Dictatorship

A dictatorship is a form of government characterized by

a single leader (dictator) or group of leaders that hold
government power promised to the people and little or no
toleration for political pluralism or independent media.[2]
As democracy is a form of government in which "those
who govern are selected through periodically contested
elections (in years)", dictatorships are not democracies.[2]

With the advent of the 19th and 20th centuries,

dictatorships and constitutional democracies emerged as
the world's two major forms of government, gradually
eliminating monarchies with significant political power,
the most widespread form of government in the pre-
industrial era. Typically, in a dictatorial regime, the leader
of the country is identified with the title of dictator;
although, their formal title may more closely resemble
something similar to leader. A common aspect that
characterized dictatorship is taking advantage of their
strong personality, usually by suppressing freedom of
thought and speech of the masses, in order to maintain
complete political and social supremacy and stability.
Dictatorships and totalitarian societies generally employ
political propaganda to decrease the influence of
proponents of alternative governing systems.[3][4]
Benito Mussolini (left) and Adolf Hitler (right).
Hitler's policies and orders both directly and
indirectly resulted in the deaths of about 50
Contents million people in Europe.[1] Mussolini was a
dictator who marked the beginning of "Fascism
Etymology in Europe".
Types
Military dictatorships
Single-party dictatorships
Personalist dictatorships
Monarchies
Hybrid dictatorships
Measuring dictatorships
History
Dictators in the Roman Empire
Shoguns in Japan
19th-century Latin American caudillos
Right-wing dictatorships of the 20th century
Latin American dictatorships of the 20th
century
 Dictatorships established by Operation
Condor
Other dictatorships
Dictatorships in Africa and Asia after World
War II
Democratization
Theories of dictatorship
See also
References
Further reading

Etymology
The word dictator comes from the Latin language word dictātor, agent noun from dictare (dictāt-, past
participial stem of dictāre dictate v. (http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/52299#eid6726598) + -or -or suffix (h
ttp://www.oed.com/view/Entry/132131#eid33232093)).[5] In Latin use, a dictator was a judge in the
Roman Republic temporarily invested with absolute power.

Types
A dictatorship is largely defined as a form of government in which
absolute power is concentrated in the hands of a leader (commonly
identified as a dictator), a "small clique", or a "government
organization", and it aims to abolish political pluralism and civilian
mobilization.[6] On the other hand, democracy, which is generally
compared to the concept of dictatorship, is defined as a form of
government in which power belongs to the population and rulers
are elected through contested elections.[7][8]
Russian President Vladimir Putin
A newer form of government (originating around the early 4th with Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi
century) commonly linked to the concept of dictatorship is known
as totalitarianism. It is characterized by the presence of a single
political party and more specifically, by a powerful leader (a real role model) who imposes his personal and
political prominence. The two fundamental aspects that contribute to the maintenance of the power are a
steadfast collaboration between the government and the police force, and a highly developed ideology. The
government has "total control of mass communications and social and economic organizations".[9]
According to Hannah Arendt, totalitarianism is a new and extreme form of dictatorship composed of
"atomized, isolated individuals".[10] In addition, she affirmed that ideology plays a leading role in defining
how the entire society should be organized. According to the political scientist Juan Linz, the distinction
between an authoritarian regime and a totalitarian one is that while an authoritarian regime seeks to
suffocate politics and political mobilization, but totalitarianism seeks to control politics and political
mobilization.[11]

However, one of the most recent classifications of dictatorships does not identify totalitarianism as a form of
dictatorship. Barbara Geddes's study focuses in how elite-leader and elite-mass relations influence
authoritarian politics. Her typology identifies the key institutions that structure elite politics in dictatorships
(i.e. parties and militaries). The study is based on and directly related to some factors like the simplicity of
the categorizations, cross-national applicability, the emphasis on elites and leaders, and the incorporation of
institutions (parties and militaries) as central to shaping politics. According to her, a dictatorial government
may be classified in five typologies: military dictatorships, single-party dictatorships, personalist
dictatorships, monarchies, and hybrid dictatorships.[10]

Military dictatorships

Military dictatorships are regimes in which a group of officers holds power,

determines who will lead the country, and exercises influence over policy.
High-level elites and a leader are the members of the military dictatorship.
Military dictatorships are characterized by rule by a professionalized
military as an institution. In military regimes, elites are referred to as junta
members, who are typically senior officers (and often other high-level
officers) in the military.[10][12] During the 20th century, this type of
dictatorship was imposed in several Latin American countries including:

Argentina by Jorge Rafael Videla and other leaders.

Bolivia by Hugo Banzer. Thailand's Prime Minister
Brazil by Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco.[13] Prayut Chan-o-cha in 2014
Chile by Augusto Pinochet.
Paraguay by Alfredo Stroessner.
Uruguay by Juan María Bordaberry.
Venezuela by Marcos Pérez Jiménez.

Single-party dictatorships

Single-party dictatorships are regimes in which one party dominates

politics. In single-party dictatorships, a single party has access to political
posts and control over policy. In single-party dictatorships, party elites are
typically members of the ruling body of the party, sometimes called the
central committee, politburo, or secretariat. Those groups of individuals
control the selection of party officials and "organizes the distribution of
benefits to supporters and mobilize citizens to vote and show support for
party leaders".[10]

Current one-party states include China, Cuba, Eritrea, Laos, North Korea,
and Vietnam. The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, which is not
recognized by the UN, is also a one-party state.
Xi Jinping, current CCP
General Secretary, ruling
Personalist dictatorships China.

Personalist dictatorships are regimes in which all power lies in the hands of
a single individual. Personalist dictatorships differ from other forms of dictatorships in their access to key
political positions, other fruits of office, and depend much more on the discretion of the personalist dictator.
Personalist dictators may be members of the military or leaders of a political party. However, neither the
military nor the party exercises power independently from the dictator. In personalist dictatorships, the elite
corps are usually made up of close friends or family members of the dictator. These individuals are all
typically handpicked to serve their posts by the dictator.[10][14]
As such, dictators favor loyalty over competence and in general distrust intelligentsia. Members of the
winning coalition often do not possess professional political careers and are often ill-equipped to manage
the tasks of the office bestowed on them. Without the dictator's blessing, they would never have acquired a
position of power. Once ousted, chances are slim they will maintain their position. The dictator knows this
and therefore uses such divide-and-rule tactics to keep their inner circle from coordinating actions against
them. The result is that such regimes have no internal checks and balances, and are thus unrestrained when
exerting repression on their people, making radical shifts in foreign policy, or even starting wars (with other
countries.)[15]

According to a 2019 study, personalist dictatorships are more repressive than other forms of
dictatorship.[16]

The shift in the power relation between the dictator and its inner circle has severe consequences for the
behavior of such regimes as a whole. Many scholars have identified ways in which personalist regimes
diverge from other regimes when it comes to their longevity, methods of breakdown, levels of corruption,
and proneness to conflicts. The first characteristic that can be identified is their relative longevity. For
instance, Mobutu Sese Seko ruled Zaire for 32 years, Rafael Trujillo the Dominican Republic for 31 years
and the Somoza family stayed in power in Nicaragua for 42 years.[17] Even when these are extreme
examples, personalist regimes, when consolidated, tend to last longer. Barbara Geddes, calculating the
lifespans of regimes between 1946 and 2000, found that while military regimes on average stay in power
for 8.5 years, personalist regimes survive almost twice as long: on average 15 years. Single-party regimes,
on the other hand, used to have a lifespan of nearly 24 years.[18] Monarchies were not included in that
research, but a similar study sets their average duration at 25.4 years.[19] This may seem surprising since
usually personalist regimes are considered among the most fragile because they do not possess effective
institutions nor a significant support base in society. Studies on the probability of their breakdown found
mixed results: Compared to other regime types they are most resistant to internal fragmentation, but more
vulnerable to external shocks than single-party or military regimes. The second characteristic is how these
regimes behave differently regarding growth rates. With the wrong leadership, some regimes squander their
country's economic resources and bring growth to a virtual halt. Without any checks and balances to their
rule, such dictators are domestically unopposed when it comes to unleashing repression, or even starting
wars.[20]

Monarchies

Monarchic dictatorships are regimes in which “a person of royal

descent has inherited the position of head of state in accordance
with accepted practice or constitution.” Regimes are not considered
monarchies if the monarch’s role is largely ceremonial. Real
political power must be exercised by the monarch for regimes to be
classified as such. Elites in monarchies are typically members of the
royal family.[10]
King Salman of Saudi Arabia[21]

Hybrid dictatorships

Hybrid dictatorships are regimes that blend qualities of personalist, single-party, and military dictatorships.
The most common forms of hybrid dictatorships are personalist/single-party hybrids and personalist/military
hybrids.[10] such as Burma durring the rule of Ne Win's Burma Socialist Programme Party.

Measuring dictatorships
One of the tasks in political science is to measure and classify
regimes as either dictatorships or democracies. US based
Freedom House, Polity IV and Democracy-Dictatorship
Index are three of the most used data series by political
scientists.[23]

Generally, two research approaches exist: the minimalist

approach, which focuses on whether a country has continued
Democracy Index by the Economist
elections that are competitive, and the substantive approach,
Intelligence Unit, 2020.[22] Green represents
which expands the concept of democracy to include human
more democratic countries, while yellow
rights, freedom of the press, and the rule of law. The
and red are considered as hybrid regimes
Democracy-Dictatorship Index is seen as an example of the
and authoritarian governments,
minimalist approach, whereas the Polity data series, is more
respectively. Most dictatorships and
substantive.[24][25][26][27] absolute monarchies are represented as
darker shades of red.
A study found that dictatorships that engage in oil drilling are
more likely to remain in power, with 70.63% of the dictators
who engage in oil drilling still being in power after 5 years of
dictatorship, while only 59.92% of the non-oil producing dictators survive the first 5 years.[28]

History
Between the two world wars, three types of dictatorships were generally described: constitutional,
counterrevolutionary, and fascist. Since World War II, a broader range of dictatorships has been recognized,
including Third World dictatorships, theocratic or religious dictatorships, and dynastic or family-based
dictatorships.[29]

Dictators in the Roman Empire

During the Republican phase of Ancient Rome, a Roman dictator was the special magistrate who held well
defined powers, normally for six months at a time, usually in combination with a consulship.[30][31] Roman
dictators were allocated absolute power during times of emergency. In execution, their power was
originally neither arbitrary nor unaccountable, being subject to law and requiring retrospective justification.
There were no such dictatorships after the beginning of the 2nd century BC, and later dictators such as
Sulla and the Roman emperors exercised power much more personally and arbitrarily. A concept that
remained anathema to traditional Roman society, the institution was not carried forward into the Roman
Empire.

Shoguns in Japan

Shogun[32] was the title of the military dictators of Japan during most of the period spanning from 1185 to
1868. Nominally appointed by the Emperor, shoguns were usually the de facto rulers of the country,[33]
though during part of the Kamakura period shoguns were themselves figureheads. The office of shogun
was in practice hereditary, though over the course of the history of Japan several different clans held the
position. Shogun is the short form of Sei-i Taishōgun (
[34]
征夷大将軍 , "Commander-in-Chief of the
Expeditionary Force Against the Barbarians"), a high military title from the early Heian period in the
8th and 9th centuries; when Minamoto no Yoritomo gained political ascendency over Japan in 1185, the
title was revived to regularize his position, making him the first shogun in the usually understood sense.
19th-century Latin American caudillos

After the collapse of Spanish colonial rule, various dictators came to power
in many liberated countries. Often leading a private army, these caudillos or
self-appointed political-military leaders, attacked weak national
governments once they controlled a region's political and economic
powers, with examples such as Antonio López de Santa Anna in Mexico
and Juan Manuel de Rosas in Argentina. Such dictatorships have been also
referred to as "personalismos".

The wave of military dictatorships in South America in the second half of

the twentieth century left a particular mark on Latin American culture. In
Latin American literature, the dictator novel challenging dictatorship and
caudillismo is a significant genre. There are also many films depicting Latin Antonio López de Santa
American military dictatorships. Anna wearing Mexican
military uniform

Right-wing dictatorships of the 20th century

In the first half of the 20th century, right-wing dictatorships emerged in a variety of European countries at
the same time as the rise of communism, which are distinct from dictatorships in Latin America and
postcolonial dictatorships in Africa and Asia. Examples of right-wing dictatorship include:

Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler.

The Empire of Japan under Tōjō Hideki and others.
Prathet Thai under Plaek Phibunsongkhram.
Fascist Italy under Benito Mussolini.
Austrofascist Austria under Engelbert Dollfuss and his successor Kurt Schuschnigg.
The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia under Emil Hácha.
The Slovak Republic under Jozef Tiso.
Spain under Francisco Franco.
Portugal under António de Oliveira Salazar.
South Korea under Park Chung-hee.
France under Philippe Pétain.[35]
Romania under Ion Antonescu.[36]
Hungary under Miklós Horthy.[37]
Greece under Ioannis Metaxas.
Croatia under Ustashe and Ante Pavelić.[38]
Indonesia under Suharto.

Latin American dictatorships of the 20th century

Dictatorships established by Operation Condor

During the Cold War, several overthrows of socialist governments in South America were financed and
supported by the United States' Central Intelligence Agency. However, the United States had previously
made attempts to repress the communists via the "National Security Doctrine" that the United States
imposed in the 1950s to indoctrinate the soldiers of countries led
by them to confront the alleged "communist threat".

Paraguay under Alfredo Stroessner assumed power in the 1954

coup against President Federico Chávez,[13] which then followed
by the Brazilian military dictatorship which seized power in 1964
coup and deposed President João Goulart.[42]

In 1973, the Chilean military dictatorship under Augusto Pinochet

seized power after a coup d'état that ended the three-year
presidency and ultimately the life of socialist president Salvador
Allende. On the same year the Uruguayan civic-military
dictatorship seized power from President Juan María Bordaberry.
Three years later, the Argentine military junta under Jorge Videla
and later Leopoldo Galtieri deposed President Isabel Perón.

In 1971, Bolivian general Hugo Banzer deposed socialist Henry Kissinger, who was the main
president Juan José Torres, who would later be assassinated in thinker of the Operation
Videla's Argentina. Banzer would democratically return to office Condor.[39][40][41]
in 1997. The Peruvian Military Junta in 1968 grabbed power
from President Fernando Belaúnde Terry and replaced him with
General Juan Velasco Alvarado before he himself was deposed by General Francisco Morales-
Bermúdez.[43]

Other dictatorships

In 1931, a coup was organized against the government of Arturo Araujo, starting the period known of
military dictatorship in El Salvador starting with the Civic Directory. The government committed several
crimes against humanity, such as La Matanza. The dictatorship ended with the 1979 Salvadoran coup d'état
and the start of the Salvadoran Civil War.[44]

From 1942 to 1952 Rafael Leónidas Trujillo ruled the Dominican Republic, repressing the Communists
and their opponents. Trujillo ordered the assassination of Rómulo Betancourt, who was the founder of
Democratic Action, but before he found out about this ambush, Trujillo's plan ended in failure. In October
1937 the Parsley massacre took place in which the main objective was to assassinate immigrants Hatians
residing in Dominican Republic, it is estimated that the dead during the massacre were 12,168 dead, by the
president Haitian Élie Lescot, 12,136 dead and 2419 injured by Jean Price-Mars, 17,000 dead by Joaquin
Balaguer and 35,000 killed by Bernardo Vega. The dictatorship ended when Trujillo was assassinated in
1961 in the city of Santo Domingo.

On November 24, 1948 Venezuelan armed forces took power based on a coup d'état, overthrowing the
government of Rómulo Gallegos, who was a president of center left. Subsequently, a board composed of 3
generals was organized, one of them was Marcos Pérez Jiménez, who later became dictator of Venezuela.
The dictatorship repressed the Democratic Action and the Communist Party of Venezuela, both from left.
Pedro Estrada led the DSN, which was a military organization Venezuelan that repressed opponents and
protesters. Among the cases of crimes against humanity are the death of the Democratic Action politician,
Antonio Pinto Salinas who was assassinated while trying to flee from Venezuela. In 1958 an attempt was
organized to overthrow Pérez Jiménez, faced with political pressure Jiménez had to get rid of many of his
allies such as Pedro Estrada. That same year, a movement of civilians and military men joined forces to
force Marcos Pérez Jiménez and his most loyal ministers to leave the country. The dictatorship ended when
Marcos Pérez Jiménez was exiled from the country, the civilians were To celebrate in the street, the political
prisoners were released and the exiles returned to the country, the Venezuelans once again elected Rómulo
Betancourt, who had already been president years ago. However, he continued to use the political and
economic system of the Jiménez dictatorship.

Although a large part of the Latin American dictatorships were from the political right wing, the Soviet
Union supported socialist states in Latin America as well. Cuba under Fidel Castro was a great example of
such state. Castro's government was established after the Cuban Revolution, that overthrew the
administration of dictator Fulgencio Batista in 1959, turning it into the first Socialist State of the Western
Hemisphere. In 2008 Castro left power and was replaced by his brother, Raúl.

In 1972, Guillermo Rodriguez Lara established a dictatorial government in Ecuador, and called his
government the "Nationalist Revolution".[45] In 1973, the country entered OPEC. The government also
imposed agrarian reforms in practice.[46] Rodriguez Lara's regime was replaced in 1976 by another military
junta led by Alfredo Poveda, whose own rule ended in 1979 and was followed by a democratically elected
government.

Dictatorships in Africa and Asia after World War II

After World War II, dictators established themselves in the several new
states of Africa and Asia, often at the expense or failure of the constitutions
inherited from the colonial powers. These constitutions often failed to work
without a strong middle class or work against the preexisting autocratic
rule. Some elected presidents and prime ministers captured power by
suppressing the opposition and installing one-party rule and others
established military dictatorships through their armies. Whatever their form,
these dictatorships had an adverse impact on economic growth and the
quality of political institutions.[47] Dictators who stayed in office for a long
Mobutu Sese Seko, Zaire's
period of time found it increasingly difficult to carry out sound economic
longtime dictator
policies.

The often-cited exploitative dictatorship is the regime of Mobutu Sese

Seko, who ruled Zaire from 1965 to 1997, embezzling over $5  billion from his country.[48] Pakistan is
another country to have been governed by 3 military dictators for almost 32 years in 7 decades of its
existence. Starting with General Muhammad Ayub Khan who ruled from 1958 to 1969. Next was General
Zia-ul-Haq who usurped power in 1977 and held on to power the longest until he died in an air crash in
1988. Ten years after Zia, General Pervez Musharraf got control after defeat against India in the Kargil war.
He remained in power for 9 years until 2008.[49] Suharto of Indonesia is another prime example, having
embezzled $15-35 billion[50][51] during his 31-year dictatorship known as the New Order. In the
Philippines, the conjugal dictatorship[52] of Ferdinand Marcos and Imelda Marcos embezzled billions of
dollars in public funds,[53][54][55] while the nation's foreign debt skyrocketed from $599 million in 1966 to
$26.7 billion in 1986, with debt payment being reachable only by 2025.[56] The Marcos dictatorship has
been noted for its anti-Muslim killings,[57][58][59][60] political repression, censorship, and human rights
violations,[61] including various methods of torture.[62]

Democratization

The global dynamics of democratization has been a central question for political scientists.[63][64] The
Third Wave Democracy was said to turn some dictatorships into democracies[63] (see also the contrast
between the two figures of the Democracy-Dictatorship Index in 1988 and 2008).
One of the rationales that the Bush Administration employed
periodically during the run-up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq is that
deposing Saddam Hussein and installing a democratic government in
Iraq would promote democracy in other Middle Eastern
countries.[65] However, according to The Huffington Post, "The 45
nations and territories with little or no democratic rule represent more
than half of the roughly 80 countries now hosting U.S. bases. ...
Research by political scientist Kent Calder confirms what's come to
be known as the "dictatorship hypothesis": The United States tends Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier
to support dictators [and other undemocratic regimes] in nations succeeded his father François
where it enjoys basing facilities."[66] "Papa Doc" Duvalier as the ruler of
Haiti after his death in 1971.

Theories of dictatorship
Mancur Olson suggests that the emergence of dictatorships can be
linked to the concept of "roving bandits", individuals in an atomic
system who move from place to place extracting wealth from
individuals. These bandits provide a disincentive for investment and
production. Olson states that a community of individuals would be
served less badly if that bandit were to establish himself as a
stationary bandit to monopolize theft in the form of taxes. Except
from the community, the bandits themselves will be better served,
according to Olson, by transforming themselves into "stationary
bandits". By settling down and making themselves the rulers of a
territory, they will be able to make more profits through taxes than
they used to obtain through plunder. By maintaining order and
providing unsolicited protection to the community, the bandits will
create an environment in which people can increase their surplus
which means a greater taxable base. Thus a potential dictator will
Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow,
have a greater incentive to provide an illusion of security to a given
president of Turkmenistan between
community from which he is extracting taxes and conversely, the
2006 and 2022. He was succeeded
unthinking part of the people from whom he extracts the taxes are
by his son, Serdar.
more likely to produce because they will be unconcerned with
potential theft by other bandits. This is the rationale that bandits use
in order to explain their transformation from "roving bandits" into
"stationary bandits".[67]

See also
Absolute monarchy Putinism
Autocracy Dictatorship of the bourgeoisie
Authoritarianism Dictatorship of the proletariat
Benevolent dictatorship Despotism
Civil-military dictatorship Elective dictatorship
Constitutional dictatorship How Democracies Die
European interwar dictatorships Military dictatorship
Stalinism Generalissimo
Maoism List of titles used by dictators
Juche Maximum Leader
 Mobutism Selectorate theory
Nazism Strongman
Fascism Supreme leader
People's democratic dictatorship Theocracy
Right-wing dictatorship

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Further reading
Behrends, Jan C. Dictatorship: Modern Tyranny Between Leviathan and Behemoth (http://do
cupedia.de/zg/Behrends_dictatorship_v2_en_2017), in Docupedia Zeitgeschichte, 14
March 2017
Dikötter, Frank. How to Be a Dictator: The Cult of Personality in the Twentieth Century
(2019) scholarly analysis of eight despots: Mussolini, Hitler, Stalin and Mao, as well as Kim
Il-sung of North Korea; François Duvalier, or Papa Doc, of Haiti; Nicolae Ceaușescu of
Romania; and Mengistu Haile Mariam of Ethiopia. online review (https://www.wsj.com/article
s/how-to-be-a-dictator-review-a-poetics-for-tyrants-11575065830); also excerpt (https://www.
amazon.com/How-Be-Dictator-Personality-Twentieth/dp/1635573793/)
William J. Dobson (2013). The Dictator's Learning Curve: Inside the Global Battle for
Democracy. Anchor. ISBN 978-0-307-47755-2.
Finchelstein, Federico. The ideological origins of the dirty war: Fascism, populism, and
dictatorship in twentieth century Argentina (Oxford UP, 2017).
Fraenkel, Ernst, and Jens Meierhenrich. The dual state: A contribution to the theory of
dictatorship. (Oxford UP, 2018).
 Friedrich, Carl J.; Brzezinski, Zbigniew K. (1965). Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy (htt
ps://archive.org/details/totalitariandict0000frie) (2nd ed.). Praeger.
Bueno de Mesquita, Bruce; Smith, Alastair; Siverson, Randolph M.; Morrow, James D.
(2003). The Logic of Political Survival. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-63315-4.
Bruce Bueno de Mesquita and Alastair Smith (2011). The Dictator's Handbook: Why Bad
Behavior is Almost Always Good Politics. Random House. p. 272. ISBN 978-1-61039-044-6.
OCLC 701015473 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/701015473).
Ridenti, Marcelo. "The Debate over Military (or Civilian‐Military?) Dictatorship in Brazil in
Historiographical Context." Bulletin of Latin American Research 37.1 (2018): 33–42.
Ringen, Stein. The perfect dictatorship: China in the 21st century (Hong Kong UP, 2016).
Ward, Christoper Edward, ed. The Stalinist Dictatorship (Routledge, 2018).

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