set of wheels that had an adjustable number of teeth. These
wheels, also called pinwheels, could be set by using a side lever which could expose
anywhere from 0 to 9 teeth, and therefore when coupled to a counter they could, at each
rotation, add a number from 0 to 9 to the result.
written in 1685, Leibniz described an arithmetic machine he had invented that was made by
linking two separate machines, one to perform additions/subtractions and one for
multiplications/divisions.

Giovanni Poleni was the first to build a calculator that used a pinwheel design. Made of
wood, his calculating clock was built in 1709; he destroyed it after hearing that Antonius
Braun had received 10,000 Guldens for dedicating a pinwheel machine of his own design to
the emperor Charles VI of Vienna. Poleni described his machine in his Miscellanea in 1709,

There is no evidence that Leibniz constructed this pinwheel machine, but his Leibniz wheel,
used in the arithmometer, the first mass-produced mechanical calculator. He also refined
 the binary number system, which is the foundation of nearly all digital (electronic, solid-
state, discrete logic) computers, including the Von Neumann architecture, which is the
standard design paradigm, or "computer architecture
Pinwheel calculator is a class of mechanical calculator popular in the 19th and 20th century
Leibniz studied binary numbering in 1679;binary number is a number expressed in the base-
2 numeral system or binary numeral system, a method of mathematical expression which
uses only two symbols: typically "0" (zero) and "1" (one).
The base-2 numeral system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Each digit is referred to
as a bit, or binary digit
the binary system is used by almost all modern computers and computer-based devices, as a
preferred system of use, over various other human techniques of communication, because
of the simplicity of the language.
Leibniz's system uses 0 and 1, like the modern binary numeral system. An example of
Leibniz's binary numeral system is as follows:

Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis

"Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis" is the first published work on the subject of
calculus. It was published by Gottfried Leibniz in the Acta Eruditorum in October 1684. It is
considered to be the birth of infinitesimal calculus.
Nova methodus pro maximis et minimis, itemque tangentibus, quae nec fractas nec
irrationales quantitates moratur, et singulare pro illis calculi genus." In English, the full title
can be translated as "A new method for maxima and minima, and for tangents, that is not
hindered by fractional or irrational quantities, and a singular kind of calculus for the above
mentioned." It is from this title that this branch of mathematics takes the name calculus.

Principles
 Identity/contradiction. If a proposition is true, then its negation is false and viceversa.
 Identity of indiscernibles. Two distinct things cannot have all their properties in common. If
every predicate possessed by x is also possessed by y and vice versa, then entities x and y are
identical; to suppose two things indiscernible is to suppose the same thing under two names.
 Sufficient reason. "There must be a sufficient reason for anything to exist, for any event to
occur, for any truth to obtain."
 Pre-established harmony. The appropriate nature of each substance brings it about that what
happens to one corresponds to what happens to all the others, without, however, their acting
upon one another directly."
 Law of Continuity. Natura non facit saltus (literally, "Nature does not make jumps").
 Optimism. "God assuredly always chooses the best."
 Plenitude. Leibniz believed that the best of all possible worlds would actualize every
genuine possibility with our finite experience of eternity giving no reason to dispute
nature's perfection.
Monads
Leibniz's best known contribution to metaphysics is his theory of monads, as exposited in
Monadologie.
He proposes his theory that the universe is made of an infinite number of simple substances
known as monads.
Monads can also be compared to the corpuscles of the mechanical philosophy of René
Descartes and others.
These simple substances or monads are the "ultimate units of existence in nature". Monads
have no parts but still exist by the qualities that they have.
Monads are centers of force; substance is force, while space, matter, and motion are merely
phenomenal. It is said that he anticipated Albert Einstein by arguing, against Newton, that
space, time, and motion are completely relative as he quipped.

