Turanism

Map of Eurasia showing the "Altaic", Turkic and Uralic language-speaking regions, that are united
under the "Turanian" theory.

Turanism, also known as pan-Turanianism, pan-Turanism, or simply Turan, is a nationalist cultural and
political movement proclaiming the need for close cooperation or political unification between (culturally,
linguistically or ethnically related) peoples of Inner and Central Asian origin[1] like the Finns, Japanese,[2]
Koreans,[3][4] Sami, Samoyeds, Hungarians, Turks, Mongols, Manchus[5] and other smaller ethnic groups
as a means of securing and furthering shared interests and countering the threats posed by the policies of the
great powers of Europe. It was born in the 19th century to counter the effects of pan-nationalist ideologies
such as pan-Germanism and pan-Slavism.[6] The idea of a "Turanian brotherhood and collaboration" was
borrowed from the pan-Slavic concept of "Slavic brotherhood and collaboration".

The term itself originates from the name of a geographical area, the Turan Depression. The term Turan was
widely used in scientific literature from the 18th century onwards to denote Central Asia. European
scholars borrowed the term from the historical works of Abu al-Ghazi Bahadur; the annotated English
translation of his Shajare-i Türk was published in 1729 and quickly became an oft-used source for
European scholars.

This political ideology originated in the work of the Finnish nationalist and linguist Matthias Alexander
Castrén, who championed the ideology of pan-Turanism—the belief in the ethnic unity and the future
greatness of the Ural-Altaic peoples. He concluded that the Finns originated in Central Asia (more
specifically in the Altai Mountains) and far from being a small isolated people, they were part of a larger
polity that included such peoples as the Magyars, Turks, Mongols and the like.[7] It implies not only the
unity of all Turkic peoples (as in pan-Turkism), but also the alliance of a wider Turanian or Ural-Altaic
family believed to include all peoples speaking "Turanian languages".
Although Turanism is a political movement for the union of all Uralo-Altaic peoples, there are different
opinions about inclusiveness.[8] In the opinion of the famous Turanist Ziya Gökalp, Turanism is for Turkic
peoples only as the other Turanian peoples (Finns, Hungarians, Mongolians and so on) are too different
culturally; thus, he narrowed Turanism into pan-Turkism.[9] According to the description given by Lothrop
Stoddard at the time of World War I:

Right across northern Europe and Asia, from the Baltic to the Pacific and from the
Mediterranean to the Arctic Ocean, there stretches a vast band of peoples to whom
ethnologists have assigned the name of "Uralo-Altaic race", but who are more generally
termed "Turanians". This group embraces the most widely scattered folk—the Ottoman Turks
of Constantinople and Anatolia, the Turcomans of Central Asia and Persia, the Tatars of South
Russia and Transcaucasia, the Magyars of Hungary, the Finns of Finland and the Baltic
provinces, the aboriginal tribes of Siberia and even the distant Mongols and Manchus. Diverse
though they are in culture, tradition, and even physical appearance, these peoples nevertheless
possess certain well-marked traits in common. Their languages are all similar, and, what is of
even more import, their physical and mental make-up displays undoubted affinities.[10]

Contents
Origins of pan-Turanianism
By regions
Europe
Finland
Hungary
Turkey
Asia
Japan
Americas
Pseudoscientific theories
Key personalities Max Müller's northern division
of Turanian languages
See also
References and notes
Further reading
External links

Origins of pan-Turanianism
The concept of a Ural-Altaic ethnic and language family goes back to the linguistic theories of Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz; in his opinion there was no better method for specifying the relationship and origin of the
various peoples of the Earth, than the comparison of their languages. In his Brevis designatio meditationum
de originibus gentium ductis potissimum ex indicio linguarum,[11] written in 1710, he originates every
human language from one common ancestor language. Over time, this ancestor language split into two
families: the Japhetic and the Aramaic. The Japhetic family split even further, into Scythian and Celtic
branches. The members of the Scythian family were: the Greek language, the family of Sarmato-Slavic
languages (Russian, Polish, Czech, Dalmatian, Bulgar, Slovene, Avar and Khazar), the family of Turkic
languages (Turkish, Cuman, Kalmyk and Mongolian), the family of Finnic languages (Finnish, Saami,
Hungarian, Estonian, Liv and Samoyed). Although his theory and grouping were far from perfect, it had a
tremendous effect on the development of linguistic research, especially in German speaking countries.

Pan-Turanianism has its roots in the Finnish nationalist Fennophile and Fennoman movement, and in the
works of linguist Matthias Alexander Castrén. The concept spread from here to the kindred peoples of the
Finns.

Friedrich Max Müller, the German Orientalist and philologist, published

and proposed a new grouping of the non-Aryan and non-Semitic Asian
languages in 1855. In his work The Languages of the Seat of War in the
East, he called these languages "Turanian". Müller divided this group into
two subgroups, the Southern Division, and the Northern Division.[12] In
the long run, his evolutionist theory about languages' structural
development, tying growing grammatical refinement to socio-economic
development, and grouping languages into 'antediluvian', 'familial',
'nomadic', and 'political' developmental stages,[13] proved unsound, but
his Northern Division was renamed and re-classed as the Ural-Altaic
languages. Nonetheless, his terminology stuck, and the terms 'Turanian
peoples' and 'Turanian languages' became parts of common parlance.

Like the term Aryan is used for Indo-European, Turanian is used chiefly
as a linguistic term, synonymous with Ural-Altaic.[14]
The languages of Asia and
The Altaic family remains relevant—and still insufficiently understood— Europe arranged according to
though, the Ural-Altaic theory has been scientifically disproven, concepts their grammatical principles in
of areal linguistics and typology even if in a genetic sense these terms Max Müller's Letter to
might be considered as obsolete.[15] Chevalier Bunsen on the
classification of the Turanian
languages, published in 1854
By regions

Europe

Finland

Pan-Turanianism has its roots in the Finnish nationalist Fennophile and Fennoman movement, and in the
works of Finnish nationalist and linguist Matthias Alexander Castrén. Castrén conducted more than seven
years of fieldwork in western and southern Siberia between 1841 and 1849. His extensive field materials
focus on Ob-Ugric, Samoyedic, Ketic, and Turkic languages. He collected valuable ethnographic
information, especially on shamanism. Based on his research, he claimed that the Finnic, Ugric, Samoyed,
Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic languages were all of the same 'Altaic family'. He concluded that the
Finns originated in Central Asia (in the Altai Mountains), and far from being a small, isolated people, they
were part of a larger polity that included such peoples as the Magyars, Turks, Mongols, and so on. Based
on his researches, he championed the ideology of pan-Turanism, the belief in the ethnic unity and the future
greatness of the Ural-Altaic peoples. The concept spread from here to the kindred peoples of the Finns. As
Castrén put it:
 I am determined to show the Finnish nation that we are not a solitary people from the bog,
living in isolation from the world and from universal history, but are in fact related to at least
one-sixth of mankind. Writing grammars is not my main goal, but without the grammars that
goal cannot be attained.[16]

Castrén was of the opinion that Russia was seeking systematically to prevent all development towards freer
conditions in Finland, and concluded from this that the Finns must begin to prepare a revolt against Russia.
According to him, it was to be linked with a favourable international crisis and would be realised as a
general revolt against Russian rule, in which the non-Russian peoples from the Turks and Tatars to the
Finns would take part. This political vision of his was shared by some other intellectuals.[17] Fennomans
like Elias Lönnrot and Zachris Topelius shared this or an even bolder vision of coming greatness. As
Topelius put it:

Two hundred years ago few would have believed that the Slavic tribe would attain the
prominent (and constantly growing) position it enjoys nowadays in the history of culture. What
if one day the Finnish tribe, which occupies a territory almost as vast, were to play a greater
role on the world scene than one could expect nowadays? [...] Today people speak of Pan-
Slavism; one day they may talk of Pan-Fennicism, or Pan-Suomism. Within such a Pan-Finnic
community, the Finnish nation should hold the leading position because of its cultural seniority
[...].[16]

Hungary

Hungarian Turanism (Hungarian: Turanizmus) was a Romantic nationalist cultural and political movement
which was most active from the second half of the 19th century through the first half of the 20th century.[6]
It was based on the age old and still living national tradition about the Asian origins of the Magyars. This
tradition was preserved in medieval chronicles (such as Gesta Hungarorum[18] and Gesta Hunnorum et
Hungarorum,[19] and the Chronicon Pictum) as early as the 13th century. This tradition served as the
starting point for the scientific research about the ethnogenesis of the Hungarian people, which began in the
18th century, both in Hungary and abroad. Sándor Kőrösi Csoma (the writer of the first Tibetan-English
dictionary) traveled to Asia in the strong belief that he could find the kindred of the Magyars in Turkestan,
amongst the Uyghurs.[20] As a scientific movement, Turanism was concerned with the research about Asia
and its culture in the context of Hungarian history and culture. Political Turanism was born in the 19th
century, in response to the growing influence of Pan-Germanism and Pan-Slavism, which were seen by
Hungarians as very dangerous to the state and nation of Hungary because the country had large ethnic
German and Slavic populations.[6] Political Turanism was a romantic nationalist movement, which
accentuated the importance of the common ancestry and the cultural affinity of the Hungarians with the
peoples of the Caucasus, Inner and Central Asia, like the Turks, Mongols, Parsi and the like, and called for
closer collaboration and political alliance with them, as a means to secure and further shared interests, and
counter the imminent threats posed by the policies of Western powers like Germany, the British Empire,
France and Russia.

The idea of a Hungarian Oriental Institute originated with Jenő Zichy.[21] This idea did not come true.
Instead, a kind of lyceum was formed in 1910, called Turáni Társaság (Hungarian Turan Society, also
called Hungarian Asiatic Society). The Turan society concentrated on Turan as geographic location where
the ancestors of Hungarians might have lived.
The movement received impetus after Hungary's defeat in World War I. Under the terms of the Treaty of
Trianon (1920), the new Hungarian state constituted only 32.7% of the territory of historic, pre-treaty
Hungary, and it lost 58.4% of its total population. More than 3.2 million ethnic Hungarians (one-third of all
Hungarians) resided outside the new boundaries of Hungary in the successor states under oppressive
conditions.[22] Old Hungarian cities of great cultural importance like Pozsony (a former capital of the
country), Kassa, and Kolozsvár (present-day Bratislava, Košice, and Cluj-Napoca respectively) were lost.
Under these circumstances, no Hungarian government could survive without seeking justice for both the
Magyars and Hungary. Reuniting the Magyars became a crucial point in public life and on the political
agenda. Outrage led many to reject Europe and turn towards the East in search of new friends and allies in
a bid to revise the unjust terms of the treaty and restore the integrity of Hungary.

Disappointment towards Europe caused by 'the betrayal of the West in Trianon', and the
pessimistic feeling of loneliness, led different strata in society towards Turanism. They tried to
look for friends, kindred peoples and allies in the East so that Hungary could break out of its
isolation and regain its well deserved position among the nations. A more radical group of
conservative, rightist people, sometimes even with an anti-Semitic hint propagated sharply
anti-Western views and the superiority of Eastern culture, the necessity of a pro-Eastern policy,
and development of the awareness of Turanic racialism among Hungarian people.[23]

On 1 June 1924, the Magyar-Nippon Társaság (Hungarian Nippon Society) was founded by private
persons in order to strengthen Hungarian-Japanese cultural relations and exchanges.[24]

Turanism was never embraced officially because it was not in accord with the Christian conservatist
ideological background of the regime, but it was used by the government as an informal tool to break the
country's international isolation, and build alliances. Hungary signed treaties of friendship and collaboration
with the Republic of Turkey in 1923,[25] with the Republic of Estonia in 1937,[26] with the Republic of
Finland in 1937,[27] with Japan in 1938,[28] and with Bulgaria in 1941.[29]

After World War II, the Soviet Red Army occupied Hungary. The Hungarian government was placed
under the direct control of the administration of the occupying forces. All Turanist organisations were
disbanded by the government, and the majority of Turanist publications was banned and confiscated. In
1948, Hungary was converted into a communist one-party state. Turanism was portrayed and vilified as an
exclusively fascist ideology although Turanism's role in the interwar development of far-right ideologies
was negligible.[30] The official prohibition lasted until the collapse of the socialist regime in 1989.

Turkey

Traditional history cites its early origins amongst Ottoman officers and intelligentsia studying and residing
in 1870s Imperial Germany. The fact that many Ottoman Turkish officials were becoming aware of their
sense of "Turkishness" is beyond doubt of course, and the role of subsequent nationalists, such as Ziya
Gökalp is fully established historically. As the Turkish historian Hasan Bülent Paksoy put it, an aspiration
emerged that the Turkic peoples might "form a political entity stretching from the Altai Mountains in
Eastern Asia to the Bosphorus".[31] During the late 19th century, the works of renowned Hungarian
Orientalist and linguist Ármin Vámbéry contributed to the spreading of Turkish nationalism and Turanism.
Vámbéry was employed by the British Foreign office as an advisor and agent. He was paid well for his
accounts about his meetings with members of the Ottoman elite and Sultan Abdul Hamid II, and for his
essays concerning Ottoman politics.[32] The Ottoman Empire fell into ever deepening decline during the
19th century. There were reform and modernization attempts as early as the 1830s (Tanzimat), but the
country was lowered to an almost semi-colonial state at the turn of the century (the state accumulated an
enormous amount of debt and state finances were placed under direct foreign control), and the great powers
freely preyed on her, occupying or annexing parts of her territory at will (e.g. Cyprus). At the time, the
Russian and British empires were antagonists in the so-called "Great Game" to cultivate influence in Persia
and Central Asia (Turkestan). Russia and Britain systematically fanned the rivalling nationalisms of the
multi-ethnic empire for their own ends,[33][34] and this led to the strengthening of Turkish nationalism as a
result. The nationalist movement of the Young Turks aimed for a secularized nation-state, and constitutional
government in a parliamentary democracy.

The political party of the Young Turks, the Committee of Union and Progress, embraced Turanism, and a
glorification of Turkish ethnic identity, and was devoted to protecting the Turkic peoples living under
foreign rule (most of them under Russian rule as a result of Russia's enormous territorial expansion during
the 16th and 19th centuries), and to restoring the Ottoman Empire's shattered national pride.[35]

The Turkish version of pan-Turanianism was summed up by American politicians at the time of First World
War as follows: "It has been shown above that the Turkish version of pan-Turanianism contains two
general ideas: (a) To purify and strengthen the Turkish nationality within the Ottoman Empire, and (b) to
link up the Ottoman Turks with the other Turks in the world. These objects were first pursued in the
cultural sphere by a private group of 'Intellectuals', and promoted by peaceful propaganda. After 1913, they
took on a political form and were incorporated in the programme of the C.U.P.",[36] but Ottoman defeat in
World War I briefly undermined the notion of pan-Turanianism.[37]

After World War I, Turkish nationalists and Turanists joined the Basmachi movement in Central Asia, to
help their struggle against the Soviets. The most prominent amongst them was Enver Pasha, the former
Ottoman war minister.

Turanism forms an important aspect of the ideology of the modern Turkish Nationalist Movement Party
(MHP), whose youth movement is informally known as the Grey Wolves. Grey Wolf (the mother wolf
Asena) was the main symbol of the ancient Turkic peoples.

In the wake of the Turkish-assisted victory by Azerbaijan in its war with Armenia in 2020, "a certain
'Turan' (greater Turkic world) euphoria took hold on social media," Tanchum, a senior fellow at the
Austrian Institute for European and Security Policy and a non-resident fellow at the Middle East Institute in
Washington, said.[38]

Asia

Japan

Japanese Turanism was based upon the same footing as its European counterparts. The Austrian German
philologist Johann Anton Boller (1811–1869) was the first who systematically tried to prove the Ural-Altaic
藤岡勝二
affiliation of the Japanese language.[39] The Japanese linguist Fujioka Katsuji ( , 1872–1935) put
forward a set of mainly typological characteristics linking Japanese to the Ural-Altaic family.[40] The
concept of Japanese as a Ural-Altaic language was quite widely accepted prior to the second world war. At
present, Japanese is one of the only major language in the world whose genetic affiliation to other
languages or language families has not been adequately proven.

Japanese is now thought to be related to Southeast Asian languages (Austronesian or Austric languages) by
linguists Alexander Vovin and Gerhard Jäger, although just like the Altaic languages, it has also not been
proven.[41][42]
In the 1920s and 30s Turanism got some backing in Japan, mostly amongst the military elite and
intelligentsia. Japanese Turanists claimed that Japanese have an Inner Asian descent, and the progenitors of
the Japanese people migrated from Central Asia to conquer the Japanese islands. Kitagawa Shikazō ( 北川
鹿藏 , 1886–1943) asserted that the Japanese had descended from the Tungusic branch of the Turanian
family, just like the Koreans and Manchus, whose origin had been in north-east China, Manchuria. And,
since Japanese, Koreans and Manchus derived from a Tungusic origin, they also had a bond with other
Turanian sub-ethnicities like Turks, Mongols, Samoyeds and Finno-Ugrians in terms of blood, language
and culture.[2] The first-ever Japanese Turanist organization, the Turanian National Alliance – Tsuran
Minzoku Domei ( ツラン民族同盟 今岡十一郞
), was established in Tokyo in 1921, by Juichiro Imaoka ( ,
[2]
1888–1973) and the Hungarian Orientalist and ethnographer Benedek Baráthosi Balogh (1870–1945).
Other organisations like the Turanian Society of Japan – Nippon Tsuran Kyoukai ( 日本ツラン協會 , early
1930s) and the Japanese-Hungarian Cultural Association – Nikko Bunka Kyoukai ( 日洪文化協會 , 1938)
were founded too. A pro-Finnish activity was carried in Japan in the interwar period by some Japanese
nationalists influenced by Turanism. It found theoretical expression in, for example, a book entitled Hann
tsuranizumu to keizai burokku ( 汎ツラニズムと經濟ブロツク [43], Pan-Turanism and the Economic
Bloc), written by an economist. The writer insists that the Japanese should leave the tragically small
Japanese islands and resettle to the northern and western parts of the Asian continent, where their
forefathers had once dwelt. For this purpose, they had to reconquer these ancestral lands from the Slavs by
entering into alliance with the Turanian peoples. The Finns, one of those peoples, were to take a share of
this great achievement.[44] Turanian kinship along with an anti-communist stance were seen as justification
for Japan's intervention in the Russian and Chinese Civil War, and for the creation of a Japanese sphere of
interest, through the creation of new Japanese vassal states in North-East Asia. After the creation of
Manchukuo and Mengjiang, Japan pushed for further expansion in the Mongolian People's Republic, but
after the Nomonhan Incident gave up on those plans, and concluded the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact
with the Soviet Union in 1941.

After Khalkin Gol, the Japanese turned towards South-East Asia and the Pacific under a pan-Asianist
agenda.[45]

Most Turanist organisations were disbanded during the Pacific War by an imperial law promoting the Pan-
Asian agenda.

Americas

Some Pan-Turanists proposed that Native Americans may have possible genetic and linguistic connection
with the Turkic and other nomadic tribes in Asia. They have pointed to Native American culture, dance,
and customs as being similar to those found in Siberia and Northeast Asia, although since changed after the
migration of the Native Americans from Siberia to the Americas; examples of Native American peoples
whose customs are cited include the Melungeon as well as the Eskimos and the Quechuans.[46]

Pseudoscientific theories
Turanism has been characterized by pseudoscientific theories.[47][48] According to other opinions the
scientific work of the scholar members (like Jenő Cholnoky, Lajos Ligeti, Zoltán Felvinczi Takács and
others) of the Hungarian Turanian Society belonged to the frontline of the scientific life of the era.[49]
According to the Turanian or Ural-Altaic kinship theories, "Turanians" include Bulgarians, Estonians,
Mongols, Finns, Turks, and even Japanese people and Koreans, who are alleged to share Ural-Altaic
origins.[47] Though the underlying scientific theories are widely questioned or rejected in contemporary
scholarship, Turanism still has extensive support in certain Turkic-speaking countries. Referred to as
Pseudo-Turkologists,[50] these scholars stamp all Eurasian nomads and major civilizations in history as
being of Turkic or Turanian origin.[51] In such countries, Turanism has served as a form of national therapy,
helping its proponents cope with the failures of the past.[52]

Key personalities
Yusuf Akçura
Sadri Maksudi Arsal
Hüseyin Nihâl Atsız
Torokul Dzhanuzakov
Abulfaz Elchibey
Ismail Gaspirali
Ali bey Huseynzade
Ethem Nejat
Rıza Nur
Turar Ryskulov

Nejdet Sançar
Ömer Seyfettin
Mirsäyet Soltanğäliev
Munis Tekinalp
Hikmet Tanyu
Dündar Taşer
Zeki Velidi Togan
Alparslan Türkeş
Mehmet Emin Yurdakul

See also
Altaic language
Division of the Mongol Empire
Eurasianism
Gog and Magog
Greater Finland
Great Kurultáj
Heimosodat
Racism-Turanism trials
Sun Language Theory
Tartary
Turan Group
Turco-Mongols
Turkic migration
Uralic neopaganism

References and notes

 1. "A „turáni népek” elnevezés már átment a köztudatba és azt kiváló angol, francia, amerikai,
német és más tudósok is állandóan használják a tudományosabb, de hosszabb „ural-altai”
elnevezés helyett, amellyel az teljesen egyértelmű. Mi turáni eredetű népek alatt Európában
főleg a finneket, az észteket, a magyarokat, a bolgárokat és törököket értjük, Ázsiában pedig
főleg az egész, nagyon elterjedt török (turk) népcsaládot, mely jelenleg Kis-Ázsia, a
kaukázusi táj, Szibéria, Közép- és Kelet-Ázsia (jakutok) nagy részét foglalja magában,
továbbá a mongol és mandzsu-tunguz csoportot, mely előbbihez főleg az északi kínaiak,
utóbbiakhoz a japániak is tartoznak."
_______
"The 'Turanian peoples' denomination has
already become established, and it is frequently used by excellent English, French,
American, German and other scholars, in place of the more scientific but longer term 'Ural-
Altaic', with which it is completely identical. Under the Turanian peoples of Europe we
mainly understand the Finns, the Estonians, the Hungarians, the Bulgarians and Turks, and
in Asia the widely dispersed family of Turkic peoples who at present encompass large parts
of Asia Minor, the Caucasus, Siberia, Central and East Asia (Yakuts), as well as the Mongol
and Manchu-Tungusic groups, into the first of which mainly the northern Chinese belong to,
and into the latter the Japanese too."
______
PAIKERT Alajos: A turáni népek világhivatása.
In: Turán. Vol.XIX. No. 1-4. 1936. p. 19-22. http://real-
j.mtak.hu/10683/1/MTA_Turan_1936.pdf
2. LEVENT, Sinan: Common Asianist intellectual history in Turkey and Japan: Turanism. 2015.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280490550_Common_Asianist_intellectual_history_
3. Hyung Il, A.I. The Cultural Comparative Perspective in Torii Ryuzo's "Far East": The Search
for Japan's Antiquity in Prehistoric Korea (https://web.archive.org/web/20200505102203/htt
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4. "Many Japanese scholars expressed the idea of Nissen dōsoron (Theory of common
ancestry between Japanese and Koreans), which maintained a common origin as well as
inferior and superior positions of Koreans and Japanese. Other Japanese scholars
concluded that Korea had been historically dominated by influences from the continent,
particularly Manchuria." ALLEN, Chizuko: Ch'oe Namson at the Height of Japanese
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http://sjeas.skku.edu/upload/201312/Chizuko%20T.PDF Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20200323192653/http://sjeas.skku.edu/upload/201312/Chizuko%20T.PDF) 2020-03-23
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圖地布分族民ンラツ
5. " Ethnographical Card of Turanians (Uralo-Atlaians)" (https://www.rarem
aps.com/gallery/detail/50738?view=print). www.raremaps.com.
6. Farkas, Ildikó (2013). "A magyar turanizmus török kapcsolatai" (http://www.valosagonline.hu/
index.php?oldal=cikk&cazon=904&lap=0) [The Turkish connections of Hungarian Turanism]
(in Hungarian). www.valosagonline.hu [Valóság (2013 I.-IV)]. Retrieved 7 March 2014.
7. EB on Matthias Alexander Castrén.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/98799/Matthias-Alexander-Castren
8. "Turancılık – (H. Nihal ATSIZ) - Ulu Türkçü Nihal ATSIZ Otağı - Türkçülük - Turancılık ve
Hüseyin Nihal Atsız" (http://www.nihal-atsiz.com/yazi/turancilik-h-nihal-atsiz.html) [Turanism
- (H. Nihal ATSIZ) - The Great Turkist Nihal ATSIZ Post - Turkism - Turanism and Hüseyin
Nihal Atsız]. www.nihal-atsiz.com (in Turkish). 8 May 2016.
9. Türkçülüğün Esasları pg.25 (Gökalp, Ziya)
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writings."

Further reading
Arnakis, George G. (1960). "Turanism: An Aspect of Turkish Nationalism" (https://ojs.lib.uom.
gr/index.php/BalkanStudies/article/download/5073/5102). Balkan Studies. 1: 19–32.
Atabaki, Touraj (2000). Azerbaijan: Ethnicity and the Struggle for Power in Iran.
Farrokh, Kaveh (2005) Pan-Turanianism takes aim at Azerbaijan: A geopolitical agenda.
Landau, J.M. (1995). Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation. London: Hurst.
Lewis, B. (1962). The Emergence of Modern Turkey. London: Oxford University Press.
Lewis, B. (1998). The Multiple identities of the Middle East. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
 Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (1922). "Pan-Turanianism"  (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1922_
Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Pan-Turanianism). Encyclopædia Britannica (12th ed.).
Paksoy, H.B. (1991). ‘Basmachi’: TurkestanNational Liberation Movement 1916-1930s. In
Modern Encyclopedia of Religions in Russia and the Soviet Union (Vol 4). Florida:
Academic International Press. ESSAYS ON CENTRAL ASIA by H.B. PAKSOY | CARRIE
Books (http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-6/)
Pekesen, Berna (2019), Pan-Turkism (http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/transnational-movements
-and-organisations/international-organisations-and-congresses/pan-ideologies/berna-pekes
en-pan-turkism?set_language=en&-C=), EGO - European History Online (http://www.ieg-eg
o.eu/), Mainz: Institute of European History (http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php),
retrieved: March 17, 2021 (pdf (https://d-nb.info/1194979122/34)).
Poulton, H. (1997). Top Hat, Grey Wolf, and Crescent: Turkish Nationalism and the Turkish
Republic. London, England: Hurst.
Richards, G. (1997). ‘Race’, Racism and Psychology: Towards a Reflexive History.
Routledge.
Richards Martin, Macaulay Vincent, Hickey Eileen, Vega Emilce, Sykes Bryan, Guida
Valentina, Rengo Chiara, Sellitto Daniele, Cruciani Fulvio, Kivisild Toomas, Villerns
Richard, Thomas Mark, Rychkov Serge, Rychkov Oksana, Rychkov Yuri, Golge Mukaddes,
Dimitrov Dimitar, Hill Emmeline, Bradley Dan, Romano Valentino, Cail Francesco, Vona
Giuseppe, Demaine Andrew, Papiha Surinder, Triantaphyllides Costas, Stefanescu
Gheorghe, Hatina Jiri, Belledi Michele, Di Rienzo Anna, Novelletto Andrea, Oppenheim
Ariella, Norby Soren, Al-Zaheri Nadia, Santachiara-Benerecetti Silvana, Scozzari Rosaria,
Torroni Antonio, & Bandelt Hans Jurgen. (2000). Tracing European founder lineages in the
Near Eastern mtDNA pool. American Journal of Human Genetics, 67, p. 1251–1276.
Said, E. (1979). Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books.
Searle-White, J. (2001). The Psychology of Nationalism. Palgrave Macmillan.
Toynbee, A.J. (1917). Report on the Pan-Turanian Movement. London: Intelligence Bureau
Department of Information, Admiralty, L/MIL/17/16/23.
Stoddard, T. Lothrop. “Pan-Turanism”. The American Political Science Review. Vol. 11, No.
1. (1917): 12–23.
Zenkovsky, Serge A. (1960). Pan-Turkism and Islam in Russia. Cambridge-Massachusetts:
Harvard University Press.
Zeman, Zbynek & Scharlau, Winfried (1965), The merchant of revolution. The life of
Alexander Israel Helphand (Parvus). London: Oxford University Press. See especially
pages 125–144. ISBN 0-19-211162-0 ISBN 978-0192111623

External links
Pan-Turanism – T. Lothrop Stoddard (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1944138)
Pan-Turanianism (http://www.rozanehmagazine.com/NoveDec05/aazariINDEX.HTML)

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