Theodicy and optimism

The Theodicy tries to justify the apparent imperfections of the world by claiming that it is
optimal among all possible worlds. It must be the best possible and most balanced world,
because it was created by an all powerful and all knowing God, who would not choose to
create an imperfect world if a better world could be known to him or possible to exist. In
effect, apparent flaws that can be identified in this world must exist in every possible world,
because otherwise God would have chosen to create the world that excluded those flaws.
Leibniz asserted that the truths of theology (religion) and philosophy cannot contradict each
other, since reason and faith are both "gifts of God" so that their conflict would imply God
contending against himself. The Theodicy is Leibniz's attempt to reconcile his personal
philosophical system with his interpretation of the tenets of Christianity.
Discourse on Metaphysics
For Leibniz, "God is an absolutely perfect being". He describes this perfection later in section
VI as the simplest form of something with the most substantial outcome . Along these lines,
he declares that every type of perfection "pertains to him (God) in the highest degree" .
Even though his types of perfections are not specifically drawn out, Leibniz highlights the
one thing that, to him, does certify imperfections and proves that God is perfect.
but Leibniz says that the only way we can truly love God is by being content "with all that
comes to us according to his will"
Symbolic thought
Leibniz's calculus ratiocinator, which resembles symbolic logic, can be viewed as a way of
making such calculations feasible. Leibniz wrote memoranda that can now be read as
 groping attempts to get symbolic logic—and thus his calculus—off the ground. These
writings remained unpublished until the appearance of a selection edited by Carl Immanuel
Gerhardt (1859). Louis Couturat published a selection in 1901; by this time the main
developments of modern logic had been created by Charles Sanders Peirce and by Gottlob
Frege.
Leibniz thought symbols were important for human understanding. He attached so much
importance to the development of good notations that he attributed all his discoveries in
mathematics to this
But Leibniz took his speculations much further. Defining a character as any written sign, he
then defined a "real" character as one that represents an idea directly and not simply as the
word embodying the idea.
Formal logic
Leibniz has been noted as one of the most important logicians between the times of
Aristotle and Gottlob Frege. Leibniz enunciated the principal properties of what we now call
conjunction, disjunction, negation, identity, set inclusion, and the empty set,
The formal logic that emerged early in the 20th century also requires, at minimum, unary
negation and quantified variables ranging over some universe of discourse
Linear systems
Leibniz arranged the coefficients of a system of linear equations into an array, now called a
matrix, in order to find a solution to the system if it existed. This method was later called
Gaussian elimination.
He also solved systems of linear equations using determinants, which is now called
Cramer's rule.
This method for solving systems of linear equations based on determinants was found in
1684 by Leibniz (Cramer published his findings in 1750)
Calculus
Leibniz is credited, along with Sir Isaac Newton, with the discovery of calculus (differential
and integral calculus). According to Leibniz's notebooks, a critical breakthrough occurred on
11 November 1675, when he employed integral calculus for the first time to find the area
under the graph of a function y = f(x). He introduced several notations used to this day, for
instance the integral sign ∫, representing an elongated S, from the Latin word summa, and
the d used for differentials, from the Latin word differentia.Leibniz did not publish anything
about his calculus until 1684.Leibniz expressed the inverse relation of integration and
differentiation, later called the fundamental theorem of calculus, by means of a figure in his
1693 paper Supplementum geometriae dimensoriae
However, James Gregory is credited for the theorem's discovery in geometric form, Isaac
Barrow proved a more generalized geometric version, and Newton developed supporting
theory.
The concept became more transparent as developed through Leibniz's formalism
and new notation. The product rule of differential calculus is still called "Leibniz's
 law". In addition, the theorem that tells how and when to differentiate under the
integral sign is called the Leibniz integral rule.

Fundamental theorem of calculus

The fundamental theorem of calculus relates differentiation and integration, showing that
these two operations are essentially inverses of one another. Before the discovery of this
theorem, it was not recognized that these two operations were related. Ancient Greek
mathematicians knew how to compute area via infinitesimals, an operation that we would
now call integration.
theorem that links the concept of differentiating a function (calculating the gradient) with
the concept of integrating a function (calculating the area under the curve)
There are two fundamental theorem the first and the second fundamental theorem.
The First Fundamental Theorem
The first part of the theorem, sometimes called the first fundamental theorem of calculus,
states that one of the antiderivatives (also known as an indefinite integral), say F, of some
function f may be obtained as the integral of f with a variable bound of integration. This
implies the existence of antiderivatives for continuous functions
First part
This part is sometimes referred to as the first fundamental theorem of calculus. Let f be a
continuous real-valued function defined on a closed interval [a, b]. Let F be the function
defined, for all x in [a, b], by

The Second Fundamental Theorem

The second part of the theorem, sometimes called the second fundamental theorem of
calculus, states that the integral of a function f over some interval can be computed by using
any one, say F, of its infinitely many antiderivatives. This part of the theorem has key
practical applications, because explicitly finding the antiderivative of a function by symbolic
integration avoids numerical integration to compute integrals
Second part
This part is sometimes referred to as the second fundamental theorem of calculus or the
Newton–Leibniz axiom.
In general, the integral of a real-valued function f(x) with respect to a real variable x on an
interval [a, b] is written as
 The integral sign ∫ represents integration. The symbol dx, called the differential of the
variable x, indicates that the variable of integration is x. The function f(x) is called the
integrand, the points a and b are called the limits (or bounds) of integration, and the integral
is said to be over the interval [a, b], called the interval of integration.[17] A function is said
to be integrable if its integral over its domain is finite. If limits are specified, the integral is
called a definite integral.

Leibniz integral rule

In calculus, the Leibniz integral rule for differentiation under the integral sign,states that for
an integral of the form

Leibniz's notation
In calculus, Leibniz's notation, uses the symbols dx and dy to represent infinitely small (or
infinitesimal) increments of x and y, respectively, just as Δx and Δy represent finite
increments of x and y, respectively
Consider y as a function of a variable x, or y = f(x). If this is the case, then the derivative of y
with respect to x, which later came to be viewed as the limit

Leibniz exploited infinitesimals in developing calculus, manipulating them in ways suggesting

that they had paradoxical algebraic properties. George Berkeley, in a tract called The Analyst
and also in De Motu, criticized these. A recent study argues that Leibnizian calculus was free
of contradictions, and was better grounded than Berkeley's empiricist criticisms
 From 1711 until his death, Leibniz was engaged in a dispute with John Keill, Newton and
others, over whether Leibniz had invented calculus independently of Newton. This subject is
treated at length in the article Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy.